A Study of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

Contents
1. Introduction 1

2. Wind is a Natural Phenomenon

3. History of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

4. Why Vertical Axis turbine?

5. Energy in Wind

6. Types of Vertical Axis Turbines

7. Materials Used

8. Areas of application

10

9. Conclusions

10

10. References

11

1. Introduction:
As we all know, the demand for energy is increasing exponentially as more and more people inhabit this earth. At the same time, the energy source that met all of our needs in the past decades, non-renewable in nature, seems to decrease in equal pace leaving us at the door steps of renewable energy sources for help as we go forward in our journey in to the future. Due to this inevitable need, many scientists and researchers are turning back to the essential elements of nature which before the oil and gas came forcefully into the picture, helped humanity meet many of their energy needs. Water, Sun and Wind have been proven to be excellent sources of energy in the past centuries. Besides being renewable in nature, these energy sources do not seem to hurt the nature and seem to keep the chemical balance of the atmosphere intact. In ancient times sailors used wind energy to propel their ships and farmers used windmills to pump ground water and power grain grinding apparatus. In recent times, technology has shown us more ways to use this wind energy including producing electricity which can be used for variety of applications. Over the past few years the use of wind energy in this manner has increased approximately 25 percent a year. However, compared the energy available in wind that encompasses our earth, what humans harness today is a very small. Wind energy is captured using wind turbine technology where the wind energy is converted in to mechanical energy and to generate electricity. Configuration of wind turbines can be categorized into two main types, Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT) and Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT). In HAWTs the axis of rotation of the turbines is horizontal and these are ideal for producing high

rotational speeds and low torques. HAWTs are typically used for producing large quantities of energy. On the other hand, VAWTs are used for producing various quantities of energy with low rotational speed and high torque turbine rotation.

2. Wind is a Natural Phenomenon:

Though wind energy seems to be originated from a source not related to the sun, on the contrary, it all starts from sun heating the earth surface and the elements around it namely land, water and the wind. This heating of the earth causes pressure differences between different areas on land and becomes a reason for wind movement between these areas. Besides the temperature difference between different areas on land, different thermal properties of land and the sea also contributes to this phenomenon. Seas ability to maintain the temperature for longer times than that of land caused a substantial temperature difference between the land and the sea during both daytime and night time. This then causes sea breezes which contributes to the above mentioned wind movement. Moreover, the altitude differences between the valleys and the mountains Figure 1: Wind generation [1]

due to density differences in the air also cause wind flow between these two areas. Therefore one of the early installations of wind turbines took place near mountains. Due to above mentioned reasons, wind moves in different direction in different parts of the earth surface. Typically this

wind movement could occur in different cell patterns namely, Hadley Cell which are also called trade winds, Ferrel Cell and Polar cell [1]. A typical wind turbine may experience one or more of these wind cell patterns at a given time. For the consistence of the power generation, one should carefully evaluate the presence of these patterns in the area of proposed turbine installation.

3. History of Vertical Axis wind turbines:

Windmills are not a new technology, they are found to be used in Persia as early as 200 BC. The wind wheel of Heron of Alexandria is the earliest documented machines that were powered by wind[2]. However, the earliest working windmills were Vertical Axis Wind Mills that are believed to be used in the region next to present day Iran in around 7th century. These windmills were primarily used for pumping water and grinding grain. Figure 2: Various turbines used in history [1]

In11th and 12th centuries, Europe began using

windmill technology which then started spreading to countries such as Denmark and Syria [3]. However, the first wind turbine that was used for battery charging and in essence used for generating electricity was installed in July 1887 by Scottish scientist James Blyth. Shortly, following the above, an American inventor built first wind turbine that could produce electricity and can be operated automatically. By 1900s Denmark built approximately 2500 wind turbines which are intended to use to provide mechanical power to various pumps and mills. These turbines are estimated to produce a combined peak power of 30 MW. Each of these turbines was

approximately 80 ft in diameter. At this same time US built many electricity generating wind turbine with capacities ranging from 5kW to 25kW. By the end of World War 1, US was producing approximately 100, 000 farm wind mills each year that can be used for pumping water and electricity. In 1930s fist 100kW generator was built by Russian scientist and then in 1940s, first Mega Watt generator was built by an American which then was successfully synchronized to a utility grid.

4. Why Vertical Axis Wind Turbines:

Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs) in addition to being simpler and cheaper to build have the following advantages [4]: They are always facing the wind - no need for steering into the wind. Have greater surface area for energy capture. Are more efficient in gusty winds VAWT s can be installed in more locations such as on roofs, along highways and in parking lots. Do not kill birds and wild - life - slow moving and highly visible. VAWT s can be used to produce electricity in various amounts, from mill watts to megawatts. Can be significantly less expensive to build Can have low maintenance downtime. Produce less noise - low speed means less noise Are more esthetically pleasing

Most wind farms consist of horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs) due to the high power coefficient (mechanical power output divided by the power of the free-stream air through the turbine cross-sectional area) of an isolated turbine. However when in close proximity to neighboring turbines, HAWTs suffer from a reduced power coefficient. In contrast, previous research on vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs) suggests that closely spaced VAWTs may experience only small decreases (or even increases) in an individual turbines power coefficient when placed in close proximity to neighbors, thus yielding much higher power outputs for a given area of land. Wind turbines with vertical axes have been identified to be superior to wind turbines with horizontal axes in urban wind conditions that are characterized by winds of high turbulence and frequent change of wind direction. Results from a computational study have been presented that indicate that a vertical-axis wind turbine with helically twisted blades can significantly reduce the environmental impact through noise and vibration compared to a vertical-axis wind turbine with untwisted blades.

5. Energy in Wind:
We know that Kinetic Energy = 0.5 m*V2 Where m = mass (kg) V = velocity (m/s) Energy (Joules) = kg m2 / s2

Energy in a finite mass of air moving at a certain velocity: Kinetic Energy of a finite mass of air = 0.5 mV2 Figure 3: Energy in wind [1]

Power produced by a finite mass of air: Energy (Joules) / time = power (Watts) Let us assume that the finite mass of the air in consideration is passing through a hoop where it transfers its energy to an imaginary plate place at the entrance of the hoop. Mass of air going through the hoop per second: *A*V Where A = cross sectional area of the hoop = air density (mass/volume) Power of a mass of wind blowing through a HOOP at a certain rate (velocity): 0.5 *A* V3 Energy Conversion Efficiency: We cannot convert all of the power in the wind to Mechanical (then electrical) power. According to Belts, Maximum theoretical power conversion efficiency (wind to mechanical) is 59% (0.59, Beltz limit). Maximum mechanical power extracted from wind blowing through a HOOP at a certain rate (velocity): 0.59 * 0.5* * A* V3 The losses are typically caused by aerodynamic drag, frictional losses due to high wind velocity and wind turbulence.

6. Types of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines:

Vertical Axis machines were the first wind turbines that are used in ancient time due to its simplicity and ease of building. As the centuries passed, various researchers and inventors

refined and reinvented the designs to meet various types of energy needs. Following are the few broad categories that a typical Vertical Axis Wind Turbine may fall into [1]. 1. Drag type: Where the thrust force of the wind is used to push the wind turbine to rotate. This is inefficient way of converting wind energy into mechanical energy. 2. Lift type: This type of wind turbines use blades with aerofoil design and therefore are very efficient. They use the lift created by the interaction of blade profile and the wind force to convert wind energy into mechanical energy. 3. Hybrid: This type of wind turbines try to take advantage of elements that come from both the above mentioned technologies.

Figure 4: Various types of Vertical Axis Wind Turbines [1] Moreover, Vertical Axis Wind Turbines are also categorized into the following types depending on the types of blades used on the turbine and these types are named according to their makers [5, 6].

Eggbeater or Darrieus wind turbine: These turbines were named after the French inventor, Georges Darrieus. Though they are very efficient, they produce large torque ripples and cyclical stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. They also generally require some external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor to start turning, because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or more blades which results in greater solidity of the rotor. It consists of blades which are shaped like loops which connect to the top and bottom of the axle. Figure 5: Darrieus Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine

Giromill: This type actually is a subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight blades. Among the different varieties, the cycloturbine variety has variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation and is self-starting. The advantages of variable pitch are: high starting torque; a wide, relatively flat torque curve; a lower blade speed ratio; a higher coefficient of performance; more efficient operation in turbulent winds; and a lower blade speed ratio which lowers blade bending stresses. Figure 6: Giromill VerticalAxis Wind Turbine Savonius wind turbine: These are drag-type wind turbines with two or more scoop type blades, these scoops look like Flettner vents. They are always self-starting if there are at least three scoops. They sometimes have long helical scoops to give a smooth torque. Savonius Wind Turbine mills usually consist of two scoops which convert wind power into torque on a rotating shaft. Figure 7: Savonius VerticalAxis Wind Turbine

Besides these basic types, in recent times several evolution of these basic types with enhanced mechanisms have arrived on the scene. Just to mention few, Vertical Axis Turbines with aerofoil profile and turbines made of sails which can be magnetically controlled in order to control the rotational speed of the turbine.

7. Materials Used for Wind Turbine Manufacturing:

Various types of materials are used in the making of wind turbines. There are substantial differences between small and large machines and there are projected changes in designs that will accommodate the introduction of new material technologies and manufacturing methods. The estimated materials use in small and large turbines is shown in table below. To arrive at a total, the material usage is weighted by the estimated market share of the various manufacturers and machines types. The trends in design and manufacturing differ between small and large turbines. Small machines tend to use lighter weight castings in an effort to reduce costs. Many parts are die cast aluminum in small turbines, while in large machines steel castings or forgings are needed to meet strength and structural fatigue requirements. The size of steel castings for large turbines, especially the blade hub units, is one of the manufacturing challenges [7].

Table 1: Percentage of materials used in components [7] Notes: 1. Small turbines with rated power less than 100 kW- (listed in italics where different) 2. Assumes nacelle is 1/3 gearbox, 1/3 generator and 1/3 frame & machinery 3. Approximately half of the small turbine market (measured in MW) is direct drive with no gearbox 4. Rotor blades are either glass reinforced plastic, wood-epoxy or injection molded plastic with carbon fibers Material fatigue properties are an important consideration in wind turbine design and materials selection. During the expected 30 year life of a wind turbine, many of the components will need to be able to endure 4 x 108 fatigue stress cycles. This high cycle fatigue resistance is even more severe than aircraft, automotive engines, bridges and most other man-made structures.

8. Applications:
Typical vertical axis wind turbines can be used in variety of applications including: 1. Domestic Electricity production 2. Electricity generation at locations such as camping sites 3. Water pumping applications 4. Wind farm applications 5. Urban area commercial power generation 6. Portable wind turbine applications 7. Power generation in rural areas where extending electric conventional electric grid is very expensive.

9. Conclusions:
Vertical axis wind turbines are very promising systems that are practical and clean sources of energy especially for small scale energy needs and are also ideal for places where there are space

constraints. As more and more institutions are involved in research to make these wind turbines affordable, one could hope that the people groups in poorer nations, who do not have access to electricity today would one day enjoy the benefits of electricity. In the process we all, one day may considerably minimize the size of our energy use carbon foot print.

References
1. Boyle, G. "Renewable Energy Power for a Sustainable Future." 2004. 2. Drachmann, A.G. "Heron's Windmill." Centaurus 1961: 145151. 3. Hill, Donald Routledge. "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East." Scientific American May 1991: 64-69. 4. Sankar, Terrence C. "The Case for Vertical Axis Wind Turbines." n.d. 5. Agarwal, Abhishek. www.articlebase.com. 17 February 2009. <http://www.articlesbase.com/environment-articles/7-types-of-vertical-axis-windturbine-benefits-available-774696.html>. 6. Smith, Rich. www.symscape.com. 4 June 2007. <http://www.symscape.com/blog/vertical_axis_wind_turbine>. 7. McVeigh, Dan Ancona and Jim. "Wind Turbine - Materials and Manufacturing Fact Sheet." n.d.