Off-Site Construction & Automation

Off-Site Construction
• Off-site is a term used to describe a spectrum of applications where
buildings, structures or parts are manufactured and assembled remote
from building site prior to installation in their final position.
• Also known as prefabrication, modular construction, off-site
manufacturing/assembly/production/fabrication, system building and
industrialized construction.
• Off-site manufacturing (OSM) is a construction technique in which
prefabricated and standardized components/modules are manufactured
in a controlled factory environment (either on- or off-site), transported,
erected, and assembled into the on-site structure.
• It is a construction process that can encompass the use of composite
new and traditional materials and components often with extensive
factory produced sub-assembly sections and components.
Benefits of Offsite Construction
• Improved quality control of components
• Services (e.g. electrics, plumbing) can be pre-planned and either fully or
partly pre-installed for final connection on site
• Faster construction times on site
• Fewer workers required on site and for shorter periods
• Less wastage of materials
• Lower overall construction cost
• Enhanced durability
• Better architectural appearance
• Enhanced occupational health and safety
• Material conservation
• Less environmental emissions
• Reduction of energy and water consumption
Modular Construction
• While prefabricated construction
means building offsite, modular
construction refers to the design of
pieces as modules that can be
combined to produce larger elements.
• In order to maximize production time,
while allowing for customization,
modules are often prefabricated.
• This means, modules are fabricated
off-site and then transported for
installation on site.
A modular building (Habitat 67 – Montreal, Canada)
Installation of large prefabricated modules on site
Automation in Offsite Construction
• Automation is a key part of offsite process, which is often aided by
computers, robots and machines that can be programmed to execute
various repetitive tasks.
• Some of the automated processes include:
✓Manufacturing building components
✓The assembling of those components
✓The processes that enable manufacturing and assembly
• Making these processes more computer-controlled and automated
will reduce the chance of human error, increase worker safety and
result in better overall quality.
Machine-based automation in the manufacturing stage
Stages in Offsite Construction

Construction Final
Design Manufacturing Transportation
Management Assembly
Stages in Offsite Construction – Automation
• With Computer-Aided Design (CAD) technologies, all designs
(architectural, mechanical, electrical and structural) can be digitalized.
• The construction schedule is then optimized following the designed
building information.
• Subsequently, the component design is sent to the automation
systems in the manufacturing plant.
• After the manufacturing of components, if flawed components are
detected, an error report may be sent to central management for
rearranging the construction schedule.
• Otherwise, autonomous vehicles pick up the components according
to the initial schedule provided by the BIM system, and the real-time
location of the components during transportation is tracked and also
sent to central management.
• Finally, the components are delivered to the construction site and
assembled by the robotic system according to the building design.
• The near real-time construction process can be monitored via BIM by
project managers and customers.
Automation Framework for Offsite Construction (Chea et. al. 2020)
Design for Manufacture and Assembly
• Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA), is a design approach that
focuses on making the manufacturing and assembly stages of the
construction process less complicated and more efficient.
• It takes offsite construction to the next level by prioritizing:
• Ease of manufacturing for a structure’s different parts
• Simplified assembly processes to create the final product
• Structures that are designed using this approach can maximize the
benefits of offsite construction, including reduced building time,
decreased costs, better quality, higher productivity and improved
overall efficiency.
Design for Manufacture and Assembly
• Design for Manufacture (DFM)
• DFM focuses on designing with “ease of manufacturing” in mind.
• It considers each part that goes into the final product and finds the most
efficient and cost-effective way to manufacture it.
• The goal is to minimize complexity during the manufacturing process.

• Design for Assembly (DFA)

• DFA focuses on designing with “ease of assembly” in mind.
• The goal is to make the assembly process simpler (e.g. minimizing the
number of assembly operations, parts, steps, etc.) and reduce product
assembly costs.
Different stages and their functions within DfMA
 Design for Offsite Construction
• Profiles involved: Architects, designers and engineers.
• When it comes to offsite and DfMA, accuracy is an essential part of the
process - and it all starts during the design stage.
• During this stage, the team (usually led by an architect or engineer)
creates a detailed digital plan for all the components that go into the
final structure.
• Digital designs and 3D modelling (all part of BIM) make it possible to test
the levels of precision needed between components within a digital
environment.
• This way, the team can validate that the manufacturing and assembly
process will be possible later on.
• Errors in this stage often result in extensive rework and sometimes
even re-fabrication, offsetting many of the original benefits of offsite
construction.
• Accurate 3D modelling allows design issues to be identified and solved
within a digital environment rather than onsite. This, in turn, allows
for a smoother process with less need for corrections and less waste.
• Design platforms like AutoCAD® and Revit® are a big part of the DfMA
design process, with numerous toolsets available to make designs
more detailed and accurate.
 Architectural Design
• Architectural design is the initial task of any construction project.
• Architects develop a preconceived idea of ​the architectural shape of the
building, its function, daylighting, its plumbing and electrical systems.
• CAD software such as AutoCAD, Autodesk Revit, Grasshopper or Rhino3D are
used to create the digital 3D model for follow-up simulation and analysis.
• The daylight of a building can be analysed using the 3D model and daylighting
analysis tools (Radiance and DAYSIM).
• The layout of pipelines can be simulated for collision (clash) detection based on
the geometry of the pipes, and additional architectural design software is used
to help architects with heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) system
design, energy-saving design and visualization of the building.
• The architectural design can be analysed, optimized and completed
automatically using the design software. Finally, the design can be imported
into the BIM system for further management and robotic application, such as
indoor navigation as well as other robotic operations.
 Structural Design
• Structural design is the process of determining the materials to be used in the
structure, along with their properties and positions and the dimensions of
components, following mechanical analysis results and standards codes.
• Structural analysis and design software (STAAD, Etabs, SAP etc.) have been
developed to assist structural engineers with building design and analysis.
• These software provide a huge library of materials along with their mechanical
properties that can be used in building construction.
• The elastic and plastic responses of the building under different load cases can
be calculated.
• Suggested dimensions for components and reinforcement are then provided to
structural engineers, although many structural design tools normally provide
only the responses of the building under typical design loads.
 Structural Design
• For further analysis, finite-element method (FEM) software such as Marc,
Abaqus, Ansys etc. can be used to analyse the mechanical performance and
dynamic response of the structure, heat transfer in the components or
structure etc.
• The collapse mechanism of the structure under extreme load conditions
(earthquake, fire and impact load) can also be analysed using FE approaches.
• Using these software, the structural performance can be evaluated in various
load scenarios before construction.
• In addition, the dimensions of the components and reinforcement can be
optimized and then sent to the BIM system for robotic manufacturing and
assembling.
• For e.g. some researchers used FEM to optimize the sections of components of
a timber structure. A Python script was then written to organize the
component data resulting from the optimization, and to control robotic
operations such as cutting, drilling and component transfer.
Construction Management – BIM
• Building Information Modeling (BIM) is not just a CAD methodology,
but is in fact closer to a repository for construction management,
including construction planning, process monitoring, data exchange
and other potential purposes.
• The aims of BIM are to digitize traditional construction information
(blueprints and progress reports) and to enrich construction
management approaches.
• As construction projects are robotized, BIM may become the most
efficient method for managing and communicating directly with robots.
BIM Levels
BIM Maturity Levels
BIM for Offsite Construction Management
• The simulation of assembly processes can avoid delays and economic
losses caused by inconsistency in component design, construction
planning and so on.
• It can also reduce the quantity of unnecessary operations and improve
accuracy in assembly.
• A BIM model integrates all construction participants, including architects,
structural designers, project managers, HVAC engineers, transporters and
robot operators, for information exchange.
• The final component design, transportation schedule and building design
are shared and updated in near real time to other departments
(manufacturing plant, transportation and on-site assembly).
• The associated robots then perform their tasks following the construction
information provided by the BIM system.
BIM for Manufacturing Stage
• Profiles involved: Manufacturers, engineers, factory workers, CNC
machine specialists.
• In this stage, the different parts of a structure are made following the
specs provided during the design stage.
• During this stage, digital modelling makes it easier to visualize the
design, its connections and how the parts fit together, resulting in a
more efficient fabrication process.
• BIM software and Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machinery are
used to help ensure precision and accuracy go into every part of the
final structure, making the assembly stage as smooth as possible.
BIM for Manufacturing Stage
• Platforms like GranIT and Offsight can help by solving communication
issues, addressing timing challenges, adding quality and making the
process more trackable.
• The hsbMake platform is another valuable asset during this phase,
reducing the risk of errors and ensuring the right information is
delivered to the right people at the right time.
• The benefits of BIM for manufacturing stage include :
• Plan production from start to finish
• Find any bottlenecks in the workflow
• Keep projects running on schedule
• Alert other stakeholders about any deviations
• Adjust the input on sawing machines
BIM for Assembly Stage
• Profiles involved: Builders, contractors, construction specialists.
• This is the stage where all the parts are brought to the site to be “assembled”
into the final structure. During this stage, BIM 3D models can be used to
provide teams with a “digital rehearsal” showing how the assembly should
go (e.g. truck loading/unloading, crane positions, construction sequences,
temporary structures, etc.).
• Some of the platforms being used in this capacity include Autodesk
Construction Cloud and Aconex. hsbShare is another useful platform that
helps streamline and optimize this part of your offsite construction process.
• The benefits of BIM for assembly stage include:
• Unifying all project data into a digital twin cloud platform
• Providing a paperless offsite experience
• Optimizing information flow and reducing mistakes
• Providing a 3D view with the capability to rotate, zoom, search and more
 Benefits of BIM for Offsite Construction
• Higher levels of quality and precision
• BIM 3D modelling capabilities enable different structure components to be built
digitally before they’re actually built in the factory. This extra step provides proper
quality assurance and reduces the chance for errors, delays, rework or extra
unforeseen costs.
• Reduced costs
• BIM brings a higher level of efficiency to the design, manufacturing and assembly
stages, helping to streamline the entire process and reducing costs along the way.
• Speed
• BIM capabilities can be used to design different DfMA components, allowing for an
overlap in factory and onsite activities. This can significantly increase the speed of
the project.
• Higher safety levels for workers
• BIM models can be used to test different components on matters of site safety both during
manufacturing in the factory and during assembly onsite - providing a higher level of
worker safety. Automating the manufacturing process and enabling it to take place in a
controlled factory environment also reduces the number of safety breaches.
• Sustainability and less waste
• DfMA already puts a lot of emphasis on the efficient and simplified use of materials during
the design stage. When you add BIM to the mix, the process gets even more precise,
resulting in less wasted materials.
• BIM software capabilities also enable a greater degree of automation, making it easier to
track and reduce a project’s carbon footprint.
• More efficient use of labor
• BIM enables teams to make highly detailed plans and schedules. This allows for the more
efficient use of available human resources.
• Increased productivity
• BIM capabilities increase collaboration and make information exchanges quick and easy.
This helps to streamline the entire process from design to assembly, heightening the level
of productivity.
 Robotic Manufacturing
• Prefabricated structural and non-structural components using different
materials, such as timber, concrete, steel, clay and plastics can be
manufactured from digital blueprints.
• CNC technology is used mainly to control the quality (such as dimension
accuracy and property consistence) of components in manufacturing, and can
also be used as a platform for interaction with robotic systems.
• The manufacturing stream can be automated by means of CNC.
• Using CNC, alternative shapes of components, particularly timber, metal and
plastic components, can be fabricated following customized designs.
• For instance, the feed rate of material, dimensions of the fabrication and the
sequence of each robotic operation can be managed using CNC in the factory.
 Prefabricated Automation technology used in
Functionality
component manufacturing stream
The whole manufacturing line is automated, including
moulding, drying, firing and burning. The properties
of each brick, such as moisture content, are
monitored and controlled using a programmable logic
Automatic brick manufacturing controller (PLC) and supervisory control and data
Bricks acquisition (SCADA). The bricks are taken on and off
the kiln car using mechanical fingers. The productivity
of the line is improved significantly compared to
conventional manufacturing.
Bricks can be produced in different shapes, controlled
3D printing of bricks
by CNC, and no mould is needed.
Faster, better control and more consistent production
Composite truss Automated winding machine
than hand winding.
Only the initial geometry of the prefabrication is
needed. The structural behaviour is then calculated
Incorporation of two robot arms, using an FEM and the cross section of each
Timber a mobile steel platform, a feeding prefabrication is optimized according to the FEM
station and a CNC saw result. Subsequently, the fabrication data is sent to
govern all robotic operations.
 Prefabricated Automation technology used in
Functionality
component manufacturing stream
When the 3D design and spraying parameters are
Robot arm, spraying gun, power-line input to generate the real robot path and spraying
communication, sensors, mould, etc. gun commands, the remaining progressions will
Precast glass-reinforced be done automatically.
cement panel The concrete distributor is controlled via CAM to
CAM (computer-aided manufacturing) spread the precise amount of concrete on the
technology panel following the panel layout produced using
CAD software.
The formwork can be designed using CAD
Polystyrene formwork CNC milling machine
software and formed using a CNC milling machine.
The robotic welding arm is able to track the seam
Arc-welding robot system
base via real-time visual measurement.
Using a welding mobile manipulator (WMM) to
Steel components
track a smooth curved welding path and a
Mobile welding robot
coordinate-measuring machine (CMM) to calibrate
inaccuracies on flat surfaces.
Quality Inspection
• Traditional tool-based assessments used for inspecting the final prefabricated
components are error-prone, time-consuming and require considerable
experience.
• Over the last decade, image-based techniques have been adopted for detecting
cracks and air pockets in prefabricated products.
• However, environmental lighting conditions limit the accuracy and popularity of
these techniques in manufacturing.
• Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) based quality assessment is not affected by
environmental lighting conditions which can also be used to estimate the
position of the reinforced steel in precast concrete.
• Using a combination of laser-scanning techniques and BIM, the quality of
prefabricated components can be checked to ensure that the whole
construction is not delayed due to non-compliance and insufficiency of the
components.
Autonomous Transportation – Logistics
• Components of a prefabricated structure are mostly produced in
manufacturing factories and transported to the construction site by rail, ship or
road transportation.
• For long-distance logistics, rail transportation and shipping are the preferred
options. Rail transportation was first automatized in the 1970s.
• Today, automatic train operation (ATO) has been incorporated in the railway
systems of many countries. There are five grades of automation (GoA 0 to 4),
where GoA 4 means completely automated.
• Until 2016, GoA 4 was used only on passenger trains in more than 10 countries
around the world, and it could not be widely used for freight transportation
because of the high cost of related technologies, such as autonomous speed
control systems, accurate locomotive trajectory tracking systems, and so on.
• In 2019, the world's first automated freight train network—which cost US$940
million in investment and took more than a decade of construction time—was
launched for iron ore transportation in Pilbara in Western Australia.
• Road transportation, as the most important type of transportation,
undertakes the task of delivering those prefabricated products that
usually cannot be transported by rail or ship directly to the
construction site.
• Currently, a small number of companies, such as Tesla, Waymo, Audi,
Ford etc., are developing autonomous driving systems.
• These systems may be installed on a variety of vehicles, from private
cars to trucks.
• In addition, high-resolution cameras and light detection and ranging
(LiDAR) systems are used to detect obstacles (pedestrians or vehicles)
and traffic conditions.
• With the latest technologies, LiDAR sensors can detect objects around
the vehicle from a great distance.
• The real-time status and location of the components can also be
tracked and uploaded to the construction management system.
• Central management is therefore able to rearrange the transportation
schedule instantly when an unexpected problem occurs to avoid
delays in construction.
• In addition, the unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), consisting of GPS,
sensors, drones, and data transmitters and receivers, is a modern form
of transport.
• UAVs can deliver cargo regardless of terrain, and have been
implemented in small-cargo transportation and healthcare delivery.
• The limited payload capacity of the drones limits the use of UAVs in
construction transportation, although they are widely used for quality
inspection of structures as well as project monitoring.
Autonomous Transportation – On-site
• Various transportation devices in use on a
construction site, such as cranes, beam-
assembly systems and lift-assist devices,
are designed according to different
vertical height ranges.
• The crane, which transports material
vertically, is an important equipment in a
construction field is of two types: mobile
crane and tower crane.
• For high-rise building construction, an
automatic self-climbing crane, which is
able to lift not only construction material
but also the crane itself, has become
popular today.
• Generally, the self-climbing crane system
is installed on the structural core as a part
of the building under construction.
Autonomous Vertical Transportation on a Construction Site
• A rail-boom combined robotic system (a combination of rails, boom and scissor-jack)
has been designed to lift the welding or bolting robots to their assembly positions.
• With the rails around the core and the boom, rail-boom robots are able to move
horizontally and lift materials or devices vertically using the scissor-jack system.
• In addition, the Material Unit Lift Enhancer (MULE 135) developed by Construction
Robotics is a lift-assist device designed to transport construction material of up to 60
kg vertically on the work field in a limited height range.
• At the current stage of these technologies, human assistance is often needed for
transportation to validate and optimize the schedule, even though the operations of
the vehicles can be undertaken automatically.
• This is to reduce the risk of delays or accidents occurring during transportation due
to operation conflicts. For example, the automatic transportation systems need
human assistance with inputting tasks and arranging schedules.
• It is anticipated that the transportation process may be improved with a greater level
of automation when autonomous vehicles and robots are able to communicate with
the BIM system.
Automatic Assembly and Building
• When building components are delivered to their positions for
installation on a construction site, assembly robots start their work
following the digital blueprint shared by central management.
• There are many time-consuming, repetitive and high-risk tasks, such
as brick laying, frame erection, painting and window installation, that
can be completed by robots on the construction site.
• Assembly robots can be divided into several categories depending on
their functions, such as robots designed for masonry structural
construction, frame structural construction and interior building.
 Robots – Masonry Structures
• Brick-laying robots are a relatively mature technology used in robotic construction.
• Recently, brick-laying robots have been used increasingly in construction, such as
Hadrian X (a truck with a robot arm) and SAM100 (integrating a robotic arm and a
navigating robot).
• Mobile brick-laying robot works using digital 3D models with an exact number of
bricks and always follows its plan, producing less waste than traditional methods.
• In addition to the use of robotic arms in the assembly of masonry structures,
researchers have designed a cable-driven parallel robot directed via BIM for use in
masonry assembly work.
• Another type of brick-assembly robot has been designed based on the social
interaction of insects.
• Swarms of mini-robots (drones or bristlebots) cooperate closely and synchronize their
work on one platform.
• However, these robots are still at the research stage, and cannot be used in practical
construction due to their limited payload capacity.
Robots – Framed Structures
• Traditionally, prefabricated components are lifted close to their position
by crane, and connections between components then have to be
completed manually by workers.
• It is dangerous for workers to complete such tasks on site above the
ground with only simple protection measures.
• In order to reduce the potential problems caused by massive payloads
and the size of components, with the associated high risks, lack of
accuracy and wasting of time, the assembly of structural frames,
including the erection and connection of the framework, has been
partially robotized.
Automatic assembly system for a framed structure
• A wire-suspended positioning system and a crane are used to assist workers in steel frame
erection, as shown in Figure.
• For example, a component is lifted by the crane to an approximate position, after which the
translation and rotation of the lifted components can be effected by four tension wires
connected to a motion-controlling device.
• To monitor the horizontality of the components, tilt sensors are installed on the lifted
components, allowing the operator to adjust the angle of rotation and translate the
components to the correct position via remote control.
• When the assembly system is connected to the management system, the positions of the
components will be able to be adjusted automatically, with greater speed and precision.
• After the erection of the frame, the connections between relevant components attached to
the frame have to be done on-site, and such connections play an important role in the
mechanical properties of frame structures.
• Traditionally, these connections for a steel frame are generally in the form of welding or
bolting, requiring operation above the ground with the risk of falling from height.
• To reduce the relevant risks and improve efficiency, a semi-automated bolting robot has
been introduced, which uses human assistance to target the bolt hole through a camera.
• This task is further fully automated by using the visual-recognition method to identify the
position of the bolt hole.
• In addition to their applications in masonry and frame-structure
assembly, robots are also used for the construction of various other
structural types and building shapes.
• For construction in space, truss structures are used as support for
aerobrakes, telescopes and antennas, and solar-array fields have been
assembled by robot arms, motion bases, end effectors and sensors.
• To remove the necessity of the motion base in the construction of truss
structures, a concept for a truss-climbing robot, which can extend the
new part of the structure by climbing on the existing part of the
structure, has been proposed.
Robots – Interior Building
• Interior building, including tasks such as wall painting, internal panel
installation, window installation and surface coating, can also be assisted
by robots.
• Navigation systems are key for these indoor forms of robot-assisted
construction.
• Scientists developed an indoor navigation system by integrating robot-
control units, an ultra-wideband (UWB) system, a dead-reckoning system
and motion sensors with a BIM-driven path planner.
• The integrated system efficiently extracts the map information from the
BIM model and computes the shortest path for the mobile robot, while
the map is also adjusted and refined by data from motion sensors.
• Wall painting in indoor construction is long and repetitive work. Also, painting
chemicals may be harmful to the health of workers, and maintaining a
consistent painting pattern on a wall is always a challenging task.
• Painting robots are designed for interior wall painting and coating (with fire-
retardant agents, for example). These robots can be guided to the painting
area using a navigation system such as those discussed above. Subsequently,
the robots controlled by logical programming can start spraying r rolling the
paint brush.
• Since the installation of glass curtains and windows in high-rise buildings is
also challenging work, a glazing robot (an integration of robot arm and
navigating robot) has been designed with vacuum suction pads that can lift a
1400 kg glass panel steadily.
• Recently, a humanoid robot with wide-range joints and high power has been
developed, and it was initially used to install gypsum boards on a wood frame.
• The installation of this material using humanoid robots has thus become a
possibility, and it may be expected at some point that such humanoid robots
will undertake more indoor construction activities.