1

Arba Minch University

Institute of Technology (AWTI)
School of Graduate Studies(SGS)

Dam Engineering (IDE-621)

M.Sc in Irrigation and Drainage Eng’g

By Demelash W. (Ph.D)
April, 2023
 GERD Dam
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 Course Contents
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1. Introduction
 An overview of dam engineering

 Types and selection of dams

 Site selection and investigation for dams and reservoirs sites

 Foundation and reservoir site treatment

2. Design and analysis of Concrete dam

 Type of Concrete Dam (Gravity, Arch, Buttress)
 Forces acting on Concrete Dam
 Design and stability analysis of Gravity
 Load combination and Design methods of Concrete Dam
 Design principles of Arch and Buttress dams
3. Design and analysis of embankment dam
 Types of embankment ( rock fill and earth fill) dams
 Selection of type based on site investigation and assessment
 Foundation and reservoir site treatment for embankment dams
 Hydraulic design for embankment dams (seepage, piping, filter...)
 Stability analysis of Embankment Dam
4. Dam Safety and Instrumentation
 Principle of dam safety
 Dam instrumentation, Surveillance and risk analysis
 River diversion during dam construction: General considerations, diversion
schemes, cofferdams, conveyance works
5. Reservoir
 Water management and operation rules
 Sedimentation process , management and flushing schemes
 Environmental impact of dams and reservoirs
 References
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❑ Arora K. (2002). Irrigation, Water power and Water Resources Eng’g, 4th edition,A.k…
Jain, New Delhi
❑ Novak, P., Moffat, A.I.B., Nalluri, C. and Narayanan, R. (2007). Hydraulic Structures, 4th
edition, Chapman & Hall
❑ Herzog, A.M. (1999). Practical Dam Analysis, Thomas Telford
❑ Creager, W.P., Justin, J.D. and Hinds, J. (1945). Engineering for Dams, volumes I & II.
❑ Jansen, R.B. ( 1988 ). Advanced Dam Engineering
 U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR), 1987. Design of Small Dams, 3rd edition, United
States Department of the Interior, Water Resources Technical Publication.
 Santosh Kumar Garg. (2006). Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic structures. Nineteenth
revised edition. ISBN.No. 81-74090479, New Delhi.
 Engineers (USACE), Engineer Manual (1994). Arch Dam Design, Washington, DC.
6

1. Introduction
 Elements of Dam engineering
7
Defn: A dam may be defined as an obstruction or barrier built across a stream
or a river.
The lake of water which is formed upstream of the dam is called reservoir.

Reservoir
Downstream
Upstream

The stored water can be used for:

Recreation
Water Supply
Dam
Irrigation
Flood Control
Navigation
Generation of electric power etc.
 Irrigation
Drinking water
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Flood control

Energy

Navigation

Recreational
purposes
 Dam structures and reservoirs
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Depending upon the purpose served by a given reservoir, the

reservoir may be broadly classified
1. Storage or conservation reservoir:-
▪ are those reservoirs which retain excess supplies during period of
peak flow and can release them gradually during low flows or
when the need arises.
2. Flood control reservoirs:-
▪ store a portion of flood flows in such a way to minimize the flood
peaks at the area to be protected downstream.
3. Multipurpose reservoirs:-
▪ are those reservoirs which are planned and constructed to serve not
only one purpose but various purpose together.
 Dams and appurtenant/components
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1. Reservoir
2. Dam
3. Service Intake
4. Bottom outlet
5. Spill structure/Spillway
6. Diversion structure
7. Service road
11

How do you estimate the storage capacity of the dam?

 Storage Capacity of the dam
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Storage capacity is the most important physical characteristics of the reservoir that
store water and stabilize the flow.
The capacity of reservoir on dam site, is determined from the contour maps of the area.
After the topographical survey of the dam sites is carried out and contour map is
prepared, the area enclosed within each contour can be measured with a plani-meter.

❖ The incremental storage volume S between two successive contour can

be found by
A1 + A2
S = ( h )
2
( Average or Trapezoidal method ) h
h
S = A1 + 4 A2 + A3 
6
( Prismoidal method ) A2 A1
hi  3 9 9 3 
Si =
3  8
A1 +
8
A2 +
8
A3 + A4
8 
Simpson’s 3/8 rule method
Storage Components Spillway crest

13 Maximum pool level

Normal pool level

Outlet

Live storage

Minimum pool level

River bed Dead storage

Spillway
 Classification of Dams
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Dam

Concrete Embankment

Gravity Arch Massive Rockfill Earth fill

buttress

Arch-Gravity Combination
Classification of Dams
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 According to the function (use):-

 i) Storage dams:- for impounding water for developmental uses

(Hydropower, Water supply, Irrigation, flood control etc.)

 ii) Diversion dams:- for diverting streamflow into canals or

other conveyance system ( Check dams, Navigation etc.)

 iii) Detention dams:- to hold the water temporary to retard flood flows
(Coffer dams, levees/Dykes)

 According to hydraulic design :-

 i) Overflow dams: designed to pass the surplus water over their
crest
 ii) Non-overflow dams: which are not designed to be overtopped.
 iii) Composite dam: combination of over flow and non-over flow dams
 Classification of Dams
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 Based on the material of construction

1. Rigid Dam
▪ Concrete dams: a) concrete gravity dams
b) concrete arch dams
c) concrete buttress dams
▪ Stone masonry: a) stone-masonry gravity dams
b) stone-masonry arch dams
▪ Timber dams

▪ Steel coffer dams

2. Non-rigid Dam
▪ Earth fill dams
▪ Rock fill dams
 Classification of Dams
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 According to dams height

 If crest elevation and foundation level greater than 15 m
➔ Large Dam

 If dam height less than 15 m ➔ Small Dam

 If dam height greater than 50 m ➔ High Dam
More specifically
 The height of the dam > 15 m
 The crest width of the dam > 500 m “LARGE DAM”
 The storage volume of the dam > 106 m3
 Classification of Dams
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❑ According to construction purpose

❖ Single purpose-only either for storage or Irrigation/Hydropower etc

❖ Multiple purpose for :-

■ Storage Dams
■ Diversion Dams
■ Detention Dams
■ Hydropower Dams
19

What are the basic criteria for selection of particular

type of dam for particular site?
 Selection criteria for types of dam
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 Topography
 A narrow V-shaped valley with sound rock … arch dam
 A narrow or moderately wide U-shaped valley with sound rock
foundation …..gravity or buttress dam.
 Wide valley with foundation of soil material …… Earth fill
embankment dam.
 Geologic and foundation conditions
 Solid Rock Foundation …. any type of dam governed by economy of
materials or overall cost
 Gravel Foundations (and course sand): …. are suitable for earth-fill,
rock-fill, and low concrete gravity dams.
 Silt and Fine Sand Foundations …… earth-fill and low concrete
gravity dams not suitable for rock-fill dams.
 Clay Foundations:- Earth fill dams not suitable for concrete and rock
fill dam
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 Availability of construction materials close to the site

 Size, type and location of a spillway
 A large spillway ……….concrete gravity dam.

 A small spillway ……….rock fill dam

❑ Availability of Technical skills

❑ Cost effectiveness
❑ Availability of materials
❑ Hydrology
❑ Earthquake: Rockfill and concrete gravity dams
 Dam site selection criteria

❑ The preliminary site selection will be dependent on the project purposes.

❑ The feasibility study will establish the most suitable and economical
location and type of structure.
Selection factors
(1) A concrete dam requires a sound bedrock foundation.
 It is important that the bedrock have adequate shear strength and bearing
capacity to meet the necessary stability requirements.
(2) The topography is an important factor in the selection and location of a
dam and its appurtenant structures.
 Construction at a site with a narrow canyon profile on sound bedrock
close to the surface is preferable.
(3) The criteria for placement of the spillway, powerhouse, and other
project appurtenances.
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(4) The relocation of existing facilities and utilities that lie within the
reservoir and in the path of the dam such as railroads, power lines,
highways, towns, etc.

(5) The method or scheme of diverting flows around or through the dam
site during construction is an important consideration to the economy of
the dam.

(6) Over all depend on structural components: such as body of dam,

Spillway, Outlet Facilities (i.e., sluiceways & water intake tower) and Others
(i.e., hydropower stations, roads, fish ladder, etc.)
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 PHASES OF DAM SITE INVESTIGATION
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Dam site investigation consists three steps:

- Reconnaissance
- Feasibility study
- Planning and final study

FEASIBILITY STUDY

A) Determination of water demand

B) Determination of water potential

C) Optimal plans

◘ Check out the relation D (demand) versus S (supply).

 Planning of Dams FEASIBILITY STUDY
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D) Determination of dam site

◘ Factors should be taken into consideration:
▪Topography
▪Geology and dam foundation
▪Available of construction materials
▪Flood hazard
▪Seismic hazard
▪Spillway location and possibilities
▪Construction time
▪Climate
▪Diversion facilities
▪Sediment problem
▪Water quality
▪Transportation facilities
▪Right of way cost
 Planning of Dams
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E) Determination of type of dam

◘ Comparative characteristics of dams should be considered

F) Project design
◘ involves the computation of dimensions of the dam.

- Hydrologic design (max. lake elevation + spillway cap. + crest elevation)

- Hydraulic design (static & dynamic loads + spillway profile + outlet
dimensions)
- Structural design (stress distribution + required reinforcement)

◘ Failure of the dam → “ ”

 PLANNING STUDY

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◘ Followings need to be done in planning certain type of dam,

since dimensions are already determined:
a)Topographic surveys (1:5000 scaled map)
b)Foundation study (seepage permeability etc. tests)
c)Materials study (quantity of materials)
d)Hydrologic study (measurements of hydrologic parameters)
e)Reservoir operation study (is to be performed periodically)
38

Four principal steps are followed during the construction:

1) Evaluation of Time Schedule and Equipment

◘ a work schedule is prepared using CPM.

(characteristics of dam site; approx. quantities of
works; diversion facilities; urgency of work)

2) Diversion

◘ before the construction, river flow must be diverted

from the site
39

3) Foundation Treatment

◘ Concrete & Rock-fill dams → hard formations

Earth-fill dams → most of soil conditions

◘ Highly porous foundation → excessive seepage, uplift,

settlement

“Grouting Operation” is applied to solidify the foundation

& to reduce seepage
4) Appurtenances and completion
 Foundation Treatment
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 Treatment of Rock Foundations

 Treatment of Rock Foundation Defects

 Leakage Through Rock Foundations

 Grouting Rock Foundations

 Treatment of Rock Foundations
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 Surface rock is usually so badly weathered

 Excavation to considerable depths is required

 There must be much resistance to sliding below the surface of the

foundation.

 The rock surface should be absolutely clean.

 For concrete dams, the finished foundation shall be covered with rich
mortar immediately before the concrete is discharged.
 Treatment of Rock Foundation Defects
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 Special consideration should be given to rocks in which faults or

weathered or crushed zones.
 Narrow faults frequently can be washed out and grouted.

 For wide joints, weathered or broken rock, or other material which fills
them, can be excavated and the joints filled with concrete.

 For such defective material on dam foundation

◼ a vertical shaft or a large-size drill hole, clean out the joints in drifts
and fill with concrete rather than excavate the firm rock.
 Leakage Through Rock Foundations
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 waste of water and mainly associated with excessive uplift.

 In order to reduce the leakage to a reasonable quantity (poor

foundations) it is necessary to provide
 a cutoff or

 artificial impervious barrier under the heel of the dam.

 For rock foundations there are two general types of cutoffs:

▪ A trench filled with concrete, and

▪ Holes drilled at frequent intervals and grouted under pressure.

 Grouting Rock Foundations
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 Used both for tightening to prevent leakage and reduce uplift and
broken foundations to make them stronger.

 Grouting is composed of a mixture of neat cement and water,

infrequently with certain admixtures of rock.

 Two commonly applied grouting:

 Curtain Grouting and

 Consolidation Grouting
 Curtain Grouting
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 Is accomplished by grouting one or several lines of holes at

the upstream face of the dam.

 Where vertical joints are present, it is necessary to angle the

grout holes in order to intersect all of them.

 Frequently adjacent holes are angled in opposite directions, in

the plane of the grout curtain, forming a criss-cross
arrangement.

 Pressures used for grouting must be limited

 Consolidation Grouting
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 The solid portions of the foundation, which might move slightly

under the forces acting on the base of the dam, can be
successfully consolidated by grouting.
 The procedure is similar to curtain grouting, including washing
out joints and the required depth is strong.
 In order to relieve hydrostatic pressure and reduce uplift on the
base of the dam and foundation, it is frequently advisable,
▪ to drill a line of holes downstream to carry away any seepage water.
▪ The drainage holes are connected to a drainage gallery or other
means provided to carry the seepage to tail water.
 Assignment One
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Q1. Describe the governing factors that uses for the selection of dam
site.
Q2.Calculate the capacity of the reservoir b/n the elevation 200 to
300m, using Trapezoidal method.

Elevation(m) 200 220 240 260 280 300

Area (km2) 150 175 210 270 320 400

Q3. Calculate the capacity of the reservoir b/n the elevation 250 to
350m, using Simpson Rule with the equation of area of reservoir.
A= (10h)2 - 1.15h. When A is in Km2
48

2. Concrete Dams
 Concrete Dams
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❑ solid concrete structures that maintain their stability against
▪ design loads from the geometric shape and
▪ the weight and strength of the structure.

❑ constructed on a straight axis, but may be slightly curved or angled to

accommodate the specific site conditions.
❑ consist of a non-overflow section(s) and an overflow section or spillway.
❑ constructed with masonry or concrete material
 The two general concrete construction methods for concrete gravity dams
are:
 Conventional placed mass concrete and
 Roller-compacted concrete (RCC)
 Conventional Concrete Dams
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❑ Construction using materials and techniques employed in the

proportioning, mixing, placing, curing, and temperature control
of mass concrete.
❑ Construction procedures include batching and mixing, and
transportation, placement, vibration, cooling, curing, and
preparation of horizontal construction joints between lifts
❑ The cement hydration process limits the size and rate of concrete
placement
❑ Use large-size coarse aggregates, mix proportions are selected to
produce a low-slump concrete
❑ Gives economy, maintains good workability during placement
❑ Readily facilitates installation of conduits, penstocks, galleries, etc.,
within the structure
51

 Transportation from the batch plant to the dam is generally performed

in buckets ranging in size from 4 to 12 cubic yards carried by truck, rail,
cranes, cable ways, or a combination of these methods.
 The maximum bucket size is usually restricted by the capability of
effectively spreading and vibrating the concrete pile after it is dumped
from the bucket.
 The concrete is placed in lifts of 5- to 10-footdepths.
 Each lift consists of successive layers not exceeding 18 to 20 inches.
 Methods of cleaning horizontal construction joints to remove the
weak laitance film on the surface during curing include green cutting,
wet sand-blasting, and high-pressure air-water jet.
 Roller-compacted concrete (RCC) gravity dams
52
 The design of RCC gravity dams is similar to conventional concrete
structures.

 The differences lie in the construction methods, concrete mix design, and
details of the appurtenant structures.

 Construction of an RCC dam is a relatively new and economical concept.

 Economic advantages are achieved with rapid placement using

construction techniques that are similar to those employed for embankment
dams.

 RCC is a relatively dry, lean, zero slump concrete material containing

coarse and fine aggregate that is consolidated by external vibration using
vibratory rollers, dozer, and other heavy equipment.
53

 For effective consolidation, RCC must be dry enough to support the weight

of the construction equipment.

 consistency wet enough to permit adequate distribution of the past binder

throughout the mass during the mixing and vibration process and

 achieve the necessary compaction of the RCC and prevention

of undesirable segregation and voids.

54

Design and analysis of Concrete dam

(Gravity Dam)
55

MSc Thesis Presentation October, 2010

 Basic Principle
56
 The cross section of the dam is divided into several triangles and
rectangles.

 Weight of each triangle and rectangle and their points of application

at respective Centre of gravity are computed.

 The resultant of all these downward forces is thus found by talking

moments of the component forces which constitute the total weight
of the dam acting at its centre of gravity.

 Unit weight of concrete and masonry is taken as 2300-2500kg/m3 or

23-25kN/m3.
 Loads On Concrete Dams
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1. Primary loads:- Major important loads irrespective of the

dam type;
E.g. Self weight load, water load and seepage & uplift load
2. Secondary loads:- Universally applicable loads , even though
there magnitude is less importance;
E.g. Silt load, hydrodynamic load or wave load, wind Load,
ice load, thermal & dam/foundation interaction effect
3. Exceptional loads:- loads which has limited applicability/low
probability of occurrence.
E.g. Tectonic load
Forces acting on Gravity Dam:
The structural integrity of any dam must be maintained under
different loading circumstances.

Wind load

Wave load

Water load

Silt load Self weight

Earth quake load

Uplift load

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Loads on H = Head water depth
H’ = Tail Water depth
Gravity Dam FWA = Wave pressure force
FH = Horizontal hydrostatic force
FS = Silt/sediment pressure force
FEQ = Earthquake/Seismic force
FW = Wind pressure force
FH’ = Tail water hydrostatic force
W = Weight of dam
FOD = Internal pore water pressure
FU = Uplift pressure force [base of
dam]
FV = Weight of water above dam [u/s]
FV’ = Weight of water dam [d/s]
Schematic diagram of principal Gravity loads

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Gravity Dam Loading Diagram

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 Primary Loads
i. Water Load
 Hydrostatic distribution of pressure with horizontal resultant force P1 (Note also a
vertical component exists in the case of an u/s batter, and equivalent tail water may
operate in the d/s face) Z12 Z
P = whKN / m
w
acting at 1
2 3
Where w unit weight of water =9.81 KN/m3
Pwv =w (area A1) KN/ m Acting through centroid of A1

Pressure of any permanent tail water above the plane considered is:
 w Z 22
Pwn1 =
2
with Pwv1 =  w (area A2 )
 ii. Self Weight
 Determined w.r.t an appropriate unit weight of the material
Pm=c Ap KN/m acts through the centroid of x- sectional area AP.
(c 23.5 KN/m3=24KN/m3

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 iii. Seepage & uplift load
❖ equilibrium seepage patterns will develop within and under a dam,
e.g. in pores and discontinuities, with resultant vertical loads
identified as internal and external uplift.

Pu =  Ah (Uw ,avg)
( )
T 2 Z 2 +1 Z 1
 if no drain functioning. Pu acts at Y1 =
3 Z 2 + Z1

  is area reduction factor, Ah nominal plane area at a section

considered.

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Uplift pressure with drainage gallery and tension cracks
To reduce the uplift pressure , drains are formed trough the body of the dam, this
make the intensity of the uplift pressure to be differ from the full concrete dam.

Drainage gallery
H '

H H

H’ H’
B B
H '
H '
H H
 1 
  H '+ ( H − H ' )
 3 
B’

B’=location of tension crack from the heel of the dam

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 Dam cross-section

Case 1: Non-over flow section

(i) Up stream vertical face

1
PH =  w H 2
H
@ 3 from the base of the dam.
2
1
PH ' =  w H '2 @ H ' from the base of the dam.
2 3
Ap b
H PH w Pv
H
H’ Ap’
3 PH ' Through the centroid of
 wH  wH '
Trapezoidal, with out
 wH  w ( H + H ') drainage gallery)
U= *B @
2 5H + 2 H '
[ i.e. Z = ]
3( H + H ' )
U
W =  c Ap@ Through the centroid of
1 x-sectional area Ap
B Pv =  wb * H@
' b from the toe of the dam.
2
3
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(ii) Up stream face inclined

Pv1 ➢If the upstream face of the gravity dam is inclined

in addition to the previous loads ( loads in vertical
u/s face) , only vertical loads of water i.e. Pv will be
Pv2 added at its centroidal point from the toe of the dam.

where
Pv = Pv1+ Pv2

Conti…

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Case 2: Over flow section
Va
Ha =
2g
T.E.L

H1  w (H1 + H a )  H + H 2  
PH =  1  + H a ( H 2 − H1 ) *Yw @
 2  

_  2 H 1 + 3H a + H 2 
Z = (H 2 − H 1)
H2 1

3  H1 + 2 H a + H 2 
PH from the base of the dam

 w (H 2 + H a )

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 Uplift Pressures & Drainage System
 To perform the computation of effective stresses and related crack length, uplift
pressures could be considered:
A) United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE 1995) Uplift
Distributions : i) USACE uplift distribution with drainage gallery(no
cracking)

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ii) USACE uplift distribution with foundation drains near
u/s face (no cracking)

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iii) USACE uplift distribution with cracking not exceeding
beyond drains

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iv.) USACE uplift distribution with cracking
exceeding beyond drains

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B) USBR(1987) Uplift Pressure Distributions
i. USBR uplift distribution with drainage gallery below
tail water (no cracking)

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ii. USBR uplift distribution with drainage gallery
above tail water (no cracking)

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iii. USBR uplift distribution with drainage
gallery below tail water and partial cracking

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iV. USBR uplift distribution with drainage gallery above tail
water and partial cracking

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 Secondary Loads
i. Sediment/Silt load

N.B: it is usual practice to assume the value of hs equals

to the height of dead storage.

 s' hs 2 hs above the base of the

Psh = K a @
3 dam.
Psh 2
 s1.Z 32
hs Ps = K a acting @ Z3/3 above plane
2

The submerged unit weight  s ' and the active lateral pressure coefficient Ka
is given by
1 − sin s
 s '=  s − w K =
1 + sin s
a

Where:
 s is the angle of shear resistance
s is sediment saturated unit weight

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 ii. Wave Pressure ( hydrodynamic wave load)
Waves are generated on the reservoir by the blowing winds.

Pwave
hw

hw = 0.032 UF + 0.763 − 0.2714 F if  F  32km

hw = 0.032 UF if  F  32km
Stevenson equation
hw = height of the wave
U = wind velocity in km/hr Dam
F = fetch length

Reservoir surface area

Pwave= 2 whw 2 @ 0.375hw above the stilled water level.

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Wave configuration and wave pressure on gravity dam

1 5
Pw =  2.4   w hw  hw
2 3
Pw = 2 w h 2 w = 19.62h 2 w

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Freeboard (FB) Estimation

80
 Freeboard Allowance/Determination

❖ Freeboard protects dams from overflow caused by wind-induced tides

and waves.

❖ It is the vertical distance between maximum water level (still water) and
dam crest.

❖ Provision of a freeboard is required to avoid overtopping of dam due to

wind set-up and wind generated waves.

❖ The freeboard may have several components:

✓ Rise in reservoir level due to flood routing (flood surcharge)

✓ Wind set-up of the water surface

✓ Wave action

✓ Run-up of waves on the dam

Cont…

❖ Three basic considerations are generally used in establishing freeboard

allowance. These are

❖wave characteristics,

❖wind setup, and

❖wave run-up.

Freeboard = wind set-up (wind tide) + run-up of significant waves +

Settlement allowance
 Wind set-up (wind tide)
❖ When wind blows over a water surface, it exerts a horizontal stress on the
water, driving it in the direction of the wind and resulting in the piling up of
the water at one end of the reservoir. This effect is called “wind tide” or
“wind set-up.”

❖ The wind set-up is determined by Zuider Zee formula,

Where

 S is the wind set-up (m or ft),

 UA is the wind velocity (km/h or mph),

 F is the fetch (km or miles) and

 D is average water depth along fetch line (m or ft).

 Wind-stress factor UΔ (adjusted wind speed, in mph)

U –wind speed over water (mph)

Fetch is continuous area of water over which wind blows in

constant direction.
 Wave run-up/Wave characteristics
❖ Wave height( significant wave height) can be determined by Stevenson
equation

❖ Or we can use Peterson & James (1955) formula

❖ Wave run up(Rs), is the vertical height above the still-water level and is
related to the wave height in non-dimensional form.

Where Rs is run up (ft); Hs (ft); Θ = angle of inclination of slope with

horizontal; and LO is wave length.
iii. ICE Load
❑ Introduced in circumstances where ice sheets form to appreciable
thicknesses and persist for lengthy periods.
❑ The pressures exerted on the dam are a complex function of
▪ ice thickness,
▪ scale and rate of temperature rise resulting in expansion, and
▪ the degree of limit existing at the perimeter of the ice sheet.
❑ An acceptable initial provision for ice load,
▪ Pice, where considered necessary, is given by Pice=145kN/m2 for ice
thicknesses in excess (USBR, 1976).
❑ Ice load is neglected when:-
▪ ice thicknesses are unlikely to exceed 0.4m
▪ When little degree limit (as on a sloping face).

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Ice force per unit width of dam (kN/m) can be determined
from the following table:

Thickness of ice Change in temperature (oC/hr)

sheet (cm)
2.5 5 7.5

25 30 60 95

50 58 90 150

75 75 115 160

100 100 140 180

 iV. WIND Load
❑ The maximum possible pressures are small when compared to
the loads for which the dam is designed.

❑ acts against the water load.

❑ When wind load considered in dam design, for an area

exposed to wind pressure.
❑according to (Varshney,1986) taken as 1 kN/m2 to1.5 kN/m2.
 Exceptional Force
i. Seismic (earthquake) Load
Earthquake force may move in any direction, but for the sake of design purpose it
has to be resolved in to vertical and horizontal components.

The values of these horizontal (αh) and vertical (αv) accelerations are generally
expressed as percentage of the acceleration due to gravity i.e. 0.1g or 0.2g, etc.

Vertical acceleration(αv)
The contact b/n the foundation and the dam
will increase, hence the effective Weight
of the dam will also be increase
The contact b/n the foundation and
W the dam will decrease, which is the
worst case!!

Dam foundation
Down ward vertical movement.
W
Effective weight of the dam =W − * v
g
Upward vertical acceleration

89
Horizontal acceleration(αh)
Hydro-dynamic pressure.

Horizontal Inertia force.

Fe H
4H
3

4H
Fe = 0.555 h w H 2 acts @ from the base of the dam.
3
Von – Karman formula

90
EQ Inertial forces
1. Mass of dam (Inertia Forces)
Horizontal Feqh = ±hW
Vertical Feqv = ±vW
αh = (1.5 – 2.0) αv
2. Hydrodynamic Forces: Water reaction

pe = C h  w h Zangar,1952
C y y y y 
C= m  2 −  + 2 − 
2  h  h  h  h  

  
Cm = 0.7351 −  Pe = 0.726 pe h
 90 
M e = 0.299 pe h 2
U/s face approximation

92
Stability analysis of gravity dam
Gravity dam may fail in the following way
•By over turning rotation about the toe;
•By Crushing;
•By development of tension , causing ultimate failure by crushing;
•By shear failure called sliding

93
Overturning

94
Overturning

95
Overturning

96
Overturning

97
Overturning

98
1- Over turning stability
To make the structure of the dam stable from rotational or overturning failure
the following governing criteria should be satisfied

F0 (factor of safety against over turning) should be greater than 1.5

Fo =
M + ve
> 1.5……………(safe against overturning)
M − ve

99
2-Siding Stability (Fs)

Sliding Factor (FSS)

Shear friction Factor(FSF)
Limit equilibrium factor (FLE)

i) Sliding factor can be defined by

Fss =
H
V , for horizontal plane

 H − tan 
V
Fss = , for foundations inclined at a small angle 
1 +    tan 
 H
 V 
 

In order to be the dam stable against sliding Fss should be less than or
equal to 0.75.

100
Sliding

101
Sliding

102
Sliding

103
 ii) Shear friction factor (FSF) is defined as

S
FSF =
H
Where
S – total resistance to shear and defined by

 CAb 
S = + V tan( +  ) kN / m
 cos (1 − tan  tan  ) 

Recommended shear friction factor (USBR 1987)

Location of sliding plane Normal Unusual Extreme

Dam Concrete base interface 3.0 2.0 > 1.0
Foundation rock 4.0 2.7 1.3

cA h +  V tan 
FSF =
H 104
Shear and sliding together

f åV + 0.5A t s
FSss =
åH
A : Area of shear plane (m²)
τs : Allowable shear stress in concrete in contact with foundation

Safety factor:
➢ FSss  5,0 (usual loading)
➢ FSss  3,0 (unusual or severe loading)

105
(ii) Limit Equilibrium Factor, FLE

f
FLE =  = The shear stressed generated under the applied load
 f = Available shear strength and expressed by Mohr coulomb
failure criteria

c +  n tan   n = Streets acting normal to plain of sliding

FLE =


FLE = 2.0 for normal operation

FLE = 1.3 for seismic activity

106
 3- Stress analysis (compression or crushing)

If the compressive stress introduced in the dam is greater than its allowable
stress ,the dam may fail.


Normal pool level
V  6e 
Pmax = 1+
B  B 
Reservoir full H Resultant
force
condition V

Pmin =
V  6e 
1−
B/2 B/2 B  B 
Where;
Pmin + compression Pmax e = Eccentricity of the resultant force
from the center of the base

+ compr. V = Total vertical force

Pmin -
B= Base width
Tension

107
 Because of the gravity dam materials can not sustain tensile stresses, it should be
designed for certain amount or no tension should develops anywhere in the body of
the dam.

The maximum permissible tensile stress for high concrete gravity dams, under worst
loadings, may be taken as 500 KN/m2 (5kg/cm2).

NB: A tension crack by itself does not fail the structure, but it leads to failure of the
structure by producing excessive compressive stresses.

Pmin =
V 1 − 6e  = 0
B  B 

In order to ensure that no tension is developed anywhere, the amount of Pmin

should at most equal to zero. B
e=
6
The maximum value of eccentricity, that can be permitted on either side of the
center is equal to B/6 ------- “ the resultant must lie within the middle third”.
_
The resultant distance from the toe of the dam ( x ) is given by
−
x=
M
V 108
Normal stress distribution at the base

109
Principal stresses at the toe and heel of gravity dam

110
Stress at different plane

111
112
Principal stress

113
Shear stress

114
ELEMENTARY PROFILE OF A GRAVITY DAM
 The elementary profile of a gravity dam, subjected only to
✓ the external water pressure on the u/s side will be a right angled
triangle
✓ having zero width at top water level and
✓ a base width B at the bottom.
 Cont’d…
 Considering the elementary profile of the gravity dam above of height H and
base width B;
1 1 1
 c BH = SBH = BHS
 Weight of dam, W =
2 2 2

 Water Pressure P =
1
2
H 2

 Uplift Pressure Pu =
1
2
HB

 = Up lift intensity factor

Theoretical versus practical section of a dam
Considering only the two major forces acting on the dam,
the weight of the dam and
the hydrostatic water pressure,
the required section of the dam for its stability will be a triangle of base
width,
H
B=
s
Where: H = depth of water
s = specific gravity of concrete

For this section, the resultant will pass through the upper middle third point
of the base when reservoir is empty and through the lower middle third
point when the reservoir is full.
Base Width of Elementary Profile for No Tension

W ( B / 3) − P( H / 3) − Pu (b / 3) = 0
1 1 2 1
BHS ( B / 3) − H ( H / 3) − HB( B / 3) = 0
2 2 2
1 2 1 3 1
B HS − H − HB 2  B 2 S − H 2 − B 2 = 0
6 6 6
H
B 2( S −  ) = H 2  B =
S −
H
B=
S −1
Base width of elementary profile for No sliding

f (W − Pu ) = P
 1 1  1
f ( BHS ) − HB  = H 2

 2 2  2
f BS − B  = H

Bf S −   = H  B =
H
f (S −  )
Where f coefficient of static friction
Limiting Height of Elementary Profile of Gravity Dam- High
and Low Gravity Dams

 allaw = fall =  1 = H ( S −  + 1)
From which the height, H , is givenby
f allawable
H=
 ( S −  + 1)

f allawable
H=
 ( S + 1)
 PRACTICAL PROFILE OF A GRAVITY DAM
 The elementary profile of a gravity dam is only a theoretical
profile.

◦ Certain changes will gave to be made in this profile in order to

cater to the practical needs. These needs are:

✓Providing a straight top width, for road construction over the

top of the dam and/or at least to resist the impact action of the
floating debris

✓Providing a free board above the top water surface so that

water may not spill over the top of the dam due to wave
action, etc
Practical Profile of Gravity dam
The addition of these two provisions will cause the resultant force
to shift towards the heel.
For reservoir empty condition, the resultant shift more towards
to the heel, crossing the inner middle third point, and
consequently, tension will be developed at the toe.
In order to avoid the development of this tension some concrete
have to be added on the u/s side of the dam.
 Top Width
 The concrete added to provide the top width affects the cross
section of the dam.
 M1 and M2 are the inner and outer third points on the base. Thus
AM1 and AM2 are the inner and outer third point lines, respectively.
Let ABQ be concrete added to provide top width with AB = a and
MK will be the line passing through the centroid of the added
triangle ABQ. This line when produced intersects AM1 and AM2 at
points H and K respectively.

123
 Modified Section
 Top Width-the most economical top width is a
function of height of dam.
 Without considering earthquake forces, the most economical
top width, has been found by Creager
✓ Top width=14% of the Dam height
o For low to medium dams
✓ top width varies b/n 6m and 10 m. or square root of Dam
Height
 FREE BOARD: is generally provided equal to 3/2hw, where hw
is wave height.
 Modern practice
◦ Fbmax=3 to 4% of the height of dam (sometimes 5% or more might
prove economical).

124
 Load Combination for Design
Loads with reasonable probability need to be considered
I. Load combination A (construction condition or empty reservoir
condition): Dam completed but no water in the reservoir and no tail
water.

II. Load combination B (Normal operating condition): Full reservoir

elevation (or top of gates at crest), normal dry weather tail water,
normal uplift, ice and uplift (if applicable)

III. Load combination C (Flood Discharge condition): Reservoir at

maximum flood pool elevation, all gates open, tail water at flood
elevation, normal uplift, and silt (if applicable)

IV. Load combination D - Combination A, with earthquake.

V. Load combination E - Combination B, with earthquake but no ice
VI. Load Combination F - Combination C, but with extreme uplift (drain
inoperative)
VII. Load Combination G - Combination E, but with extreme uplift (drain
inoperative)
Design methods of Gravity Dam
1. Stability analysis method
a. Gravity method.
b. Trial load twist method
i. Joints keyed but not grouted
ii. Joints keyed and grouted
c. Experimental method
i. Direct method
ii. Indirect method
d. Slab analogy method
e. Lattice analogy method
f. Finite element method
2. Zoned method of profile determination
3. Single step method
 Single step Method
❖ considers the whole dam as a single block.
❖ used for final design of very high dams that extend well beyond zone
V.
❖ can be used with an accuracy of 2 to 4% on the safe side; for
preliminary designs to obtain the area of the maximum section of the
dam.

❖ The dam has a straight downstream face. When extended it

intersects upstream face at the headwater surface.

❖ dam dimensions are determined in such a way that rules of Zone IV

are satisfied.
Single Step Method

L = 10-15% of h1
H10 = 2L (Considering EQ )
= 3L (No EQ)
H6 = 1.33L
Procedures
Cont’d…
Cont’d…
Design Example:
Design a non-overflow gravity dam by the Single-
step method using the following data .

Item Value Item Value

Hmax (depth of headwater) 45 m f (friction factor) 0.75

he ( spillway crest to MWL) 3m sa (Shear strength) 4.5 MPa

Tail water None ssf (Shear safety factor) 5

Top width 7.5  (Uplift factor) 0.5

c (concrete Specific unit weight) 22 MPa C (uplift area factor) 1

w(water specific unit weight) 10 MPa c’ (concrete ultimate strength) 30 MPa

Earthquake small F (Fetch length) 5 km

silt pressure Ignore V (Wind Velocity) 128 km/hr

 Partial Design
Determine the wave height by the empirical equations
hw = 0.763 + 0.032 vf − 0.271 f 1 / 4 for f  32km
hw = 0.763 + 0.032 128* 5 − 0.271* 5.01 / 4
= 1.17 m

Rise of water wave = 1.33hw

= 1.56 m;
With an allowance of 0.14 m, free board = 1.70m
Fwv = 2.0wh2w
= 2.0 * 10 * 1.172
= 27.40 kN/m

Point of application = 3/8 x 1.17 =0.44m above still water level.

Partial Design
L = 10-15% of h1
H10 = 3L (No EQ )
H6 = 1.33L
 Partial Design
Forces

Horizonta
Line Item Description & dimension l Vertical Lever Moment Remark
1 W0 7.5*46.7*22 7705.5 13.75 105950.6
2 W1 0.5*35*26.25*22 10106.25 26.25 265289.1
Total Partial empty 17811.75 20.84 371239.7
Trial I Estimation of x Z'= 43.75
2B/3=Z' - 25.26 = 22.91 B= 34.37
x = 0.75 Z'' = 9.25
Z''+B/3 = 20.70667 Z''+2B/3 = 32.16333
3 W3 0.5*22.5*0.8*22 185.625 9.75 1809.84
Reservoir Empty 17997.38 [20.73] 373049.5 Ok!
4 Fv Water column 0.3*25*10 253.125 9.63 2437.594
5 Fu Uplift: 0.5*B*0.5h*10 -3866.63 20.71 -80077.8
6 Fh Water Pressure 10125 15 151875
7 Fwa Wave action 27.4 45.44 1245.06
Reservoir Full 10152.4 14383.88 [31.18] 448529.4 Ok!
 Partial Design
Check for sliding
H 10152.4
= tan  = = 0.71  0.75
V 14383.88 Friction alone is sufficient!

Check Stresses for Reservoir empty

W
 6e  17997.38  6 * 5.71 
PV' , PV" = 1   = 1   = 1045.1 ,0
B B 34.37  34.37 
PV' = 1045.1 PV" = 0
Pi ' = pv' (1 + tan 2  ' ) = 1045.1(1 + 0.0.0332 ) = 1046.3kPa
PV" , Pi '   rock ,all = 4000kPa (safe!)
 Partial Design
Check Stresses for Reservoir full condition

W
 6e  14383.88  6 * 4.75 
PV' , PV" = 1   = 1   = 757.7,70.88

B B 34.37  34.37 
PV' = 757.7 kPa PV" = 70.88kPa
Pi ' = pv' (1 + tan 2  ' ) = 757.7(1 + 1.3272 ) = 2092.0kPa
PV" , Pi '   rock ,all = 4000kPa (safe!)
 Multiple step design method
❖ the dam is designed joint by joint (block by block)
❖ begins at the top making each joint confirm to all gravity dam design
requirements.

❖ produces a dam with polygonal face that may be smoothened up for

appearance with no appreciable change in stability or economy.

❖ A high dam may be divided into seven zones according to design

and stability requirements.

❖ The method is almost always used for the final design of dams with a
height that does not reach greatly on Zone V.
Zones for Non-overflow section of Gravity dam
 Zone Descriptions
• ZONE I: This is the portion above the maximum water
surface (1-2-3-4) or if there is ice, it is the one above the
bottom of the ice sheet.
• If there is no ice, the height of zone-I is controlled by free
board requirements and the width is determined by
practical consideration or economy for the section as a
whole.
• In case of ice sheets the height of zone I is fixed on the
consideration of sliding of the zone due to ice pressure.
 ZONE II
• For a limited distance below the bottom of zone I, the
resultants, reservoir full and empty, lie well with in the middle
third (or kern).
• Both u/s and d/s faces, therefore, may remain vertical until, at
some plane 5-6, the resultant, reservoir full, intersects the joint
at the exact extremity of the middle third.
• That portion of the dam b/n the bottom of zone I and the plane
5-6 constitutes zone II.
 ZONE III
• Below the bottom of zone II, the u/s face continues to be vertical
while the d/s face must begin to batter.

• The line of the resultant continues to coincide with the d/s extremity
of the middle third when the reservoir is full.

• The resultant, reservoir empty, still being with in the middle third,
the u/s face may remain vertical until at some plane 7-8, where it
intersects at the u/s extremity of the middle third.

• Therefore, zone III is the portion b/n 5-6 and 7-8, determined by
tension criteria, reservoir full.
 ZONE IV
• In this zone, the u/s face also begins to batter so that the
lines of the resultants for reservoir empty lie along the
corresponding extremities of middle-third.

• The position of lower limit plane 9-10 of this zone is

governed by the criterion that the maximum inclined
stress (principal stress) at the d/s toe, for reservoir full
condition is just equal to the allowable limit, (which
thus fixes the lower limit of zone IV).
 Cont…
• The design of zone IV especially the height and d/s
and u/s slopes, are determined by trial, by dividing
zone IV into a number of convenient blocks till the
bottom of zone IV is reached.

• It should be noted that Low Dams lie within the limits

of zone IV. Zones V, VI and VII are applicable only
for high dams.
 ZONE V
• Below the plane 9-10 for some distance the inclination of the d/s
face of the dam will have to be so adjusted that for reservoir full
condition the principal stress at this face does not exceed the
max allowable limit.
• In this case the resultant for reservoir full condition will remain
well within the middle third.
• On the other hand the inclination of the u/s face is so adjusted
that for reservoir empty condition the resultant continues to
intersect just at the u/s extremity of the middle third.
• However, at some plane 11-12 for reservoir empty condition the
principal stress at the u/s face may reach the maximum
allowable limit, which thus fixes the limit of zone V. (B/n 9-10
& 11-12).
 ZONE VI
• In this zone the conditions of the design are determined by the
maximum pressures (principal stresses) at both u/s and d/s faces
under reservoir empty and reservoir full conditions, respectively
(the inclinations are adjusted that 1 should not to exceed the
limit).
• The line of the resultants under both the conditions lies well with
in the middle third. The position of the bottom plane 13-14 is
reached when the inclined pressure at d/s toe just reaches its
maximum value.
 ZONE VII
• As the height of the dam increases, the batter of both u/s and d/s
faces increases. Consequently, at some plane the value of sec2
(for d/s face) may become so great that the principal stress at the
d/s face may exceed the maximum allowable limit.
• The portion of the dam in which this condition prevails constitutes
zone VII. However, this zone should be eliminated by revision of
the entire design.
• If the height of the dam is so large that it is more than the position
of plane 13-14 of zone VI, various changes are made in the upper
zones so that the height of the dam lies within zone VI.
• If this is not possible, then the height of the dam is reduced or
superior material is utilized so that the height is accommodated
with in zone VI.
Design Example:
Design a non-overflow concrete gravity dam by
multiple-step method using the following data.
Item Value Item Value
Hmax (depth of headwater 60 m f-Friction coeffnt. 0.75
he ( spillway crest to MWL) 3m sa 560 kPa
Tail water None ssf 5

c 24 kN/m3  0.5

w 10 kN/m3 C 1
Minimum Top width 7.5 m c’ 30 MPa
Earthquake and silt press Ignore F – Fetch length 6.4 km
V 128 km/hr
 Zone I and II
Determine the wave height by
hw = 0.763 + 0.032 vf − 0.271 f 1 / 4 ; for f  32km
hw = 0.763 + 0.032 128 * 6.4 − 0.271* 6.41 / 4
= 1.25m

Rise of water wave = 1.33hw = 1.66 m;

With an allowance of 0.14 m, free board = 1.8m
Fwa = 2.0wh2w = 2.0 * 10 * 1.252
= 31.25 kN/m
Point of application = 3/8 *1.25 =0.47m above still water level.
Zone III Block I
Zone IV Block I
 Exercise. For the data given below, design a non-overflow solid gravity dam; By Single
design method, and Sketch the sections of the dam.
154
DATA
 Maximum water depth to be retained, H = 50 m
 Tail water depth, h = 10
 Top (or crest) width = 4 m
 Unit weight of concrete, γc = 24 kN/m3
 Unit weight of water, γw = 10 kN/m3
 Uplift intensity factor = 1.0
 Allowable coefficient of friction within concrete and between concrete and foundation, f =
0.65
 Ultimate shear resistance of dam and foundation, Sa = 4 MPa
 Minimum permissible shear friction safety factor, S.F.F. = 3
 Wind velocity, V = 80 km/h
 Fetch, F = 120 km
 Maximum allowable inclined stress in dam or foundation, σ = 3 Mpa
 Assume no silt and seismic region.
155

Arch Dams
 Concrete Arch Dam
❖ It is a solid wall curved in plan
❖ standing across the entire width of the river, in a single span.

❖ Are rigid structure with a considerable upstream curvature

❖ Are usually non-overflow type

❖ Are restricted to relatively narrow valley/gorges sections with strong

abutments.

❖ As compared to the gravity or buttress dam

➢ Are structurally more efficient,

156
➢ Greatly reduce the volume of concrete required.
 Typical Concrete Arch Dam

Monticello Dam impounds Putah Creek west of Sacramento, California

157
 Concrete Arch Dam
❖ Structurally resist the imposed loads by combination of

✓ Arch action and

✓ cantilever action.

❖ Transmit the major portion of

✓ The water load to the abutments or valley sides

✓ The weight of structure to the floor of the valley,.

❖ Require large horizontal reactions by the abutments.

158
159
 Valley Shapes for Arch Dam
160

To determine the site suitability for an arch dam the canyon shape factor (CSF)
equation of may be used:

B + H (sec 1 + sec 2 )
CSF =
H

The ratio of crest length to dam height is recommended to be ≤ 5.

Usual values of CSF are from 2 to 5.
The lower the CSF value the thinner the section.
 Classification of valleys by CSF
161

B + H (sec 1 + sec 2 )
CSF =
H

Valley type Bottom width B 1 2 CSF

U-shaped <H < 150 < 150 < 3.1
Narrow V-shaped 0 < 350 < 350 < 2.4
Wide V-shaped 0 > 350 > 350 > 2.4
Composite U-V shaped < 2H > 150 > 150  4.1
Wide and flat shapes > 2H 1 2 > 4.0
Unclassified Highly irregular valley shape
162
 Classification of Arch Dams
163

❖ Massive arch dam:- The whole span of the dam is covered by a single
curved wall usually vertical or nearly so.
▪ Massive arch dams are further divided into the following types
Constant radius arch dams,

Constant angle arch dams,

Variable radius arch dams,

❖ Multiple arch dam:- series of arches cover the whole span of the
dam, usually inclined and supported on piers or buttresses.
❖ Arch gravity: thick arch dam which behaves partly arch & partly
gravity portion.
164

Arch Dam
 Multiple-Arch dam

Bartlett Dam impounds the Verde River northeast 165

of Phoenix, Arizona.
Example on Multiple arch dam

166
Arch-gravity dam Plan and section

167
 Constant Radius Arch Dam
168

✓ the simplest geometric profile that combines a vertical u/s face of constant
extrados radius with a uniform radial d/s slope.
✓ The radius of extrados(outside) is constant at all elevations.
✓ The radius of d/s face(intrados) gradually decreases as the depth below
the crest.
✓ U/s face of the dam is vertical.
✓ Suitable to relatively symmetrical “U” shaped valley( less reduction in
central angle)
✓ The dam cross section is triangular.
✓ Usually a maximum of 150o is used for the top arch and minimum at
bottom.
 Constant Angle Arch Dam
169

different arches has the same Central angle 2 from top to bottom
at all elevations.
Central angle=133. 50
in practice 2 = 1000 to 1500 is used.
uses about 70% concrete as compared to constant radius
arch dam.
V-shape valley is suitable .
 Variable Radius Arch Dam
170

It is a compromise between constant radius and constant angle arch dams,

i.e., neither the radius nor the angle is constant.
The radii of the extrados and intrados surfaces vary from the top to
bottom, usually maximum at the top and minimum at the base.
The central angle of the different arches is not constant; it usually ranges
from 800 to 1500.
The central angle for the top arch is made as wide as possible.
It is suitable for V and U-V shaped valleys.
Concrete volume consumed is about 80% of that for constant radius arch
dam of the same height.
 Variable radius arch dam
171

FLOW
 Forces acting on Arch Dams
172

❖ The loads are the same as that of gravity dams.

❖ Uplift forces are less important (not significant).

❖ Internal stresses caused by temperature changes and yielding of abutments are

very important.

❖ Foundation stresses are generally small.

❖ Overturning and sliding are rare.

❖ Failure occur only as a result of overstress.

 Design methods for Massive Arch Dam
173

❖ Design depend on stress analysis and arch geometry.

1. Thin cylinder theory

2. Thick cylinder theory

3. Elastic theory

4. Trial load method

5. Finite Element method

6. Shell theory
 Thin Cylinder Theory
174

❖ The weight of concrete and water in the dam is carried directly to

the foundation.
❖ The horizontal water load is carried entirely by arch action.
❖ The theory assumes:
 the arch is simply supported at the abutments and

 the stresses are approximately the same as in thin cylinder of

equal outside radius ro.
Limitations
➢ The shearing and bending stress are not considered.

➢ The analysis is based on only water pressure and abutment

reaction.
 Thin Cylinder Model
175
 Thin Cylinder Model
176

Summing forces parallel to the stream axis

2R sin / 2 = 2 w hre sin / 2
R =  w hre
The transverse unit stress R  w hre
 = =
t *1 t
for a given stress  w hre
t=
 all
Note: the hydrostatic pressure wh may be
increased by earth quake and other pressure forces
where applicable
 Thin Cylinder Model
177

Most Economical central Angle

re = rc + 0.5t and re = ri + t
 w hrc
t= or
 all − 0.5 w h
V = (t *1)r
 w hri
t=  hr
 all −  w h t = w = kr

Condition for least volume of arch .
 B 
2

V = kr 2 = k 
 2 sin  / 2 
Differentiating V with respect to  and setting
to zero,  = 133.5o which is the most economical
angle for arch with minimum volume.
For  = 133.50 r = 0.544B
 Thick Cylinder Theory
178
 Improvement in thin cylinder theory was made by
considering the arch as thick cylinder.
 The stresses at the extrados and intrados are given by

 The thickness is given by the relation

 2p 
t = re 
1 − 1− 
  
p = h
179
180
 Design Example:
181

Design a 100m height constant radius arch dam, by the thin

cylinder theory for a valley 100m wide at the base and 150m
wide at a height of 100m all = 4MPa.
Solution:
The top arch is taken to be 140o
B
r=
2 sin  / 2
= 75/sin70
= 79.8
Take r = 80m

The extrados radius re of all arches is kept as 80m.

 Tabular Design Calculations
182
h B re P t ri 
0 150 80 0 0 80 139.27
10 145 80 100 2 78 129.98
20 140 80 200 4 76 122.09
30 135 80 300 6 74 115.08
40 130 80 400 8 72 108.68
50 125 80 500 10 70 102.75
60 120 80 600 12 68 97.18
70 115 80 700 14 66 91.90
80 110 80 800 16 64 86.87
90 105 80 900 18 62 82.03
100 100 80 1000 20 60 77.36

Note: Provide a nominal thickness of 1.5 m when

necessary.
183
Design Example:
Design a 100m high constant angle arch dam by thin cylinder theory
for a valley 40m wide at the base and 240m wide at a height of
100m. Take all = 5MPa.

Solution:
Taking  = 133.440
ri = 0.544B
 w hri
t=
 all −  w h

re = ri + t
 Tabular Design Calculations
184
h B ri P P*ri all –p t re
0 240 130.56 0 0 5000 0 130.56
10 220 119.68 100 11968 4900 2.44 122.12
20 200 108.80 200 21760 4800 4.53 113.33
30 180 97.92 300 29376 4700 6.25 104.17
40 160 87.04 400 34816 4600 7.57 94.61
50 140 76.16 500 38080 4500 8.46 84.62
60 120 65.28 600 39168 4400 8.90 74.18
70 100 54.40 700 38080 4300 8.86 63.26
80 80 43.52 800 34816 4200 8.29 51.81
90 60 32.64 900 29376 4100 7.16 39.80
100 40 21.76 1000 21760 4000 5.44 27.20

Note: Provide a nominal thickness of 1.5 m when

necessary.
Buttress Dams
 Concrete Buttress Dams
❖ improvement innovation over the hollow concrete gravity dams

❖ solid wall of specified thickness section are constructed parallel to

the flow at some suitable intervals called buttress.

❖ slabs which are supported on u/s side on buttresses.

❖ Are rigid structure with a slopping upstream membrane (Deck)

supported by buttresses.

❖ Are adaptable to an overflow or a non-overflow type.

 Typical Concrete Buttress Dam

Lake Tahoe Dam impounds the Truckee River in northern California

Compared to their Gravity counterpart

❖ require 1/2 to 2/3 of the concrete [economical for dams of h ≥ 14m],

hence may be used on weak foundation

❖ formwork needs skilled labor,

❖ More safety against overturning and sliding [because of the larger

vertical component of hydrostatic force exerted on the dam (highly
inclined u/s face)]

❖ More equal distribution of stresses on foundation.

❖ Eliminate a good deal of uplift pressure

Component parts of Buttress Dams
Road

✓ Sloping membrane

✓ Buttresses

✓ Mat foundation or Footings

✓ Lateral Braces (strut)

✓ Haunches or Corbels

✓ Cutoff (Concrete)
 Classification of Buttress Dams
Two ways of classification
A. Based on the type of deck (Sloping Membrane)
1. Deck/flat slab or Amberson type

2. Multiple-arch type

3. Multiple-dome type

4. Massive/bulk head type

B. Based on the joint between the deck and buttresses
1. Rigid buttress dams
2. Articulated buttress dams
3. Intermediate or semi-rigid buttress dams
Deck slab/Flat Slab or Amburesn type Buttress Dam

 In this type of buttress dam the u/s sloping deck slab consists of
a reinforced concrete slab supported by a series of buttresses.
 Deck slab further Sub divided into:-

1. Simple deck slab type buttress dams (Simply supported slab)

The deck slab is not rigidly
connected to the buttresses
but it is in the form of simply
supported slab.
2. Fixed (or continuous) Deck Slab Type Buttress Dams

❖ The deck slab is cast monolithic with the buttresses and it acts as a
continuous slab.
❖ Reinforcement is provided

both on u/s &

d/s faces of the slab.
❖ This type of deck

can be used only when

the foundation is strong;
3. Cantilever Deck slab type Buttress Dams

 The deck slab is cast monolithically with the buttresses in such

a manner that it over hangs on either side of the buttress and
acts as cantilever.
Multiple Arch Types Buttress Dams
✓ The sloping membrane or deck consists of a series of R.C arches
supported by a number of buttresses. The u/s face of the dam is
usually inclined at 450.

❖ Multiple -Dome Type Buttress Dams:-

✓ Sloping membrane or deck consists of a series of R.C domes
supported by a number of buttresses

❖ Massive Head Type Buttress Dams:-

✓ The dam is thus made of a series of buttresses with massive heads
placed side by side.
Multiple Arch Type Buttress Dam Massive Head Type Buttress Dam
Classification Based on the joint b/n the sloping membrane

❖ Rigid buttress dams: - The upstream deck is cast monolithically with

the buttresses and hence the ends of the deck cannot move.
E.g. continuous deck slab type, multiple arch type & multiple dome
type buttress dams
❖ Flexible (or articulated) Buttress Dams: sloping membrane or deck
is not constructed monolithic with the buttresses as such these dams
are flexible. E.g. simple deck slab type.
❖ Semi - rigid buttress Dams: - It is neither as rigid as rigid buttress
dam nor as flexible as a flexible buttress dam.
❖ It is therefore in b/n that of rigid buttress dam & a flexible buttress
dam.
E.g. The massive head type buttress dam
DESIGN PROCEDURE OF FLAT-SLAB TYPE BUTTRESS DAMS

The design involves the following steps:-

❖ Determination of economic buttress spacing & upstream slope

❖ Design of deck slab & other details

❖ Preliminary design of buttress & check for overall stability

Economic Buttress Spacing

The most economical spacing depends up on the following factors
➢ The mean height of dam
➢ Type of footing (spread or mat foundation)
➢ Unusual foundation and side hill conditions
➢ Upstream slope of dam
Height of dam:-Economic buttress spacing increases with the
height of the dam;

Height of dam (m) Economical spacing

c/c of buttress (m)
15 to 30 5 to 6

30 to 45 9 to 12

Above 45 12 to 15
Upstream slope
❖ Varies from 350 to 450 and is governed by the requirements of
sliding factor,

i.e., H/V resistance against sliding is achieved from the

vertical component of the water pressure

❖ Since self weight of the buttress dam is relatively small.

❖ Thus for each value of u/s slope there would be an economical

buttress spacing which may be determined from a master curve

❖ A master curve is extremely useful for determining the most

economical spacing for d/t upstream slopes.
Master curve
203


  wH 2  wH 2
PH = ; PV = cot ;
2 2
WC =  C Cq 1 
Cq = 0.2083H 2  − cot 
 f 

f =
 H
=
PH
V PV + WC
Cq = Quantity of concrete (m3)
per meter length of dam
 wH 2
f= 2
  wH 2 
 cot +  C Cq 
 2 
 Preliminary design of Buttress and Check for Overall
Stability
❖ For preliminary design of buttress only water pressure on the deck
slab, weight of deck slab and buttress are considered.
❖ Preliminary design of buttress is carried out on the bases of Unit

column theory, in which the buttress is assumed to be made of a

number of unit columns.
❖ A unit column is a curved column of unit width.

Assumptions:
❖ Each column transfers the load from the top of the column to the

foundation independently of the adjacent columns above or below it.

❖ Each column is so proportioned that at every section of the column
uniform compressive stress is developed and it is curved to avoid
eccentric loading.
Unit columns and resultant forces for
frictionless joints
 Unit column theory
207

 The magnitude of the initial load Po depends on the type of

joint b/n deck slab and the buttress.
 If the joint is frictionless then

Po = Pw + Wdn
(total water pressure on the deck and component of the weight of
the deck slab normal to the buttress face).
For each unit column, the value of the initial thickness to is
obtained from:

Where fc is the permissible compressive stress in concrete

208


209


 Loading

Considers possible service loading

❖ Stability of dam and foundation

❖ Stresses with in allowable limits

❖ Satisfactory water-tightness

❖ Structural integrity

➢ The magnitude of the initial load Po depends on the type of joint

b/n deck slab and the buttress.
 Loads on Buttress Dam

❖ The loads are the same as that of gravity dams.

❖ Uplift forces are less important.

❖ Internal stresses caused by temperature changes and yielding of

abutments need to be considered.

❖ Wind blowing diagonal to the buttress axis is critical.

❖ Foundation stresses are generally small.

 Design of Flat-slab Buttress Dam
Involves:
❖ Determination of economical

✓ Buttress spacing and

✓ Upstream slope

❖ Design of Deck slab and other details

❖ Preliminary design of Buttress

❖ Check for overall stability.

Economic factors in Design of Flat-slab Buttress Dam

❖ The mean height of the dam

❖ The presence of

 Continuous footing or

 Mat foundation

❖ The presence of spillway over the dam

❖ The unusual foundation or side hill conditions

❖ The slope of upstream face of the dam.

 Advantages of Buttress Dams

❖ less concrete used compared to a gravity dam of the same height

❖ More safety against overturning and sliding b/c of the larger

vertical component of hydrostatic force exerted on the dam.

❖ More equal distribution of stresses at foundation

❖ Less massive than gravity dam hence may be used on weak

foundations that are not suitable for gravity dam

❖ Decreased uplift pressure.

Disadvantages of Buttress Dams

❖ needs reinforcement and expensive shuttering

❖ needs more skilled labor

❖ slabs and columns are highly stressed; danger of deterioration of

concrete of the upstream deck

❖ more susceptible to damage by sabotage

Design and analysis of embankment dam
 Embankment Dam
218

❖ The embankment dam can be defined as a dam constructed

from natural materials excavated or obtained near-by.

❖ A non-rigid dam which resists the forces exerted up on it

mainly by its shear strength.

❖ These dams usually provide the most economical and most

satisfactory solution for sites at which suitable foundation at
reasonable depth may not be available for a dam of concrete
or masonry.
 Classification based on construction material

1. Earth fill Embankment dams:

❖ When compacted soils, i.e. clays/silts & sands, account for over 50% of the
placed volume of material.

2. Rock fill Embankment dams:

❖ If compacted rock particles larger than a man can easily lift, i.e. coarse
grained frictional material, accounts for over 50% of the placed volume of
materials made predominantly of quarried rock.

3. Composite of earth and rock fill dam; these dams are constructed
from earth and rock fill dam.
 Earth Dams (earth fill dams)
❖ An embankment may be categorized as an earth fill dam if
compacted soils account for over 50% of the placed volume of
material.
Some of the merits of earth dam are:-
✓ Local materials is used which is readily available & easy to
handle
✓ Can be built on almost all types of foundation

✓ Large base width of earth dams is suited for pervious

foundation
✓ Easier and cheaper to extend up wards

✓ The natural appearance blends with the surrounding.

 Disadvantage
The disadvantage of earth dams

✓ they require greater maintenance than do concrete gravity

dams.

✓ they require a separate spillway for discharging excess flows.

✓ The design of an earth dam involves both a hydraulic and

structural analysis.
Earth dams may be classified on the basis of methods of construction.
✓ Rolled-fill earth dam
✓ Hydraulic-fill earth dam
✓ Semi-hydraulic fill earth dams
A. Rolled fill Dam
❖ In rolled-fill earth dams the embankment is constructed in
successive mechanically compacted layers.
❖ The material (sand, clay gravel etc) is transported from the borrow
pits to the dam site by truckers or scrapers.
❖ It is then spread with in the dam section by bulldozers to form

layers of 15 to 45 cm thickness.
B. Hydraulic fill dam

❖ In the case of hydraulic-fill dam the materials are transported from

borrow pits to their final position (dam site) placed through the agency

of water.

❖ The courser materials of the slurry stay near the faces of the dam

while finer ones move towards the center and get deposited there.
C. Semi-hydraulic dam

❖ In the semi-hydraulic fill dam construction, the material is dumped

near the upstream and down stream face of the dam to form rough
levees (bunds) as in the case of rolled fill dam w/o the use of water.

❖ Then the space b/n the levees are filled with water and the material
placed in or up on the levees is washed to wards the center of the
dam.

❖ Out of these three types, the rolled-fill earth dams are the most
common.
 Rolled Fill dams
Rolled Fill dams are of three types
➢ Homogenous type
➢ Zoned type
➢ Diaphragm type
A. Homogenous type: A purely homogeneous type of dam is
composed of a single kind of earth material except for the
slope protection.
Such a section is used only for low to moderately high dams
and for dykes.
 Very common in the design of small dams, the purely
homogenous section has been replaced by a modified
homogeneous section in which small amounts of carefully placed
pervious materials control the action of seepage so as to permit
much steeper slopes.

Homogeneous dam Section

B. Zoned embankment type
❖ They are provided with a central impervious core, covered by a relatively pervious
transition filter which is finally surrounded by a more pervious outer zones or
shells.
❖ most common for high dams
❖ The central core checks the seepage; the transition filter zone prevents piping
through cracks which may develop in the core.
❖ The outer zones (shells) provide stability to the core and also distribute the load
over a larger foundation area.
C. Diaphragm type
❖ In this type the bulk of embankment is constructed of
❖ pervious materials (Sand, gravel, or rock) and
❖ a thin diaphragm of impermeable material is provided to form the water
barrier.
❖ If the core thickness at any elevation is less than 3m or less than the
embankment height above the corresponding section then the dam
embankment is considered to be the diaphragm type.
Typical section of Embankment dam
232
Elements of Embankment Dam
233

Every embankment dam consists of

 Three basic components
 Foundation,
 Core, and
 Shell.

 And a number of appurtenances such as;

 Transition filter,
 Toe drain,
 Riprap,
 Internal drain,
 Sod, etc. which enable the basic components to function
efficiently
 Foundation of Emb. Dams
234

 Could either be earth or rock material.

 Provides support resisting both vertical and horizontal
loads.
 Resists seepage beneath the embankment
 Core of Emb. Dams
235

 The core or membrane is used to hold back free water.

 Depending on the structural requirements of the dam,
the core may be placed
 at the center or upstream from the center, or
 on the upstream face (in the case of certain rock fill dams)
 The core may be extended down into the foundation to
impervious layer, if the foundation is incapable of
resisting under seepage.
 Core of Emb. Dams ctd.
236

 The core can be made from Earth, concrete or masonry, steel sheeting, etc.

 Lack of flexibility of concrete and masonry make them undesirable.

 An earth core (when suitable material is available) is usually cheaper and

more water tight than any other type.

 Design parameters

 Permeability / water tightness of core material

 Compaction extent of core material

 Water content to obtain maximum compaction

 Thickness of the core

 Core of Emb. Dams ctd.
237

Permeability of different soils types

Permeability coefficient Typical soil Value as core
2 – 0.002 Sand Considerable leakage
0.002 – 0.0002 Silty clay Usable with good control if some
leakage is tolerable
0.0002 – 0.000006 Silts Little leakage if well compacted
≤ 0.000006 Silty clay, clay Impervious
 Shell of Emb. Dams
238

 Provides structural support for the core

 distributes the loads over the foundation.
 acts as foundation for most of the appurtenances.
 Sometimes constructed of same material as the core.
 Shell of Emb. Dams ctd.
239

Slopes: -
shell slopes are based on stability analysis.
When the stability is insufficient, improvements are
possible by adopting
◼ Flatter slopes;
◼ Increasing strength through high density;
◼ Treatment for weak foundation;
◼ Drainage of the foundation and embankment.
 Causes of failure of Emb. Dams
240

 Failure could be
 Improper design
 faulty construction
 Lack of maintenance, etc.

 The most common Causes of failure for

embankment dams are
 Hydraulic failure
 Seepage Failure
 Structural Failure,
 Causes of failure of Emb. Dams
241

During construction
 Unstable slope
 Heavy rainfall that washes the d/s face
 Weak foundation
After construction
 Failure of u/s face due to sudden drawdown
 Failure of d/s when the reservoir is full
 Overtopping
 Design features of Emb. Dams
242

1. Zoning of shoulder fills

2. Spillway location
3. Free board
4. Foundation seepage control
5. Outlet works
6. Upstream face protection
7. Embankment crest
Foundation Requirements
❖ The essential requirements of a foundation for an earth dam are that
it provides support for the embankment under all conditions of
saturation and loading and that it provides sufficient resistance to
seepage to prevent excessive loss of water.
❖ Foundations are grouped in to three main classes according to their
predominant characteristics as
✓ Rock foundation,
✓ Foundation of coarse-grained material (pervious foundation)
✓ Foundations of fine grained materials (Impervious foundation
❖ Impervious foundation Foundations of fine silt and clay
are impervious and have very low shear strength. Shear
failure may occur in such foundations.
❖ Rock foundation: - foundations of rock including hard
shale do not present any problem of bearing strength for
small earth fill dam.
❖ Pervious foundations: - often the foundations for dams
consist of recent alluvial deposits composed of relatively
pervious sand and gravel over lying impervious
geological formations.
Control of Seepage through earth dam and its
foundation
The effects of seepage are:

➢ Loss of water

➢ Piping failure

➢ Reduce slope stability and result in dam failure

➢ Causes local sloughing

Seepage control measures are divided in to two main categories

✓ Measures to reduce quantity of Seepage – Reduce loss of water

✓ Measures for Safe drainage of seeping water – No piping

 Measures to reduce quantity of Seepage
IN DAM:
✓ The only measure is provision of impervious core within the body of
the dam called embankment zonation.
❖ Embankment zonation : -for reducing seepage through the body of

the dam, a core of impervious material such as silt clay or clayey

silt is generally provided.
IN FOUNDATION:
❖ If the foundation consists of alluvial deposits of pervious sand and

gravel with impervious stratum at a great depth measures to be

adopted are
❖ cut-off and u/s impervious blanket and d/s berm.
 Type of cutoff

❖ Cutoff trenches: This is the most positive means of

controlling the amount of seepage and insuring that no
difficulty will be encountered by piping through the
foundation or by uplift pressure at the down stream toe.
❖ Partial cutoff trenches The partial cut offs are effective
only when they extend down into an intermediate
stratum of lower permeability.
 Cont…

Sheet pilling cut offs: - A steel sheet pile cut off consists
of interconnected sheet piles to form a continuous
impervious barrier.
❖ Sheet piling cutoffs are practically limited to use in
foundations of silt, sand and fine gravel.
Grouting:-The stability and impermeability of pervious
overburden foundation can be improved by injection a
substance which will act as a binder & fill the voids.
Upstream blankets: - The path of percolation in pervious
foundations can be increased by the construction of a blanket of
impervious material connecting with the impervious zone of the dam
and extending upstream from the toe.
❖ The length of the blanket will be governed by the desired reduction
in the amount of under seepage and its thickness usually varies from
1.5 to 3.0 m.
❖ It may be provided in homogenous dams constructed of relatively
impervious soil.
❖ The length of the u/s blanket can be obtained from the following
formula.
khd − pqb
l=
pq
 Cont…

Where k = mean horizontal permeability coefficient

h = the gross height
p = percentage (stated as decimal) of flow under dam w/o a
blanket to which level it is desired to reduce the seepage by
means of a blanket
b =length of impervious dam material
q = k(h/b)xdx1 seepage flow under the dam (approximate)
d = depth of pervious foundation
q’ = pq ,Where q’ is the seepage quantity after provision
of u/s blanket
Measures for Safe drainage of seeping water – No piping
Some water always seeps through the dam and foundation even after
adopting several seepage control
IN DAM:
✓ Horizontal drainage blanket
✓ Rock toe

✓ Chimney drain

✓ Strip drain

I. Horizontal drainage blanket

May be Vertical(Inclined) or Horizontal.
Horizontal drainage blankets are commonly used for earth dams of
moderate heights.
The blanket extends from the d/s toe for a distance of about three times
the height of the dam but not longer than 2/3 of the base width.
In the case of zoned section it extends up to the core.
Rock toe
The rock toe is provided at the d/s toe of the earth dam and it forms
part of the dam.
It consists of stones of size varying from 15 to 20 cm. The u/s face
of the rock toe may be vertical or inclined.
The rock toe is suitable for low to moderate height of dams. The
height of the rock toe is generally b/n H/3 to H/4, where H is the
height of the dam.
Chimney drain
 A chimney drain is a vertical/nearly vertical drain located inside
the dam so that it intercepts all layers of the dam in the seepage
zone.
 A chimney drain renders the d/s portion of the dam free from
seeping water and it increases the stability of the d/s slope.
 Chimney drains are rarely provided in homogeneous dams and they
are provided d/s of the impervious core in zoned earth fill dams.
From the chimney drain water is carried to d/s by a horizontal
drainage blankets. The chimney drain should be accompanied with
proper filters.

Chimney drains are rarely provided in homogeneous dams and they

are provided d/s of the impervious core in zoned earthfill dams.
From the chimney drain water is carried to d/s by a horizontal
Strip drain
A strip drain is provided instead of a horizontal drainage blanket if
there is scarcity of pervious materials in the area. Transverse drains
are provided to carry water from the strip drain to another parallel
drain located at the d/s toe of the dam
As far as possible a horizontal drainage blanket is preferred to a strip
drain
IN FOUNDATION
In general, the drainage systems provided for the dam can also serve
for the purpose of drainage of foundation.
✓ Toe drains

✓ Drainage trenches

✓ Relief Wells

✓ Vertical Sand Drains

Toe drain and drainage blanket: The purpose of toe drains is to collect the seepage
water from the horizontal drainage blanket and foundation to carry it to an outfall
pipe which then discharges the water in to the river or spillway stilling basin.
Drainage trenches: Drainage trenches are used when a thin
impervious top stratum overlies a shallow pervious stratum of the
foundation so that the trench can be built to penetrate the pervious
stratum substantially.

Drainage Trench

Relief Wells: Are generally used for drainage of the foundation if it

consists of a deep pervious stratum which is stratified and whose
permeability increases with depth.
Relief well consists of an interior perforated pipe or a well screen
with a minimum diameter of 15 cm.
 The spacing of the relief wells is usually b/n 15 to 30m.
 Relief wells are provided at or near the d/s toe of the dam to
collect water seeping through the foundation and to reduce the
pore pressure in the foundation.
Vertical Sand drains

 These drains consist of vertical holes drilled in the foundation

all along the base of the dam.
 These holes are filled with clean, course sand of high
permeability to form sand columns

Soft clay stratum

262

Design Criteria for earth dams

 Design Criteria for earth dams
❖ An earth dam must be safe and stable during all phases of
construction and operation of the reservoir.

❖ For this the following must be met.

❖ The embankment must be safe against overtopping during

occurrence of the inflow design flood and also by action
of wave, by provision of spillway of sufficient capacity
and of sufficient free board.
 Cont…

❖ The slope of the embankment must be stable during all

stages of construction and under all conditions of
operation including rapid draw down in case of storage
dam.

❖ The embankment must be designed in such away that it

will not impose excessive stress up on the foundation.
❖ Seepage flow through the embankment, foundation and abutments
must be controlled so that no internal erosion takes place so that no
sloughing takes place where the seepage emerges.

❖ The upstream slope must be protected against erosion by wave action,

and the crest & down stream slope must be protected against erosion
due to wind and rain .

❖ The seepage line should be well with in the down stream face and there
should be no opportunity for the free passage of water from the u/s to
the d/s face.
Seepage through earth dams
➢ For any dam of homogenous material, seepage will pass trough
the dam and appear at the downstream face regardless of the
tightness of the material.
➢ Location of the position of the phreatic line is desirable for
determination of the amount of through seepage and for
construction of the flow nets as it represents one flow boundary.
I. Phreatic line for a homogenous earth dam with a
horizontal drainage blanket
 The basic property of parabola which is utilized to draw the base
parabola is that the distance of any point P from the focus is equal
to the distance of the same point from the directory.
Graphical Method
✓ With center at A & radius AF draw an arc. The arc cuts the line
AB when produced at E. Draw a vertical line GE through point E
which is the directrix of the base parabola.
✓ The intermediate points are located by utilizing the above
mentioned basic property of the parabola.
✓ Join all intermediate points by a smooth curve. The last point C
on the parabola will be midway b/n F & G as FC = CG
Analytical Method
 Let us take the origin (O) at the focus with X- positive u/s &
Y-positive up ward.
 From the basic property of parabola: distance PF = distance

PR
x 2 + y 2 = x + yo ………………………………i
 Squaring both sides & rearranging

y = 2 xyo + y 2 o ……………………………ii
Where yo is the distance from the focus to the directrix, also called
focal distance (f) Thus FG = Yo. The value of Yo can be obtained
from the known coordinates ( X = b, Y = h) of the starting point A.
Substituting the values in equation (i) we have

yo = b 2 + y 2 − b
For different values of X the corresponding values of Y can be computed
using the parabola equation (II).
 Discharge through dam can also be quantified using analytical approach
for this particular situation.
 From Darcy’s Law:
v = ki
k = Coefficient of permeability
i = the hydraulic gradient
The seepage discharge per unit length can be given by:
q = vA= kiA
Where A is area of flow per unit length
 Considering the discharge through the vertical section PQ
passing through the point P (x.y),
 dy 
q = k ( y 1)
 dx 

q = k  (2 xyo ) + yo  (2 xyo ) + yo 

d 2 2

dy   
Substituting for the value of y from above

 
q=k  yo  (2 xy ) + y 2 
  o o

 2 xyo + yo
2

q = Kyo
II. Phreatic line for a homogeneous Dam without any Drainage system
In this case the phreatic line cuts the d/s faces at point J above the
toe.
 The focus (F) of the base parabola is located at the d/s toe of the
dam & its starting point A is located at a distance of 0.3L from B.
 Casagrande has shown that the exit correction ( a ) depends up
on the slope of the discharge face and he has given the values
a /(a + a) for different values of angle  as follows
a
 in degrees
a + a a and ∆a can be
30o 0.36 connected by;
60o 0.32 α = 180o for a
90o 0.26
horizontal filter and
120o 0.18
135o 0.14
α < 90o when no
150o 0.10 drainage is provided.
180o −  
180o 0.0 a = (a + a ) o 
 400 
 The value of ( a + a )may be obtained from the figure by measuring
FK from the toe after the base parabola has been drawn or by using
the following polar equation of the parabola.
yo
a + a =
1 − cos

Variation of the slope angle

i. For the slope angle < 300, Sceffernak and Van Iterson gave the
analytical solution for the determination of the distance a.
In this case it is assumed that the hydraulic gradient (i) is equal to the tangent of
the angle.
A vertical line is drawn through the point J to cut the base at J’ (Fig
above ).
The discharge through the vertical section JJ’ per unit length is given by:
  dy 
q = kiA = k   y
 dx 
or q = k (tan  )(a sin  ) from which one can obtain,
a sin  tan  dx = y dy
Integrating b / n the lim its ( x = a cos , and y = a sin  ) to ( x = b and y = h),
b h
a sin  tan   dx =  ydy
a cos a sin

a sin  tan  (b − a cos ) = 1 / 2(h 2 − a 2 sin 2  )

2ab h2
a2 − + =0
cos sin 
2

2
 2b   2b  4h 2
    −
 cos   cos  sin 2 
a=
2
b b2 h2
a= − −
cos cos 
2
sin 2 
ii. Approximate analytical solution for the determination of the distance a for the
slope angle 300< α < 600
Casagrande suggested that in this case the hydraulic gradient should
be taken as sin α instead of tanα. That is it should be taken as
(dy/ds) instead of (dy/dx), where s is the distance measured along
the phreatic line.
Thus, the discharge per unit length is given by:
q = kiA = k (dy / ds)( y 1)
q = k (sin )(a sin  )
q = ka sin 2 
Thus ka sin 2  = k (dy / ds) y
a sin 2  ds = ydy
Integrating b / n the lim its ( s = a and y = a sin  ) to ( s = S o and y = h)
Where So = is the total length of the phreatic line
So h
a sin   ds =
2
 ydy
a a sin

h 2 − a 2 sin 2 
a sin  ( S o − a) =
2

a 2 − 2aSo + h 2 / sin 2 

a = So − S o − h 2 cosec 2
2
 iii. For a slope angle up to 600
 the length of the phreatic line So can be taken approximately equal to the straight
distance FA = h 2 + b 2 , thus the above equation becomes

a = b 2 + h 2 − (b 2 + h 2 ) − h 2 cos ec 2

a = b 2 + h 2 − (b 2 − h 2 (−1 − cosec 2 )

a = b 2 + h 2 − (b 2 − h 2 (cot2  )
After a is determined, the discharge q can be
calculated from above equation
III. Phreatic line for Homogeneous Earth Dam with Rock Toe

The u/s face of the rock toe is usually inclined downstream i.e., α>
900 as shown in figure below. However, sometimes the u/s face of
the rock toe is kept vertical.

Rock Toe
  The drawing procedure for phreatic line is the same as
previous cases but the exit correction is somewhat d/t.
Exit Correction of Phreatic line for earth dam with
rock toe
The base parabola cuts the discharge face at point K. The value of
( a + a ) may be obtained by measuring the distance FK or from

equation given above for a given value of α and calculated

value of yo
For the known value of , the value of can be obtained from
a
 in degrees a + a

30o 0.36
60o 0.32
90o 0.26
120o 0.18
135o 0.14
150o 0.10
180o 0.0
Embankment Design

The design of an earth dam essentially consists of determining such a

cross sections of the dam, when constructed with the available
materials, will fulfill its required function with adequate safety.
There are two aspects of the design of an earth dam
➢ To determine the X-section of the dam and
➢ To analyses the stability of the proposed x-section
 For determining the X-section of an earth dam there are no
mathematical analyses or formula as in the case of rigid dams.
 The design of slopes of earth fill embankments depends on the

nature of the materials of construction and the type of dam.

 It depends on the nature of the material used for the core and the shells
and in the case of zoned embankment on the relative proportion of them.
❖ Details of Earth Dams
A) Crest width:- The crest width of an earth fill dam depend on
several considerations such as:-
❖ Sufficiency to keep the top flow line well with in the dam body
when the reservoir is full.
❖ sufficiency to provide the embankment mass for resistance to
earth quake shock
❖ Satisfactory for secondary requirement such as minimum road
way width.
Crest width can be calculated using the following formula:
H/5 + 3 for very low dams
0.55 H + 0.2H for dams lower than 30m
1.65(H+1.5)1/3 for dams higher than 30m
Where: - H is the height of the dam.
Freeboard

❑ Sufficient free board must be provided so that there is no possibility

what so ever of the dam being over topped.
❑ The necessary free board is calculated by assuming that the
maximum flood will occur when the reservoir is full and that the
highest possible waves will develop at the same time.
❑ The minimum free board shall be 1.5 times the wave height plus a
safety factor.
✓ Freeboard = 1.5 hw + additional safety provision
✓ The additional safety provision generally various from 0.6 to 3m
depending up on the size of the reservoir, the height of the dam the
reliability of the flood computation etc.
✓ The free board should not be less than 2m in any case.
 Embankment slopes
 The design slopes of an embankment may vary widely
depending on the character of the materials available for
construction, foundation conditions and the height of the
structure.
 The u/s slope: 1V:2H to 1V:4H or 1V:2.5H to 1V:3H.
 The d/s slope: 1V:2H or 1V:2.5H
Type of Type of Material u/s slope D/s slope
Section (V:H) (V:H)

Homogeneous Homogeneous, well graded 1:2.5 1: 2

Do Homogeneous, coarse silt 1:3 1:2.5
Do Homogeneous clay or silt clay
i) < 15m height 1:2.5 1:2
ii) > 15m height 1:3 1:2.5
Zoned Sand or sandy gravel with silty 1:3 1:2.5
core
Zoned Sand or sandy gravel with R.C. 1:2.5 1:2
core
Slope protection: - usual types of surface protection for the upstream
slope against destructive wave actions are riprap and concrete
pavement.
Filters: - filers are always provided between any two dissimilar
materials when the difference in their particles is so great that the
particles of the finer material can migrate in to the voids of coarser
material with seepage water & can cause piping.
Therefore filters are provided:-
✓ B/n the drainage system & the adjoin soils to prevent the migration

of the soil particles in to the drains.

✓ B/n impervious zones (cores) of fine-grained soils and the pervious
zones (shells) of the coarse -grained soils for the same purpose.
Criteria for filter design according to USBR
D15 of the filter = 5 to 40 provided that the filter does not contain
D15 of base material more than 5 percent of material finer
than 0.074 mm.
D15 of the filter = 5 or less
D85 of base material
D85 of the filter = 2 or more
max. Opening of drain
The grain size curve of the filter should be roughly parallel to
that of the base material
Cores:- the core may be defined as a membrane built with in
an embankment dam to form the impermeable barrier, the
balance of the dam being provided to ensure stability.
289

Slope Stability Analysis

Swedish slip -circle or slices method
Slope Stability Analysis
❖ Failure of an embankment dam can result from instability of
either the upstream or down stream slopes.
❖ Stability of an embankment is determined by its resistance to
shearing stresses that may result from external loads (such as
reservoir pressure & earth quake) and internal or body force.
❖ Various methods of slope stability analysis are available but the
Swedish slip -circle or slices method is the most common.
❖ In this method the factor of safety against sliding is defined as
the ratio of resisting moments to actuating moments (or the ratio
of resisting forces to actuating forces).
 The figure shows a trial slip surface AB which is circular; the radius
of the circle, r and its center o.
 The number of slices is usually kept 5 to 15. The greater the number
the more is accuracy. It is convenient to have all the slices of equal
width b, but not necessarily.
 Forces acting on a Slice
292

1. Self weight W of the slice acting vertically downward

through the center of gravity.
2. Cohesive forces acting tangentially opposite to the direction
of probable slippage.
3. Soil reaction across the arc. When the soil mass is about to
slide, the soil reaction will act at an angle ф (the angle of
internal friction of the soil) to the normal i.e. radial
direction.
4. Soil reaction on the two vertical sides of the slice exercised
by the adjacent slices on the right and left respectively.
5. Pore pressures at the base of the arc, and left and right side
of the slice.
 Procedure for Analysis
After proper slicing of an assumed failure surface and let us consider the
equilibrium of any one slice and forces acting on it.
It is subjected to the following forces (slice 4).
The driving force is the tangential component of the weight
➢ The weight W4 acting vertically downwards through its center of
gravity.
➢ Cohesive for C4 along the curved surface, in the direction opposite
to the direction of probable movement of the wedge. The cohesive
force C4 is equal to c∆L, where c is unit cohesion and ∆L is the
length of the base of the strip.
➢ Reaction R4 at the base of the slice, acting along the line inclined at
angle ф to the normal, where ф is the angle of the shearing
resistance of the soil.
Therefore, the inclination of the reaction with the normal is equal to ф .
➢ The soil reactions ER and EL acting on the vertical sides of the slice
exerted by the adjacent slices on the right and left slices
respectively.
➢ The forces due to pore water pressure UL, UR and UB acting on the left face,
right face and at the base respectively. The force UB acts in the normal
direction.

 In the conventional Swedish circle method, it is assumed that the reactions

ER and EL are equal and opposite in direction and cancel each other. Like
wise the UL and UR.

 Thus there are four forces which are normally considered in the analysis
viz, W4, C4, R4 and UB.
Resolving the Vector W in to its tangential and Normal components by
drawing a perpendicular from the tip of the vector W to the normal
direction,

T = W sinθ and N = W cos θ

Where θ, is the angle which the normal makes with the vertical
 Thus resolving all the forces in the normal and tangential direction

In normal (radial) direction

N − U B = R cos
T − C = R sin 
This implies that
T − C = (N − U B ) sin 
cos In tangential direction
T = (N − U B ) tan  + cL
✓ T is the driving force which is counterbalanced by the frictional
resistance (N-UB ) and cohesion resistance (CΔL ).

✓ For margin of safety, the soil reaction would be inclined to the

normal at angle less than the angle ф.
 On any trial surface, the safety factor against sliding is given by:
Re sisting force
F .S =
Driving force
 The resisting force is the internal frication resistance plus cohesion,
if any i.e. Resisting force = (N- U ) tan + c∆L and T is the driving
force
 Where: - N= Normal force along the arc
U
= pore water pressure force at the base of each slice = UB
C and  are cohesion & internal angle of friction of the soil
∆L = base length of each slice along the arc.
 FS =
(N − U )tan  + CL
T

For the total sliding surface;

FS =
( )
 N − U tan  + cL
T
For a homogeneous section  is constant

Fs =
( )
tan   N − U + cLa
T
tan   (W cos − uL) +  cL
FS =
Therefore W sin
Since L = b sec ,
tan   (W cos − ub sec ) +  cb sec
FS =
W sin

Where:-La is the length of the entire arc of the

slip circle.
r
La = Where ∂ is the angle in degrees subtended by the slip
180
surface at the center.
 Pore water pressure force ( U ) = pore water pressure (u) × L ,
u is determined from flow net or other means.
If the soil is dry then the FS can be computed from:
tan   (W cos ) +  cb sec
FS =
W sin
The slip surface which gives minimum factor of safety is the
critical. The minimum Fs should be greater than the
allowable one (1.5).
❖ Summary of procedure for earth dam stability analysis
1. Take a trial slip surface and divide the wedge above
the slip surface into 5 to 15 vertical slices.
2. Determine the Weight W of each slice and its line of action. The weight of
the slice is generally taken proportional to the middle ordinate of the slice
and its line of action is taken through the middle of the slice. Thus
W = (b x Z )  where Z is the middle ordinate of the slice, b is the width of the slice and 
is the unit weight of the soil.

3. Measure the angle which the normal makes with the vertical and
compute N and T.

4. Determine the pore water pressure, u, at the base of the slice or otherwise.
Compute the force UB due to the pore water pressure as:

5. Determine the cohesive force, C = cb sec

6. Determine the factor of safety for slip surface from equations given above.

7. Repeat the procedure for a number of other trail surfaces. The trail surface
which gives the minimum factor of safety is the most critical circle. The
minimum factors of safety should be greater than the specified safe value.
Location of the most CRITICAL circle
To reduce number of trials, suggested a line called Fellenius line
(line AB) for a homogeneous slope (see fig below) on which
the most critical circle lies.
 Location of critical circle
302

downstream slope upstream slope

 The center O with minimum factor of safety is the center of
the most critical circle.
 For a purely cohesive soil, the point A itself represents the
center of the most critical circle.
 Stability should be checked/worst conditions
1. Stability of upstream slope during sudden drawdown,
2. Stability of downstream slope during steady seepage,
3. Stability of both upstream and downstream slopes during
and immediately after construction.
304

Slope Stability Analysis

Simplified Bishop Method
Simplified Bishop Method

 only applicable to analyses with circular slip surfaces.

 The computations performed using computer spreadsheet

software.

 a total stress analysis of a slope:

 with no water and

 for an effective stress analysis of a slope with water,

 internal seepage, and external water loads.

 Simplified Bishop Method
Case-I: Slope without seepage or external water loads
❖ Slices are numbered beginning with the uppermost slice and
proceeding toward the toe of the slope.
❖ Once a trial slip surface has been selected, the following steps
are used to compute a factor of safety:
 The width, b, average height, havg, and inclination, α, of the
bottom of each slice are determined (Columns 2, 3,and 6 1b).
 Sign convention used throughout this document for the
inclination, α, is illustrated in Figure 2.
 The inclination is positive when the base of the slice is inclined
in the same direction as the slope.
 the area is computed as A = b havg and entered in column 4
Simplified Bishop Method with no water -
Simplified Bishop
 The weight of each slice is calculated as; W = γA.
 If the slice crosses zones having different unit weights, the slice is
subdivided vertically into sub-areas, and the weights of the sub-areas are
summed to compute the total slice weight (Column 5 in Figure 1b).
 Wsinα, is computed for each slice, to obtain the term in the denominator
equation for the factor of safety (Column 7)
 The cohesion, c, and friction angle, φ, for each slice are entered in
Columns 8 and 9 in Figure 1b.
 The shear strength parameters are those for the soil at the bottom of the
slice; they do not depend on the soils in the upper portions of the slice.
 quantity c b + W tan (φ) is computed for each slice (Column 10 ).
 A trial value is assumed for the factor of safety and the quantity, mα, is
computed from the equation 1 shown below(Column 11 in Figure 1b)
 Simplified Bishop
 The numerator in the expression for the factor of safety is computed
by dividing the term cb + W tan(φ) by mα for each slice and then
summing the values for all slices (Column 12 in Figure1b).
 A new factor of safety is computed from the equation 2:

▪ Additional trial values are assumed for the factor of safety and Steps 7
through 9 are repeated (Columns 13 through 16 in Figure 1b).
▪ For each trial value assumed for the factor of safety, the assumed
value and the value computed for the factor of safety using Equation
above (2) are plotted as shown in Figure 1c.
▪ Values are assumed and new values are calculated until the assumed
and calculated values for the factor of safety are essentially the same,
i.e., until the assumed and calculated values fall close to the broken
45-degree line shown in Figure 1c.
Sign convention used for angles α and β
 Simplified Bishop Method

Case II: Slope with seepage or external water loads –

effective stress analyses.

 Computations for slopes where the shear strength is expressed in

terms of effective stresses, and where there are pore water
pressures and external water loads, are illustrated in Figure 3.
 In this case, the pore water pressures on the base of each slice
must be determined.
 Loads from external water are included in all analyses, whether
they are performed using total stress or effective stress.
 External water may be represented either as another soil, or as
an external force.
 Continued….
312

 In the description, which follows, water is represented as an

external load rather than as soil.
 Accordingly, a force on the top of the slice and the moment
the force produces about the center of the circle must be
computed.
 For a given trial circle, the following steps are required:
 For each slice the width, b, bottom estimated.
 The height, hs, of water above the slice at the midpoint of the
top of the slice is determined (Column 8 in Fig 3c).
Continued….

 The average water pressure on the top of the slice, p surface.,

is calculated by multiplying the average height of water, hs, by
the unit weight of water (Column 9 in Figure 3c).
 The inclination of the top of the slice, β, is determined
(Column 10 in Figure 3c).
 The sign convention for this angle is shown in Figure 2.
 β is positive, except when the inclination of the top of the slice
is opposite to the inclination of the slope.
 Negative values of β will exist when the inclination of the
slope is reversed over some distance, such as a “bench” that is
inclined inward toward the slope.
Fig 3. Simplified Bishop Method with water - effective stress analyses
Continued….

 The length of the top of the slice is multiplied by the average surface pressure,

psurface, to compute the external water force, P, on the top of the slice

(Column 11 in Figure 3c).

 The force Psurface is equal to p surface b/cos(β).

 The horizontal and vertical distances, dh and dv, respectively, between the

center of the circle and the points on the top center of each slice are

determined (Columns 12 and 13 in Figure 3c).

 Positive values for these distances are illustrated in Figure 3b.

 Continued….
316

 Loads acting at points located upslope of the center of the circle

(to the left of the center in the case of the right-facing slope
shown in Figure 3) represent negative values for the distance, dh.
 The moment, MP, the result of external water loads is computed
from the following (Column 14 in Figure 3c):

 The moment is considered positive when it acts opposite to the

direction of the driving moment produced by the weight of the
slide mass, i.e., positive moments tend to make the slope more
stable.
 Positive moments are clockwise for a right-facing slope like the
one shown in Figure 3.
Continued….

 The piezometric height, hp, at the center of the base of each

slice is determined (Column 15 in Figure 3c). The piezometric
height represents the pressure head for pore water pressures on
the base of the slice.
 The piezometric height is multiplied by the unit weight of
water to compute the pore water pressure, u (Column 16 in
Figure 3c).
 For complex seepage conditions, or where a seepage analysis
has been conducted using numerical methods, it may be more
convenient to determine the pore water pressure directly, rather
than evaluating the piezometric head and converting to pore
pressure. In such cases Step 11 is omitted, and the pore water
pressures are entered in Column 16.
 Continued….
318
 The cohesion, c', and friction angle, φ', for each slice are entered in
Columns 17 and 18 in Figure 3c.
 The shear strength parameters are those for the soil at the bottom of
the slice; they do not depend on the soils in the upper portions of the
slice.
 The following quantity is computed for each slice (Column 19 in
Figure 3c):
 A trial factor of safety, F1, is assumed and the quantity, mα, is
computed from the equation shown below (Column 20 in Figure 3c):

 The summations computed in Columns 7, 14, and 21 of the table in

Figure 3c are used to compute the new value for the factor of safety.
 Continued….

 The numerator in the equation used to compute the factor of

safety is calculated by dividing the term c'b+(W+Pcos β–ub)tanφ '
by mα for each slice and then summing the values for all slices
(Column 21 in Figure 3c).
 A new value is computed for the factor of safety using the
following equation:

where R is the radius of the circle.

 Continued….
320

 Additional trial values are assumed for the factor of safety and
steps 14 through 16 are repeated (Columns 22 through 25 in
Figure 3c).
 For each trial value assumed for the factor of safety, the assumed
and calculated values of the factor of safety are plotted as shown
in Figure 3d, to provide a guide for selecting additional trial
values.
 Values are assumed and new values are calculated until the
assumed and calculated values for the factor of safety are
essentially equal, i.e., until the assumed and calculated values fall
close enough to the broken 45-degree line shown in Figure 3d.
321

Modified Swedish Method – Numerical

Solution
Modified Swedish Method – Numerical Solution
Modified Swedish Method using either numerical or graphical procedures
•The modified Swedish method may be used with slip surfaces of any shape, and the
procedure is the same regardless of the shape of the slip surface.
•Once a trial slip surface has been selected and the soil mass has been subdivided into
slices,
•The length of the bottom of the slice, Δl = b / cos α (Column 7 in Figure 4b).
•The cohesion value, c, and friction angle, φ, are determined for the base of each
slice (Columns 8 and 9 in Figure 4b).
• The inclination, θ, of the interslice forces is determined, using Spencer’s Method,
the interslice force inclination determined from Spencer’s method should be used.
•Otherwise, the interslice force inclination should be assumed.
•A trial factor of safety, F1, is assumed.
•Beginning with the first slice the side force, Zi+1, on the “downslope” side (left side
for the slope illustrated in Figure 4) of each slice is computed as; (eq.7)
Fig. Modified Swedish Method - numerical solution with no water - total stress
analysis
 If the force computed for the last slice, Zi+1 is not sufficiently
close to zero, a new trial value is assumed for the factor of
safety and the process is repeated.
 By plotting the force imbalance, Zi+1, for the last slice versus
the factor of safety, the value of the factor of safety that
satisfies equilibrium can usually be found to an acceptable
degree of accuracy in about three trials (Figure 4c).
 Slope with seepage or external water loads – effective stress

 Shear strength is expressed in terms of effective stresses and where there

are pore water pressures and external water loads are illustrated in Figure
5.
 In addition to the quantities required when there is no water, the pore
water pressures on the base of each slice, along with the forces from
water on the top of the slice, must be determined.
 For a given trial slip surface, the following steps are required:
 (1) For each slice, the width, b, average height, havg., and base inclination,
α, are determined (Columns 2, 3, and 6 in Figure 5b).
 (2) The area of the slice, A, is computed by multiplying the width, b, of
the slice by the average height, havg. (Column 4 in Figure 5b).
where hi and hi+1 are the heights determined in Step 4.
Fig . Modified Swedish Method - numerical solution with water - effective
stress analysis
Slope with seepage or external water loads – effective stress
 (6) The average height of water, hs, above the top of the slice is determined
(Column 12 in Figure 5b).
 The height is used to compute the average water pressure and eventually
the total force on the top of the slice (See Columns 13 and 16 in Figure 5b).
It is best to select the interslice boundaries so that a boundary is located at
the point where the surface of the water outside the slope meets the slope.
 If this is done, the water pressures will vary linearly across each slice, and
the average height of water is equal to the height of water above the
midpoint of the slice.
(7) The average water pressure on the top of the slice, pavg, is computed by
multiplying the height of water, hs, by the unit weight of water (Column 13 in
Figure 5b).
(8) The inclination of the top of the slice, β, is determined (Column 14 in
Figure 5b). This is the same as the inclination of the slope above the slice.
 Slope with seepage or external water loads – effective stress

 (9) The length of the top of the slice, l top, is determined (Column 15 in Figure
5b). The length can be computed from the relationship, l top = b/cos β.
 (10) The water load on the top of the slice, P, is computed by multiplying the
average water pressure, pavg, by the length of the top of the slice, l top
(Column 16 in Figure 5b).
 (11) The length of the base of the slice, Δl, is computed from the relationship,
Δl = b / cos α (Column 18 in Figure 5b).

•(12) The pore water pressure is computed by multiplying the piezometric head
at the center of the base of the slice by the unit weight of water: u = γwhp
(Column 19 in Figure 5b). For complex seepage conditions, or where a seepage
analysis has been conducted using numerical methods, it may be more
convenient to determine the pore water pressure directly, rather than evaluating
the piezometric head and converting to pore pressure. In such cases, the pore
water pressures are entered in Column 19.
 Slope with seepage or external water loads – effective stress

(13) The cohesion and friction angle are determined for each slice depending
on the soil at the bottom of the slice (Columns 20 and 21 in Figure 5b). The
shear strength parameters, c' and φ', are those for the soil at the bottom of the
slice and do not depend on the soils located in the upper portions of the slice.
(14) The inclination, θ, of the interslice forces is determined. If the
computations are being performed to check an analysis performed using
Spencer’s Method, the interslice force inclination determined from
Spencer’s Method should be used. Otherwise, the interslice force
inclination should be assumed.
(15) A trial value is assumed for the factor of safety, and interslice forces are
calculated, slice-by-slice, to determine the force imbalance or “error of
closure.” The steps for this portion of the computations are the same as those
described for analyses with no water pressures, except the following equation
for interslice forces is used: (Eq. 10)
 Slope with seepage or external water loads – effective stress

 (16) If the force computed for the last slice, Zi+1, is not
sufficiently close to zero, a new trial value is assumed for the
factor of safety and the process is repeated.
 By plotting the force imbalance, Zi+1, for the last slice versus
the factor of safety, the value of the factor of safety that
satisfies equilibrium can usually be found to an acceptable
degree of accuracy in about three trials (Figure 5c).
331

ROCKFILL DAMS
 ROCKFILL DAMS
➢ this type of dam economical only in remote areas where the cost of
concrete would be high or in areas where there is a scarcity of earth
fill materials and the only material for construction of the structure
consists of durable hard rock.
➢ Rock fill dams can prove economical when any of the
following conditions exist.
❖ Large quantities of rocks are available or will be
excavated in connection with the project such as
Earth fill materials are difficult to obtain or require much
processing to be used
Short construction season prevails
Excessively wet climatic condition limit the placement of
large quantities of earth fill materials.
The major components of Rock fill dam may consist of:

✓ Impermeable membrane
✓ Rock fill
✓ U/S cut-off
✓ Rock cushion/rubble masonry
Cont…
❖ The membrane is usually placed on the u/s face, and in some
instances it is placed in the center of the rock fill.
The material of the membrane could of concrete, asphalt, steel, timber
or impervious soil.
❖ The rock fill usually owns the natural slope at the d/s face

❖ The dry rubble masonry/well compacted rock is provided b/n u/s

impervious membrane and the rock fill to make smooth compact

bedding for the impervious membrane.
 Cont…

❖ Depending up on the location of the membrane, rockfill dams may be

classified in to three.
✓ Central core
✓ Sloping core
✓ U/s membrane or deck
❖ Impervious membrane is used as a water barrier placed either within
the embankment or on the u/s slope.
❖ Internal membrane constructed of earthen materials should preferably
be placed in the central core. For external membranes concrete,
asphalt or steel are recommended.
 Cont…
❖ Advantages of Internal membrane:
✓ Less total area exposed to water
✓ Shorter grout curtain length
✓ Protection from effect of weathering and external damage
❖ Disadvantages of Internal membrane:
✓ Inability to place rock fill material without simultaneous placement of
core material and filter
✓ The dependence on a smaller section of the dam for stability against
sliding
✓ Instability of membrane for damage inspection
❖ Advantages of u/s membrane
✓ Available for inspection and repair
✓ Membrane can be constructed after embankment is completed
✓ A large portion of the dam available for resistance against sliding
 Rock fill zone
 The placement of the rock fill is one of the most important operations
in the construction of a rock fill dam as it is essential to minimize total
settlement and the possibility of damage to the impervious membrane.
Settlement of rock fill takes place in two stages.

 The first major settlement occurs during the construction of the rock
fill. This stage of settlement has a minor bearing on the security of the
impervious membrane, provided the membrane is not placed
concurrently with the rock. The second major stage of settlement
occurs as the reservoir fills and the thrust due to water load is
transmitted to the rock fill.
 Zone of Rock fill
 Decked rock fill dam consists of three zones called A, B, C
 Zone C: The larger d/s zone of the dam consists of best quality,
larger sized compacted rock. This zone provides high stability to the
section.
 Zone B: Rock of lesser quality than such as excavated from
spillway, used to minimize total dam cost.
 Zone A: well graded small sized rock gravel; this is used to provide
bedding to the u/s membrane and to retard excess water losses when
the membrane cracks.
 Cont…

 In general, materials in zones B and C should grade from fine rock

u/s to course rock d/s with the largest and strongest material placed in
the lower d/s portion of zone C.

 For central earth core, rockfill dams, the larger and the stronger rock
should be placed in the d/s rock fill zone and grade from fine rock
next to the filter to course rock near the d/s slope.

 The u/s rock fill zone may be rock of lesser quality than the d/s zone
and grade from fine at the filter to course at the u/s face
Typical section of decked type rock fill dam with zones