PgDip/MSc The Energy Programme/Drilling Technology Well Control Part 1

Well Control Part 1

Review

This topic discusses the causes of a kick, the methods of kick detection,
well control procedures, and the components and function of surface and
subsea well control equipment.

Content
Kick Causes

A kick is the term used to describe the inflow of formation fluid into the wellbore during
drilling operation. This mainly arises due to the formation pressure being greater than
the hydrostatic pressure imposed by the mud column. This can happen in a normal or
abnormal formation especially geopressured formation. A kick may be primarily
composed of salt water, oil, natural gas or a combination of the fluids. The influx of
formation fluid may arise for a variety of reasons. These include:
• Insufficient mud weight;
• Low level of fluid column in the annulus;
• Excessive swabbing;
• Excessive drilling rate in gas bearing formation;
• Diffusion of gas through mud cake.

Kicks generally occur during trips with influx occurring from a combination of swabbing
and failure to keep the hole full. Swabbing is the result of the piston effect of the drillpipe
due to excessive trip speed resulting in instantaneous vacuum being created below the
bit. Kicks occurring during drilling operations most often occur due to insufficient mud
weight.

Insufficient Mud Weight;

Insufficient mud weight may occur due to:

• Penetration of a geopressured zone;
• Accidental dilution of the mud by fluid addition at surface
• Dilution of mud by influx from an aquifer exposed to open hole;
• Gradual mud density reduction due to gas cut and failure to degas the mud at
surface;
• Improper mud mixing and poor quality control in measurement.

However, for strategic operational reasons, a borehole may be drilled underbalance with
a controlled kick taking place.

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Low Level of Drilling Fluid Column

Two conditions may lower the fluid column in the annulus. These are:
• Failure to fill the hole during a trip;
• Lost circulation during drilling.

In pulling out the drillstring, the driller must refill the hole with mud of equivalent volume.
Monitoring of the volume of mud filling the hole is done with the use of the Trip tank or
Possum Belly Tank. The trip tank is a small mud pit (Approx. 50bbls) separate from the
active pits. This trip tank is fully equipped with a volume gauge that can be monitored
from rig floor or mud loggers console. In monitoring the trip, the driller must calculate the
theoretical mud volume displaced by one or five stands of drillpipe. During the trip, the
driller then measures the actual mud volume pumped into the hole for each stand of
pipe pulled.
Lost circulation is the loss of substantial quantity or whole mud into the formation. It
may occur as a result of:
• Mud loss to cavernous or vugular formation;
• Penetration of depleted or subnormal zones;
• Mud loss to fractures opened by excessive annulus pressure. This may be due to
annular blockage, surge pressures, excessive hydraulics, pressures imposed to
break mud gel strength.

Lost circulation will result in insufficient mud column and thus reduction in bottom hole
pressure. Kick due to lost circulation can be a major well control problem. If the well
cannot be shut in, an underground blow out can occur.

Excessive Swabbing

Swabbing is the reduction of bottom hole pressure caused by upward pipe movement.
As the pipe is being pulled out during trips, mud flows down through the annulus to fill
the space in the hole. The downward mud flow creates a frictional pressure loss in the
direction of the surface. The result is reduced bottom hole pressure. High trip speed can
lead to instantaneous vacuum below the bit. The swab pressure depends on:
• Pipe velocity
• Clearance between pipe and hole - the smaller the annular cross section, the
greater the swabbing action;
• Mud rheology - the higher the viscosity, the greater the swabbing action;
• Total measured depth - the longer the section, the greater the swabbing action.

Excessive Drilling Rate in Gas-Bearing Formations

The densities of formation fluids (gas, oil or water) are much lower than that of
conventional drilling fluids. Any influx of formation fluid therefore reduces the mud
density in the annulus. This influx otherwise known as mud cut is measured using
sensors that measure mud density and conductivity at injection and at flow line.
Mud cut may occur from:
• Kick due to inadequate mud weight or swabbing;
• Diffusion of fluid into the hole due to negative differential pressure;
• Air entrained in mud from the so called kelly air during trips;
• Expansion of drilled gas as it reaches the surface.

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The majority of kick problems arise from the reduction of mud weight due to the
expansion of drilled gas especially in large diameter holes such as surface holes drilled
at high rates. For such holes drilled without a blowout preventer in place, a small
reduction in mud weight can lead to a violent kick and with the loss of primary control,
lead to blowout.

Kick Detection

A kick can occur at any time during the drilling of a well. To prevent any major
catastrophe therefore, early detection of a kick is essential to primary well control. As a
primary precaution, it is important for all personnel including the mud logger to be
always in a state of readiness. Certain pre-kick information must be collected and
available for use in case a kick occurs. These include volumes and pressures data. A
kick control Work Sheet (see Appendix) must be maintained for this purpose.

The pre – kick data requirements are as follows:

Maximum Working Casing Pressure

The casing and blowout preventer (BOP) are designed for the different expected
pressures during each drilling phase. This is determined during well planning and is
generally the maximum pressure rating of the BOP and its outlets or 80% of the burst
pressure of the last casing. The 80% consideration is a safety factor for the casing
string.

Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP)

This is the annular pressure at the surface that corresponds to the pressure at the
weakest point of the hole. Fracture gradient at the last casing shoe defines the weakest
point. However for some boreholes, the MAASP can be the casing burst pressure or
BOP rupture pressure if they are less than the fracture gradient. The MAASP represents
the maximum annulus pressure permitted while controlling a kick. The MAASP is
estimated from the following equation:
MAASP = 0.052 × (Frac − ρ ) × D w

Frac = Fracture pressure at shoe

Equation 1
given as equivalent mud weight in ppg.
ρ = Current mud density, ppg
D w = True Vertical Depth (TVD) of weakest point, ft

Rig Capacity for Weighting Mud

Although this data does not appear in the worksheet, it is important as it defines the
number of circulation cycles necessary to regain primary control with given change of
mud. The rig capacity depends on total reserves of weighting materials (Barites, etc)
and the maximum rate of addition to system. The maximum rate of addition is measured
in Ib/min or kg/min. Backup supply MUST always be available on rig.

System Pressure Losses at Slow Pump Rate

Circulation at pump rate for drilling may produce surface pressures greater than the
MAASP. Therefore a slow pump rate for kick control must be determined at the
beginning of the well. This is usually 1/3 to 1/2 of normal rate. This slow rate must be
taken:
• At the start of each tour;

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• If the mud weight changes;

• If bit arrangement changes;
• After bit changes.

If a kick occurs, the influx will be circulated out at the maximum pump rate that does not
exceed the MAASP. This is called the kill rate. The pressure losses must always include
the choke line pressure losses especially offshore where this could be substantial.

Pump, String, and Hole Configuration

This includes the data used for the determination of the lag time and contains:
• Pump capacity;
• Hole size;
• Drill string capacity (internal volume;
• Annular capacity (bit to casing shoe and bit to BOP;
• Casing data (size; weight; burst pressure; shoe depth);
• The worksheet includes the space to fill in lag time in strokes or minutes for the
proposed kill rate.

This estimation is usually computerised nowadays and continuously logged.

Kick Detection Techniques

There are a number of indicators that provide early warning of kick occurrence.

The positive kick indicators are:

• Mud pit level/flow Increase;
• Incorrect hole fill up during trip;
• Decrease in standpipe pressure/Increase in pump rate;
• Increase/decrease in drillstring weight.

The potential indicators are:

• Increase in penetration rate;
• Lost circulation;
• Changes in gas levels, mud density and conductivity.

Parameters used for detecting abnormal pressure zones are also potential kick
indicators.
These include:
• Torque, overpull and drag;
• Shale caving increase
• Shale density/shale factor changes
• Flow line mud temperature changes
• ‘d’ Exponent changes.

Indicators of occurrence of a kick are detailed below:

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Mud Pit Level/Flow Increase

These parameters are major positive indicators. As the influx of formation fluid displaces
the mud in the annulus, the pit level would increase in the active mud tanks. There
would also be evidence of increase in return flow rate if logged.
The effectiveness of pit gain/flow increase depend on
• Initial size and type of kick;
• Mud fluid base and rheology;
• Minimum sensitivity of the measuring systems.

Gas kicks are more difficult to detect than oil/water due to its compressibility. It tends to
go into solution in the drilling fluid. However, a small gas kick can expand multiple times
its original volume by the time it reaches the surface. Return flow is more sensitive to
gas kick than pit level monitoring overall. The return flow sensors may therefore provide
the first warning of a gas kick. Sensor resolution determines the minimum size of kick
detected. Therefore, the mud logger should normally set alarms on the pit volume
parameters close to the actual pit value. Report should be sent to the driller no matter
how small the pit gain is. Daily checks on the alarms and routine maintenance are
essential to effective monitoring.

Incorrect Fillup During Trips

When pulling out of the hole, if the volume of mud pumped to keep the hole full is less
than that normally required, then there is an evidence of influx. The mud volume
required should be equal to or slightly greater than the volume of drillpipe (normally five
stands) already pulled. Mud loggers and Drilling engineers MUST follow trips even
though an automatic trip monitor is usually used. Conversely during a trip into the hole,
the downward movement of the drillpipe expels fluid from the annulus to the trip tank or
active mud system. This return flow should cease a few seconds after pipe movement
stops. If flow continues, then there is a kick.

Decrease in Standpipe Pressure/Increase in Pump Rate

As indicated in the U-tube analogy, influx of fluid into the annulus creates an imbalance
resulting in a decrease in hydrostatic pressure in the annulus. In such an unbalanced
system, gravity helps move drilling fluid down the hole, requiring less energy from the
pump. This will result in a decrease in the standpipe pressure.

Increase/Decrease in Drillstring Weight

Any influx into the wellbore from the formation reduces the buoyancy of the annular
drilling fluid. A sensitive weight indicator will register this change in weight as an
increase in drill string weight. For very large kicks, fluid may enter the annulus with
enough force to cause a decrease in indicated string weight.

Increase in Penetration Rate (Drilling Break)

A marked increase in rate of penetration (ROP) may indicate either changes in the type
of formation being drilled or a reduction in the differential between the mud pressure and
pore pressure.
Generally, the following parameters affect the ROP:
• Rock type;
• Formation bulk density/porosity;
• Differential pressure;

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• Bit type/wear;
• Hydraulics;
• Weight on bit;
• Rotary speed;
• Personnel/equipment.

Drilling breaks are generally evidence of porosity change. Drilling rate tends to decrease
with depth. Thus when a drilling break occurs, it may be an evidence of transition to an
abnormal zone. It is crucial at this point to stop drilling and check for flows.

Lost Circulation

Loss of substantial quantity of mud into the formation will result in reduction in
hydrostatic column height. If not checked, this can result in a kick.

Changes in Gas Levels/Mud Density/Conductivity

Gas extracted from the mud comes from one or more of four sources: -
• Liberated gas which is the measured gas from the return mud flow, released from
the pore spaces of the drilled cuttings. It is the so-called ‘background gas’ during
circulation. If there is overbalance, and the ROP is constant with flow rate, this
liberated gas;
• Produced Gas enters the wellbore from adjacent permeable formations when
underbalance exists. A background gas increase when ROP is constant is
evidence of produced gas;
• Recycled gas is the gas recirculated into the hole. It appears on detection
equipment as an increase in background levels;
• Contamination Gas results from chemical breakdown of mud additives;
• Connection gas and trip gas are short duration gas peaks caused by swabbing
action.

Depending on sensitivity level surface monitors should detect a relatively steady level of
gas extracted from mud during normal drilling. This background gas level may show
occasional variations depending on penetration rate, mud pumping rate, hydrocarbon
content of section drilled. Under normal conditions, the background gas should remain
within about 50% of local average. It is crucial that all gas values must be reported
whether they are significant or not. Thorough inspection of gas monitoring systems and
calibration as part or routine maintenance exercise is essential to preventing potential
disasters
Connection and trip gas are most common while drilling. The connection gas peaks
are a clear sign that pressures are near balance, making for optimum ROP. Swabbing is
the main cause of connection/trip gas as it creates negative differential pressure. .
Effects of gas expansion at surface are varied. Evidence includes:
• Rapid fall in flow line mud density;
• Increase in return flow;
• Mud pit level increase;
• Rapid increase in total gas or hydrocarbon levels.

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Well Control Procedures

Control procedures must be initiated immediately after a kick has been detected.
Decisions concerning control operation rest on the Company man (The so called client
rep.) as well as the on-site Tool Pusher and drilling engineer. The mud loggers/drilling
engineers are responsible for monitoring and recording circulation pressures, gas and
pump strokes. The primary and secondary well controls involve the prevention or the
removal of influx without damage to the hole, personnel or equipment as well as
prevention of further influx.
Kick control procedures involve the following:
1. Shut in the well - follow a predefined procedure;
2. Observe shut-in pressures and kick volume;
3. Make kill calculations for:
• Formation pressure;
• BHP to maintain while circulating;
• Kill mud density;
• Initial and final circulation pressures;
• Drillpipe pressure schedules;
• Weighting material volume required;
4. Define weighing up and circulating procedure using either of the following methods:
• Drillers method;
• Wait and Weight method (so-called engineers method);
• Concurrent method;
• Top kill method.
5. Make interpretation of the influx including;
• Height and density of influx.
• Annulus pressure behaviour while circulating;
6. Proceed with circulation using the following guide rules:
• At all times during circulation, the bhp must be high enough to prevent further
influx;
• For the safety of the rig and personnel, surface pressure must not at any time
exceed the predetermined MAASP value. Maintenance of bhp at proper level is
through the application of back pressure via the adjustable choke.

A uniform kick control worksheet should be issued to all well control personnel. Any
method based on the above rules is a constant or balanced bhp method of kick control.
The variation of the Balanced BHP method is common in different well site. Use differs
in the circulation procedure. The methods are based in the step by step procedures
listed above but may vary depending on the following situations:
• The bit is at or near bottom;
• The top of the influx is below the casing shoe - the weakest point;
• The influx is gas.

If the bit is off bottom or top of the influx is above casing shoe, successful influx may
require special procedures.

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Surface Well Control Equipment

The control equipment is laid out as shown in Figure 2 and is made up of:
1. Blow out preventers - Usually mounted in a stack including Annular and ram type
preventers. Figure 3 is an example BOP stack arrangement of single ram units and
annular unit for surface use, showing operation of different components. Figure 4
shows two different makes of annular BOP with varying sealing element design.
Principles of operation are essentially the same in both cases, it is the method of
deformation of the element that is different;
2. Drilling Spool (Figure 3) for attachment of high pressure choke and kill lines, for
circulation with the BOP closed;
3. Casing head (Figure 3) - This is welded to the first surface casing and it provides
support and pressure seal for the BOP stack and future casing strings;
4. Choke Manifold and Control Panel (Figure 5and 6) - To control flow of produced
fluids and route them to separator, flare or holding tank or pit. A typical choke
manifold includes:
• One hydraulically operated BOP outlet valve for positive closure;
• Three adjustable chokes (variable-opening valves);
• Several manual valves.

At least one adjustable choke is manually operated and permits precise control of return
flow rate and back pressure. Operation of other chokes is from the choke control
console, which is also linked to the Mud loggers cabin by remote sensors for automatic
logging.
5. Kelly Cock, Float Valve or Inside BOP (Figure 7) - To prevent back flow via the
drillpipe;
6. Mud Gas separators and Degassers - Equipment for removing gas from mud.

For subsea well control equipment, the layout and configuration are rather different.
They may include (Figures 8 and 9))
• Templates - Temporary and permanent guide bases;
• Subsea BOP stack;
• Marine riser, etc.

Figure 10 shows a double ram type BOP unit generally used in sub-sea BOP stacks,
and examples of the internal components used in ram type BOPs.

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Figure 2. Layout of Surface Well Control Equipment.

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Figure 3. Conventional BOP Stack.

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Figure 4. Annular BOP Components.

Figure 5. Choke Control Console.

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Figure 6. Choke Manifold.

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Figure 7. Operation of Full Opening and Non-Return IBOP’s.

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Figure 8. Arrangement of Subsea Control Equipment.

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Figure 9. Subsea Control Equipment Stackup.

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Figure 10. Ram BOP Components.

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Figure 11. Schematic of Conventional Hydraulic BOP Control Unit.

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Conventional Hydraulic BOP Accumulator / Control Unit (Figure 11)

1. Customer Air supply: Normal Air supply is at 125 psi. Higher air pressure may require
an air regulator.
2. Air lubricator: Located on the air inlet line to the air operated pumps.
3. Bypass valve: To automatic hydro-pneumatic switch. When pressures higher than the
normal 3,000 psi are required, open this valve. Keep closed at all other times.
4. Automatic hydro-pneumatic pressure switch: Pressure switch is set at 2,900 psi cut-
out when air and electric pumps are used. Otherwise at 3,000 psi for air pumps
alone. Adjustable spring tension control.
5. Air shut-off valves: Manually operated to open or close the air supply to the air
operated hydraulic pumps.
6. Air operated hydraulic pumps: Normal operating air pressure is 125 psi. (For number
88550 pumps, maximum air pressure is 200 psi and for number 88660 pumps
maximum air pressure is 125 psi.)
7. Suction shut-off valve: Manually operated. Keep normally open. One for each air
operated hydraulic pump suction line.
8. Suction strainer: One for each operated hydraulic pump suction line. Has removable
screens.
9. Check valve: One for each air operated hydraulic pump delivery line.
10. Electric motor driven triplex pump assembly.
11. Automatic hydro-electric pressure switch: Pressure switch is set at 3,000 psi cut-out
and 250 psi cut-in differential. Adjustable.
12. Electric motor starter (automatic): Automatically starts or stops the electric motor
driving the triplex pump. Works in conjunction with the automatic hydro-electric
pressure switch and has a manual overriding on-off switch.
13. Suction shut-off valve: Manually operated, normally open. Located in the suction line
of the triplex pump.
14. Suction strainer: Located in the suction line of the triplex or duplex pump.
15. Check valve: Located in the delivery line of the triplex line.
16. Accumulator shut-off valve: Manually operated. Normally in open position when the
unit is in operation. Close when testing or skidding rig or when applying pressure over
3,000 psi to open side of ram preventers. Open when test is completed.
17. Accumulator: Check nitrogen precharge in accumulator system every 30 days.
Nitrogen precharge should be 1000 psi +/- 10%. Action: Use nitrogen when adding to
precharge. Other gases and air may cause fire and /or explosion.
18. Accumulator relief valve: Valve set to relieve at 3,500 psi.
19. Fluid strainer: Located on the inlet side of the pressure reducing and regulating
valves.
20. Pressure reducing and regulating valves: Manually operated. Adjust to the required
continuous operating pressure of ram type BOP's.
21. Main valve header: 5000 PSI working pressure, 1" all welded.
22. 4- way valves: With air cylinder operators for remote operation from the control
panels. Keep in standard operating mode (open or close), NEVER in block position.
23. Bypass reducing and regulating valve: With air cylinder operators for remote
operation from the control panels. Keep close position, it puts regulated pressure on
main valve header (21), and in open position, it puts full pump pressure on the
header. Keep in close position unless 3,000 psi (or more) is required on ram type
BOP's.
24. Manifold relief valve: Valve set to relieve at 5,500 psi.

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25. Hydraulic bleeder valve: Manually operated -normally closed. Note: This valve should
be kept OPEN when precharging the accumulator bottles.
26. Panel unit selector: Manual 3-way valve. Used to apply pilot air pressure to the air
operated pressure reducing and regulating valve, either from the air regulator on the
unit or from the air regulator on the remote control panel.
27. Pressure reducing and regulating valve-air operated: Reduces the accumulator
pressure to the required annular BOP operating pressure. Pressure can be varied for
stripping operations. Maximum recommended operating pressure of the annular
preventer should not be exceeded.
28. Accumulator gauge.
29. Manifold pressure gauge.
30. Annular preventer pressure gauge.
31. Pneumatic pressure transmitter for accumulator pressure
32. Pneumatic pressure transmitter for manifold pressure.
33. Pneumatic pressure transmitter for annular preventer pressure.
34. Air filter: Located on the supply line to the air regulators.
35. Air regulator for pressure and regulating valve. Air operated.
36. Air regulator for pneumatic pressure transmitter (33) for annular pressure.
37. Air regulator for pneumatic pressure transmitter (31) for accumulator pressure.
38. Air regulator for pneumatic pressure transmitter (32) for manifold pressure. Note: Air
regulator controls for pneumatic transmitter normally set at 15 psi. Increase or
decrease air pressure to calibrate panel gauge to hydraulic pressure gauge on unit.
39. Air junction box: To connect the air lines on the unit to the air lines coming from the
remote control panel through air table.
40. Rig test check valve.
41. Hydraulic fluid fill port.
42. Inspection plug port.
43. Rig test outlet isolator valve: High pressure, manually operated. Close when rig
testing-open when test is complete.
44. Rig test relief valve: Valve set to relieve at 6500 psi.
45. Rig test pressure gauge.
46. (a). Rig skid outlet.
(b). Valve header isolator valves: Manually operated. Close valve header isolator
valve and open rig skid isolator valve when rig skidding. Open valve header isolator
valve and close rig skid isolator during normal drilling operations.
47. Rig skid relief valve: Valve set to relieve at 2,500 psi.
48. Rig skid pressure gauge.
49. Accumulator bank isolator valves: Manually operated. Normally open.
50. Rig skid return. Customer's connection.
51. Rig skid outlet. Customer's connection.
52. Electric power. Customer's connection.
53. Rig test outlet. Customer's connection.

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