EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

COURSE CONTENT

- Training programs designed to improve performance in relation to;

o Periodisation i.e. micro-cycle, macrocycle, pre-season, in-season, off-season

o Specific energy systems requirements

o Tapering

o Peaking

o Overtraining

o Injured athletes

o Recovery

o Maintenance

- Relationship between energy demands and nutritional requirements during physical activity.
o Phases of activity – pre-competition, during exercise, recovery

o Nutritional considerations – balanced diet, glycaemic index, fats, proteins, carbohydrates, fluid
replacement

- Physiological changes brought on by the use of performance enhancers

o Protein powders

o Anabolic steroids

o Stimulants

- Implications of preparing and performing in varying environmental conditions

o Heat/humidity

o Altitude

o Cold
 TRAINING PROGRAMS
PERIODISATION
Periodisation is the process of structuring training into phases/blocks. It involves the planning of training variables to
achieve optimal performance (peaking) at the most crucial times.

During each phase certain physical, strategic and psychological aspects are emphasised.

PURPOSE OF PERIODISATION
- Maximises training gains and leads to performance improvements.
- Enables logical planning and ongoing monitoring of your training program.
- Ensures correct application of progressive overload in lead up to competitions.

BENEFITS OF PERIODISATION
- Helps avoids staleness.
- Increased level of enthusiasm.
- Ensures proper application of progressive overload
- Minimises chances of injuries and prevents overtraining.
- Coach/s are able to plan and monitor ongoing training program.
- Improves psychological, physiological, technical and tactical level of the players.
- Plans for athletes to ‘peak’ at the correct time in the season  finals.
- Plans for rest and recovery periods  prevent burnout.

MACROCYCLE
The whole training program broken up into blocks of time – OR – a large block of time within a training program.

- Typically, longer blocks of work (2-4 months)

- Usually 1-3 macrocycles per training phase.
- Each macrocycle is designed for a specific purpose.
- Consists of a number of micro-cycles

MICRO-CYCLE
The shortest training cycle, typically lasting a week with a number of micro-cycles making up a training phase.

- Smaller blocks of work (weeks)

- Designed to achieve very specific outcomes.
- Consist of training days and will provide detail on what is actually required in each session.
- Generally, 3-5 micro-cycles make up a macrocycle.
THE BIG PICTURE

PHASES OF A TRAINING PROGRAM

During each phase, one or more of the physical demands of the event or game (e.g. endurance, speed, strength) is
emphasised depending on dates of major competitions.

- When coaches design the training programs, they manipulate the key variables of intensity and volume
depending on the phase of training.
-

Lower intensity, higher volume  far from comp.

Higher intensity, lower volume  close to comp.

PRE-SEASON
** also called preparation phase and divided into general and specific.

The main objective of this phase of training is to provide a suitable fitness base before competition starts. (prepare
the athletes for demands of upcoming season)

- Usually lasts 6-12 weeks.

- Progressive overload is key, so athlete can develop specific chronic adaptations and improve desired fitness
components essential for chosen sport.
o i.e. improving aerobic capacities initially then developing the more specific components of fitness
required for competition.
- Involves high volume training  intensity gradually increases throughout the phase as development of
anaerobic energy systems become key focus.
- Initially focus on improving athlete’s base endurance and capacity of aerobic energy system.
- Focus on specific skills towards end of pre-season to prepare for competition.
- Fitness testing occurs to gather baseline data, therefore can measure and track improvement.

GENERAL PREPARATION – TRAINING PROGRAM EXAMPLE

METHOD DESCRIPTION SESSION EXAMPLE
CONTINUOUS Low intensity for at least 20mins continuous. i.e. 40min run @ 70% VO2 max

INTERVAL A work rest ratio (W:R) of 1:1 to improve aerobic 6min @ 80-90% max pace.
capacity. Increase in intensity throughout the phase
(LONG) for optimal overload. 6mins rest
5 sets

FARTLEK Continuous training with changes in intensity. Only 15min continuous around 400m track. Jog
introduced towards final micro-cycles of the general 1st lap (~50%max pace)
prep stage. Need good aerobic base before
Fast jog 2nd lap (~75%max pace)
attempting.

FLEXIBILITY A combination of static/dynamic stretches, use of foam rollers and resistance bands, can
combine with strength/endurance training by doing Pilates/yoga session.
RESISTANCE 2-3 times per week. Overload reps first if key is 2-3 sets 15-30reps, ~50-60% 1RM
(ENDURANCE) endurance, then increase %1RM. Decrease rest,
increase sets.

SPECIFIC PREPARATION – TRAINING PROGRAM EXAMPLE

METHOD DESCRIPTON SESSION EXAMPLE
CONTINUOUS Maximal aerobic training increase intensity, i.e. 20min run @ 85% VO2max.
decreases in duration to move above
anaerobic threshold.

INTERVAL May increase in intensity. Slightly longer W:R of 2-4min 90% max speed, work rest ratio ~1:2
1:2/3 to improve anaerobic capacity. Increase
(INTERMEDIATE) in intensity throughout the phase for optimal
overload.

INTERVAL Repeat sprint ability. 5x10sec sprint on 30sec off (3 sets)

(SHORT) Short intervals  minimal rest.

FARTLEK Changes in intensity attempt to replicate that 2x10min continuous.

required in competition. Progressively increase
Jog for 30sec, sprint for 10sec, jog for 15sec,
the duration/frequency of high intensity bursts.
sprint for 5sec

RESISTANCE Move from endurance to strength focus. Heavy General guidelines 3-5sets, ~75-100% 1RM,
weights with full recovery. 3min + recovery.

General power guidelines ~40-60% 1RM

(with training, the % of 1RM increases
Also incorporate power-based resistance significantly)
training. Key is to lift fast, so %1RM is
decreased.

PLYOMETRICS Once resistance power training has begun, 3x10 box jumps
progress to more sport specific power training.
4x20m bounding
Plyometrics (leaping, bounding, jumping)
replicates actual movement requirements. Can Single leg hurdle hops
 start with body weight only and using both legs
to increasing/decreasing load by adding weight
(medicine balls, resistance bands) and using **must have sufficient recovery so that the
intensity and speed of performance is not
single leg repetitions.
decreased.

AGILITY Incorporating change of direction into short interval sessions. Must be at max speed. Can
incorporate game-based skills (i.e. dribbling/passing ball) in these drills towards the end of the
specific preparation phase.

IN-SEASON
** also called competition phase and divided into pre-competition and competition.

The in-season training phase will be on maintaining fitness, developing and refining strategies, tactics and game
plans.

- High intensity, quality training at moderate volume.

o Bring athlete’s specific skill fitness and skill requirements to peak.
- Split into pre-competition and competition phase.
- Strategies and tactics are emphasised.
- Fitness should be at its peak when entering this phase. Focus on training directed more towards;
o Skill
o Technique
o Tactics
o Psychology
- Recovery is imperative
- A taper will always occur in the lead up to competition/game/race which means training volume will
decrease.

OFF-SEASON
** also called transition

Off-season is the phase of training designed to provide the athlete with both a physiological and psychological rest
from the rigours of competition and training.

- Athletes should remain reasonably active through involvement in a range of recreational and low-intensity
training activities.
- Rehabilitation for athletes injured during in-season, use off-season to prevent injury reoccurring in the next
in-season.
- Aerobic fitness should be maintained to avoid detraining.
o Involvement in enjoyable activities (different type of sports)
ENERGY SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
TRAINING METHODS FITNESS COMPONENTS

- Continuous - Balance
- Fartlek - Flexibility
- Plyometric - Cardiorespiratory endurance
- Circuit training - Reaction time
- Interval - Body composition
o Long - Speed
o Intermediate - Agility
o Short - Co-ordination
- Flexibility - Muscular power
- Resistance - Muscular strength
- Muscular endurance

TAPERING
A taper is a reduction in training load to eliminate residual fatigue, maximise energy stores and decrease
psychological stress in a bid to optimise performance. During the taper phase, no adaptations will be made.

PHYSICALLY  the taper period should be long enough to allow repair to tissue damaged during training and the re-
fuelling of energy stores.

- If an athlete consistently trains rigorously and with high volumes, muscle energy stores (i.e. glycogen) to be
chronically lowered. A reduction in training volume during taper with proper diet reverses this condition.

MENTALLY  the aim of a taper is to help the athlete reach their Ideal Performance State (IPS). This may mean the
athlete is highly motivated and confident and not feeling overly stressed.

- Tapering is normally done after a block of hard training or leading into a major competition e.g. Olympic
games.
- A taper allows the performer to be physically and mentally fresh
- Decreases the chances of over-training and / or burnout.

HOW TO TAPER
1. Reduce training volume (frequency of sessions, duration of sessions).
2. Increase (or maintain) training intensity.

FITNESS IS NOT LOST!

- Less training does not mean loss of fitness. Fitness is not lost during an appropriate taper.
- A well-designed taper of reduced volume and quality high intensity work can preserve fitness for up to a
month.

TAPERING CONSIDERATIONS
**tapers are normally between 4-28 days long depending on the type of event being tapered for and the individual.

HEAVY ENDURANCE ATHLETES (E.G. MARATHON RUNNERS)

 A LONG TAPER (i.e. 3 weeks)

- Accumulate significant residual fatigue from extensive training program.

- These events also significantly tax stored nutrients such as glycogen.
- Taper period also considers at least one week of proper carb loading.

SPRINTS AND POWER ATHLETES (WEEKLY FIXTURES)

REQUIRE SHORTER TAPER (4-5 days)

- Physiological recovery for sprint and power athletes occurs much quicker as the duration of training sessions
and competitions is so much shorter.

TEAM SPORT ATHLETES (WEEKLY FIXTURES)

USE ‘MINI TAPERS’ DURING THE TRAINING WEEK  CREATES ‘TRAINING WAVE’

- Hardest and highest load sessions earlier in the week, after full recovery post game.
- Short, sharp sessions just prior to game day.
- Team sports also use taper towards end of season, especially during finals.
- Some coaches implement extra overload to gain a physiological advantage in weeks leading up to finals,
then follow this period with a marked taper period.
o Week before Grand final may only see 2x30min high intensity sessions.
o Also, be tactical sessions,
however significant drop in
training volume.

PEAKING

Peaking is a temporary training state

which allows the athlete to perform
optimally from a physiological, psychological and tactical perspective.

The aim is to ensure peaking for major competition. This occurs when an athlete follows a high training load (to
optimise physical capacities) with a taper.

A well-structured, periodised training program ensures this can occur.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PEAKING AND TAPERING

PEAKING FOR OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE
PHYSIOLOGICAL

- Injury free
- Improved recovery rate
- Optimal cardiovascular, muscular and energy systems
- Responds automatically to demands

PSYCHOLOGICAL

- Increased self-confidence
- Ignores irrelevant cues
- Mentally relaxed whilst still alert

TACTICAL & TECHNICAL

- Ideal technical efficiency

- Tactically prepared

MAINTENANCE
Maintenance involves sustaining the chronic adaptations obtained throughout the preparation phase of training.

- Minimal to no progressive overload is applied throughout the competition phase of a training program.
- During the season, it is important athletes maintain these fitness levels whilst increasing recovery to ensure
they are physically fresh for games.

INJURED ATHLETES
Many common injuries can be avoided with a good prevention and rehabilitation program.

To reduce the risk of injury, it is recommended that training programs ensure;

- Warm up and cool down be an important component of playing and training

- Adequate overload of the training program
- Appropriate skill development and training preparation before participation
- Preventative strategies are in place for all players
- Athletes are fully rehabilitated before returning to sport

CHRONIC VS. ACUTE INJURIES

ACUTE INJURIES CHRONIC INJURIES
Soft tissue injuries, fractures, dislocations etc. that Long term injuries, usually as a result of overuse
occur during training and games. injuries e.g. shin splints (stress fractures, tendonitis).

TREATEMENT

R REST
 Rest the injured player and injured body part.  Further activity will aggravate the injury.

I ICE  (ice/medichill/cold compress)

Apply for max. of 20mins every 2hrs. If using ice, wrap in towel or bag before applying, as ice burns may
occur.

C COMPRESSION
Apply a firm compression bandage above and below the injury site to reduce swelling.

E ELEVATION
Raise the injured area above the level of the heart to reduce swelling and pain.

R REFERAL
Easy referral to a sports physician or sports physiotherapist will provide specific diagnosis and an
appropriate rehabilitation program.

WHAT NOT TO DO!

H HEAT
Increases bleeding to the injured area.

A ALCOHOL
Increases swelling.

R RUNNING
Increases blood flow and can make the injury worse.

M MASSAGE
Increases bleeding. Avoid for the first 72hrs.

REHABILITATION OF THE INJURED ATHLETES

Main principle of rehabilitation is to gradually increase activity level of the injured athlete until he/she is ready to
return to play. The rehabilitation process involves 4 sequential stages;

RANGE OF MOTION Improve range of motion until 80-90% of pre-injury, pain free range of movement has
returned.
Stretch for 5-10mins, 2-3 times a day.
e.g. ankle alphabet + ankle pumps.

ENDURANCE Second phase of recovery is to improve endurance using little or no weight.

Exercise is completed daily with weight or resistance increasing when exercise becomes
easy.
 e.g. ankle eversion.

STRENGTH Increase weight or resistance so only sets of 10-12 reps can be completed before fatigue.
3 sets of 10-12 every other day with endurance exercise from stage two completes on
alternate days.
e.g. single leg balance.

SKILL Re-educate muscles to perform specific movements for their specific sport.
The requisite skills must be performed until the athlete can perform at pre-injury
standards.
e.g. toe raises.

HOW TO CATER FOR INJURED ATHLETES

Modifications to the training program must be made to ensure the athlete prevents any further injury from
occurring.

It is also critical the athlete minimises the amount of de-training that occurs during the injury phase.

- Cross-training is extremely effective  rests injured body parts whilst still maintaining some level of
physical activity and cardiovascular fitness
- Alternatively, athletes may participate in specialist activities which allow injured body parts to rest whilst
still maintaining fitness in non-injured areas.

OVERTRAINING
Overtraining occurs when an athlete has been repeatedly stressed by training to the point where the rest periods
between sessions are no longer adequate for recovery to occur. As a result, training no longer leads to performance
improvement.

- Overtraining frequently occurs in athletes who are training for competition or a specific event and train
beyond the body’s ability to recover in the time available. It is an imbalance between work and rest.
- Overtraining is also common on young sportsmen/women who are training with several teams at once e.g.
school, club, district, state.

The signs of over training can vary from player to player. Some players who do not have overtraining syndrome can
also display similar sign and symptoms which makes diagnosis difficult.

The most common symptom of overtraining is constant fatigue.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGICAL BEHAVIOURAL

Decreased self-esteem General soreness Decreased effort

Easily irritated and moody Weight loss Performance drops

Depression Increase in viral Gives up!

Loss of interest in the sport Increase injuries Lacks normal co-ordination

Insomnia Increase resting HR

Concentration drops Loss of appetite

EFFECTS OF TRAINING ON PERFORMANCE

CAUSES OF OVERTRAINING
- Workload too high
- Lack of variety in training sessions leading to staleness
- Insufficient recovery from injury
- Too many competitions requiring repeated maximal efforts
- Incorrect application of progressive overload principle
- Insufficient recovery methods, or lack of, leading to imbalance between rest, training and competition.

PREVENTING OVERTRAINING
- Have a well-planned training program  incorporates regular rest.
- Look for variations in the players behaviour, moods and performance.
- Administer psychological tests such as Profile of Mood States.
- Educate players and coaches of signs and symptoms of overtraining.
- Individualise training programmes and have a variety in the training sessions. Cross training achieves this.
- Reduce training load (volume/intensity)  if need be, stop training if the athlete shows signs and symptoms
of overtraining.
- Ensure a balanced diet and keep well hydrated. Include high carbohydrate intake to maintain energy stores.

RECOVERY
Recovery returns an athlete to a state of performance readiness (psychologically and physiologically). It allows the
athlete to be able to train sooner and with better quality training compared to if no recovery practises are
implemented.

- Recovery sessions are incorporated throughout each micro-cycle in a periodised training program.
o After heavy training sessions
o After competition/matches (to enhance immediate, post-game recovery)
- Lack of appropriate recovery may result in athlete being unable to train at the required intensity or complete
the required load at the next training session.
o Higher levels of fatigue may also predispose an athlete to overtraining and injury.

HOW TRAINING AND RECOVERY IMPROVE FITNESS

1. During the initial fitness period, the target of the training has a base level of fitness.
2. Upon entering the training period, the athlete experiences fatigue (DOMS, physical and mental fatigue)
3. After training, the body enters the recovery period during which level of fitness increases up to the initial
fitness level.
4. Because the human body is adjustable, it will feel the need to adjust itself (adaptation) to a higher level of
fitness in anticipation of the next training session.

The main role of recovery: help athletes adapt faster to training.

This is done by minimizing the effects of training and performance fatigue in order to enable the player to “bounce
back” and be ready for the next session or match.

Recovery methods promote adaptations to training loads and stress that are natural and safe for the player.

These recovery strategies provide the player with techniques to promote adaptation (see accelerated recovery line)
Achieving an appropriate balance between training and competition stresses and recovery is important in
maximising the performance of athletes.

RECOVERY INCLUDES
PSYCHOLOGICALLY  to allow the athlete to enter the next contest or activity in an optimal mental state.

- Meditation
- Imagery
- Breathing
- Music
- Progressive muscle relaxation

NUTRITIONAL RECOVERY  where the body’s energy stores are refuelled by consuming high carbohydrate foods
and electrolytes replenishing drinks. Protein is also consumed to promote muscle tissue repair.

PHYSICAL RECOVERY  aimed at regenerating the physiological capacities of the athlete. This would include;

- Massage
- Active recovery
- Stretching
- Cryotherapy
- Contrast temperature water immersion (hot/cold)
- Hyperbaric oxygen therapy
- Compression garments

RECOVERY METHODS AIM TO ADDRESS THE FOLLOWING FATIGUING FACTORS

- Fuel depletion (intramuscular ATP, PCr, Glycogen)
- Removal of metabolic by-products (heat, lactic acid)
- Address neuromuscular fatigue
- Reduce core temperature and promote rehydration
- Decrease oedema (swelling)
- Promote cell regeneration and tissue repair

PHYSICAL RECOVERY STRATEGIES

STRETCHING  Involves performing exercises that put the desired muscle on stretch. Can be static or dynamic in
nature.

- Dynamic stretching is best 😊

- Help decrease DOMS due to reduction in the stiffness and tension in muscle.
- Increase blood circulation  removal of waste products.

ACTIVE RECOVERY  Involves in engaging in low intensity exercise post competition/training to promote continued
blood flow.

- Increase blood circulation  removal of waste products.

CRYOTHERYAPY  Involves immersing the body in water at temperatures lower than 11 oC for an extended period of
time. Submersion time 2-3mins, repeated 3-4 times and separated by ~30sec.

- Causes peripheral vasoconstriction which reduces blood flow.

- Assists in more rapid waste by-product removal from muscles.
- Reduces tissue damage and pain by decreasing swelling.
CONTRAST TEMP. WATER IMMERSION  Contrast therapies (hot spas or shower/cold plunge pool or shower)
exposes the body to alternating hot and cold-water environments.

- Hot/cold contrast results in combination of vasodilation and vasoconstriction of local blood vessels. This acts
as a ‘pump’, which facilitates the removal of wastes.
- DOMS is proved to be decreased with the use of hot/cold therapy.

MASSAGE  Involves the rubbing and kneading of muscle tissue.

- Helps increase blood flow and assist the removal of waste products.
- It is used intensively in the training of elite athletes and is also thought to;
1. Decrease oedema swelling and pain
2. Lower sensation of DOMS reduces the intensity of muscle soreness and tenderness

HYPERBARIC O2 THERAPY  HBO is the administration of pure oxygen (100%) at pressures greater than atmospheric
pressure.

- Provides significant increase in oxygen availability at the tissue level which reduces oedema (swelling)
- Stimulates repair and regenerative processes of damaged tissue.

COMPRESSION GARMENTS  The wearing of tight, specialised exercise clothes, during and after training.

- Increased microcirculation (enhanced blood flow)  increases delivery of oxygen and possible decrease in
swelling.
- Decrease muscle vibration (this can accelerate fatigue)
- Use of compression garments during recovery periods may reduce the symptoms associated with DOMS.

NUTRITION
To meet the body’s energy demands, it is important that we adjust our diet accordingly, by manipulating the relative
percentages of macronutrients consumed.

ACTIVITY LEVELS % INTAKE (FAT, CHO, PROTEIN)

AVERAGE PERSON 45% CHO
20% Fats
10% Proteins
PHYSICALLY ACTIVE 55% CHO
30% Fats
10% Proteins
 ENGAGED IN INTENSE TRAINING 70% CHO
** proteins may increase up to 30% for body builders. 15% Fats
15% Proteins

FUELLING ENERGY SYSTEMS

Fuel source used for ATP production is based on the duration and intensity of exercise.

- Low intensity – stored fats are main energy source.

- Increased intensity causes muscle glycogen to contribute up to 90min depending on intensity.
- Athletes ‘hit the wall’ when muscle glycogen stores run out  causing a forced reduction in intensity.
Athlete is now utilising stored liver glycogen.
- As exercise continues, the depletion of liver glycogen (bonking) affects the brain  decision making ability
affected.
o Fats are now primary fuel source.
o Intensity reduced bc fats are harder to break down (more time needed)
- Depletion of fats results in protein being used as an energy source.
o Only occurs in extreme cases such as ultra-endurance events or starvation

PROTEINS
FUNCTIONS:

- Growth and repair of muscle tissue

- Production of red blood cells, hormones and antibodies.

STORAGE AND UTILISATION:

- Cannot be stored, play functional and structural roles in the body.

- Only contributes to ATP production when carbohydrate and fat stores are depleted.
o Starvation
o During ultra-endurance events (ironman events)

SOURCES OF PROTEINS:

- Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, yoghurt, cheese.

** for athletes in heavy training a protein intake between 1.5-2.0g/kg of body mass on a daily basis is sufficient and
won’t require a supplement.

FATS
FUNCTIONS:

- Provide up to 70% of total energy during the resting state.

- Support and cushion vital organs.
- Serve as an insulator to reserve body heat.

STORAGE AND UTILISATION:

- Broken down into ‘free fatty acids’, which travel the blood in plasma.
- Represents bodies most plentiful source of potential energy (unlimited).
- Stored as triglycerides in the muscle and adipose tissue.

SOURCES OF FATS:
 - ‘Fatty’ fishes (salmon, tuna, mackerel)
- Some seeds (flaxseeds, pumpkin seeds, walnuts)
- Oils (flaxseed oil, soy oil, olive oil)

FAT AS A FUEL SOURCE:

- Major energy source during rest (60%) and light to moderate exercise with little input during intense
exercise.
- Light/moderate exercise, energy needs of the muscle are met by triglycerides within the muscle and free
fatty acids in blood plasma.
- As duration increases, so does the reliance on fat utilisation.
- When duration exceeds 1hr, CHO reserves deplete and without replenishment, stored fat can account for up
to 90% of the total energy required.
o Your body takes a long time to break down fats, therefore tends not to use them when energy
demands are high.
o Trained athletes are better able to breakdown fats and use them at higher intensities leading to
glycogen sparing.

**nutritionists recommend that fats account for approx. 20-30% of a normal diet.
CARBOHYDRATES
FUNCTIONS:

- Important nutrient for fuel.

- Brain and muscles use CHO as a source of energy.

STORAGE AND UTILISATION:

- CHO are eaten and broken down/converted into its simplest form (glucose).
- Glucose is absorbed into bloodstream, with the help of insulin (hormone) it travels into the muscle cells 
used to produce energy.
- Extra glucose in the bloodstream is stored in the liver and muscle tissue as glycogen until further energy is
needed.

SOURCES OF CARBOHYDRATES:

- Grain foods (bread, breakfast cereal), rice, pasta, noodles, quinoa, cous cous, fruit, potato, starchy
vegetables, corn, dried beans, lentils, milk, yoghurt.
- E.g. banana is eaten  carbs are broken down into glucose  glucose enters the bloodstream.

CARBOHYDRATES AS A FUEL SOURCE:

- CHO is a critical fuel source needed to sustain exercise. Production of ATP is dependent on glycogen at
higher intensities.
- Early stages – of exercise, muscle glycogen is the primary fuel source.
- As exercise duration is prolonged, blood glucose makes a greater contribution.
- As glucose uptake by active muscles increases, the liver needs to increase the rate at which it breaks down
stored glycogen.

AMOUNT OF CHO SUPPLIES DURING…

- Rest  small
- Low/moderate intensity  moderate
- High intensity  large

WHAT DOES THE GRAPH DEMONSTRATE?

The greater the stores of muscle glycogen, the

longer the athlete will be able to continue
without experiencing exhaustion.
GLYCEMIC INDEX (GI)
**Measured on a scale of 1 – 100.

Ranking carbohydrates based on their immediate effect on blood glucose levels.

Low GI foods produce a slower, lower rise in blood sugar levels.

High GI foods produce a faster, higher rise in blood sugar levels.

FACTORS EFFECTING GI INDEX OF FOOD

TYPE OF SUGAR PRESENT Fructose (fruit sugar) and lactose (milk sugar) have lower GI that sucrose
(table sugar).
AMOUNT OF WATER-SOLUBLE The more soluble fibre a food contains, the lower the GI value.
FIBRE
STORAGE TIME AND RIPENESS The more ripe a fruit or vegetable is, the higher the GI value.

COOKING AND PROCESSING This usually increases the GI as there is less work required by the body to
FOOD break the CHO down. E.g. juice has a higher GI value than whole fruits.

ADDING ACIDITY This lowers the GI (e.g. adding lemon juice). Fat and protein consumed in the
same meal will decrease the GI of a food or meal demands and nutritional
requirements during physical activity.

NUTRITION WITHIN PERIODISED TRAINING PLAN

OFF SEASON – low intensity IN SEASON – high intensity
- The highest % of fat for - High intensity therefore, increased use of glycogen as fuel
low/medium intensities. source  increased % of CHO.

- Low % of protein  muscles are not - High intensity causes more damage to muscles therefore
requiring repair after intense increased % of protein for muscle repair.
exercise.
- In season involves competition as well as training so increase in
- Lowest % carbohydrate  body CHO and protein is needed for faster recovery.
prefers to use fats as a fuel source in
low intensity. - Decreased % of fat  insufficient at high intensity as it takes a
long time to break down.
SUMMARY OF MACRONUTRIENTS
NUTRIENT BROKEN DOWN TO SIMPLEST UNIT STORED AS… STORED IN THE…
Fats Free fatty acid Triglyceride Adipose tissue
Carbs Glucose Glycogen Liver and muscle tissue

Protein Amino acid - -

FLUIDS IN SPORT
- Exercise performance can be compromised by a body water deficit (esp. in hot
conditions).
- Fluid is required to maintain blood volume and regulate body temperature.
- It is necessary to drink fluid during exercise to replace fluid lost through sweat.
- During prolonged exercise (90min+), sports drinks should be considered 
contains both CHO for fuel and flavour and electrolytes (sodium) to help the
body ‘hold on to’ fluid more effectively (and stimulate thirst).

WHAT HAPPENED WHEN AN ATHLETE IS DEHYDRATED?

AFFECTS OF DEHYDRATION DESCRIPTION
Muscle fatigue - Active muscle cells become fatigued and lose strength.
- Decreased muscle growth and repair post training  reduced potential
strength.

Reduced mental function - Lowered blood sugar to brain causing a drop in concentration, focus.
- Impacts movement patterns and skill levels (e.g. team sports such as
rugby, AFL and football.
- Feeling dizzy, flat or fatigued.

Increased body temperature - Fluid is critical for cooling the body when it is hot.
- Dehydration can reduce sweating and cause body temp to rise.
- Can lead to premature exhaustion.

Blood flow and circulation - Blood vol. decreases = heart has to pump smaller vol. of blood therefore
changes heart works harder and increases heart rate.
- Loss of fluid may increase blood viscosity and the load on the heart and
circulatory system.

HYDRATION CONSIDERATIONS
We lose water from the body via a number of different processes;

- Breathing
- Sweating
- Urinating
PREVENTING DEHYDRATION
- consume approximately 2L of fluids/day.
- A simple way of determining hydration levels is to look at the colour of urine.
o The urine of a hydrated person is almost clear in colour and gets progressively darker as
dehydration increases.

HYDRATION PRE-EXERCISE
1L total prior to exercise (in the 4-5hrs leading up to performance) broken down into:
- 600mL 3-4hrs before exercise.
- 300-400mL in the 1hr before to prime stomach (attempt in training first as may feel uncomfortable or
bloated doing this).
Avoid drinks containing caffeine like energy drink as they act as a diuretic and will cause you to go to the toilet
thereby increasing fluid loss.
DURING EXERCISE
Drink approx. 200mL of water every 15-20min during activity.
Avg. sweat rate in endurance activities = 1-1.5L/hr.
Don’t only drink when you are thirsty! You are usually dehydrated already at this point.
Sports drinks can replace electrolytes lost in sweat and provide additional CHO.

POST EXERCISE
Want to replenish back to pre-exercise weight.
For every 1L of fluid loss, consume 1.5L as you will urinate some of this out.
Consume electrolytes to replace those lost in sweat.
Avoid alcohol and caffeine due to their diuretic effect.

PRE-COMPETITION NUTRITION
The primary goal is to ensure optimal carbohydrate and fluid stores for the commencement of activity.

This is especially important in activities where performance may be limited by the depletion of carbohydrate stores
(or from a fluid perspective, exercise in humid and hot environments).

Some sports may consume larger amounts of food than others (running vs. cycling – less physical distribution when
cycling, running on a full gut can be uncomfortable).

DAYS PRIOR 3-4 HOURS ~ 1 HOUR

Carb loading High CHO, low GI meal High CHO, low GI snack
- Only required in events lasing - digested and absorbed more - To top up glycogen stores
longer than 60min slowly, gradual release of - Avoid high GI – may result in
glucose into bloodstream. hypoglycaemia.

EXAMPLES
Pasta, potatoes - Bowl of pasta - Banana
- Bowl of cereal with chopped - Fruit based smoothie
fruit and yoghurt - Raisin toast/toast with
- Crumpets with sliced vegemite
banana - Liquid supplement (up & go)

** For some, a liquid meal can be advantageous as pre-competition nerves can cause gastrointestinal upset.
CARBOHYDRATE LOADING
Meals high in fat and protein should be avoided as they take longer to digest and will not be primary fuel source.

Athletes must be high in fat.

PERFORMANCE ENHANCERS
Psychological changes brought on by the use of performance enhancers.

- Protein powders
- Anabolic steroids
- Stimulants

When the difference between winning and losing can be a fraction of a second, athletes look for every advantage
they can over their opponents.

An athlete can seek to gain advantage over opponents by manipulating or supplementing their diet to;

- Enhance training adaptations

- Improve performance
- Improve recovery

Aspects of performance enhancing can be considered to be ‘within the rules’. However, some athletes turn to illegal
substances to gain a performance edge.

ANABOLIC STEROIDS
GENERAL INFORMATION

Anabolic steroids are the familiar name for synthetic variants of the male sex hormone testosterone.

- Can be legally prescribed to treat conditions resulting from steroid hormone deficiency, such as delayed
puberty, as well as diseases that result in loss of lean muscle mass, such as cancer and AIDS.
- Some athletes, bodybuilders, and others abuse these drugs in an attempt to enhance performance and/or
improve their physical appearance.
- Are usually either taken orally or injected into the muscles.
- Doses taken by abusers may be 10 to 100 times higher than doses prescribed to treat medical conditions.

PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES (ADVANTAGES)

- Promotes muscle development (increasing the performer’s strength and power)

- Improved rate of tissue repair.
- Facilitates central nervous system activation increasing maximal effort and assisting in resisting CNS fatigue.

** this is of major benefit in sports requiring strength and power as athletes are able to train harder and more
frequently.
ANABOLIC STEROIDS RISKS

CATEGORIES RISKS/NEGATIVE EFFECTS

Heart - Increased cholesterol
- Increased blood pressure
- Heart attack/stroke

Liver & kidney - Impaired liver function / Liver disease

- Kidney disease / malfunction

Skeleton - Increased rate of muscle strains / ruptures

- Tendon / ligament damage

Skin - Acne
- Male pattern baldness

Psychological - Mood swings

- Aggressive, even violent behaviour
- Depression
- Psychotic episodes

Hormonal WOMEN
- Deepening of the voice
- Breast atrophy (decrease in breast size)
- Hypertrophy of the clitoris
- Excess hair growth on the face, stomach and upper back (Hirsutism)
MEN
- Shrunken testes, reduced sperm count

STIMULANTS
GENERAL INFORMATION

CNS stimulants may be used to reduce tiredness and increase alertness, competitiveness, and aggression. They are
more likely to be used in the competition but may be used during training to increase the intensity of the of the
training session.

May include;

- Illegal substances such as amphetamines and cocaine.

- Prescription medication such as pseudoephedrine (in common cold and flu tablets)
- Legal substances such as caffeine (though banned in some sports at certain doses)

Stimulants are substances that act on the brain, stimulating the body mentally and physically.

Their chemical structure is similar to adrenaline and noradrenaline, which are both produced by the body.

STIMULANT RISKS / NEGATIVE EFFECTS

- High blood pressure. - Increase the risk of injury as pain is

- Increased chance of stroke. suppressed.
- Increased chance of heart disease / - Restless / paranoia.
cardiovascular disease / sudden heart attack / - Insomnia.
death. - Ineffective heat regulation and dehydration.
- Increased chance of liver problems. - Violent / aggressive behaviour.
- Dehydration.
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT DESCRIPTION

Increased heart rate / Cardiac Improves delivery of oxygen to the working muscles.
output

Increased CNS Activity Improves reaction time/alertness/speed/anaerobic performance.

Supresses neurotransmitter in Masks fatigue/pain and ability to push through it, can increase aggression.
nervous system
Increased metabolism Reduces weight – advantage in sports where body composition is relevant/has
weight divisions.
Increased blood pressure Makes the blood vessel dilate and contract more forcefully.

Increased body temp. Makes the athlete feel hotter/more likely to suffer from overheating/sweat
more.

Glycogen sparing / Use of fats Improves aerobic endurance capacity and suppresses the symptoms of fatigue.
(FFAs)

CAFFEINE
ADVANTAGES

- Increased Central Nervous System activity / alertness / awareness (or improved / decreased reaction time –
not increased)
- May reduce an athlete’s perception of fatigue or effort.
- Increased glycogen sparing – increases the ability of free fatty acids for the ATP production, which may spare
muscle glycogen thereby enhancing prolonged endurance performance.
- Increased heart rate / cardiovascular activity.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS
PHYSIOLOGICALLY

- Increased muscle shakes / tremors may lead to muscle twitching, elevated heart rate and blood pressure.

PSYCHOLOGICALLY – may cause restlessness / irritability, nervousness and insomnia

- Can be detrimental to performance as is a diuretic and can cause dehydration.

- Causes fluid loss and negatively affects thermal balance, particularly in hot conditions.
- Can result in dependence and withdrawal.

PROTEIN POWDERS
GENERAL INFORMATION
For some, protein supplements can be helpful as part of their overall nutrition plan, but for most athletes,
appropriate nutrition provides all the protein they need.

- Weightlifters, bodybuilders and sports involving large muscle mass often consume extra protein or amino
acids in the form of powders.

** excess protein intake alone will not stimulate muscle growth and development – resistance training also
ADVANTAGES

- Optimise anabolism / muscle hypertrophy / muscle mass.

 - Decrease protein / muscle breakdown (catabolism).
- Improved rate of recovery post exercise.

** most supplements are expensive and are often misused – you get better results from a healthy diet.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS

- Increases water retention

- May increase the chance of:
o Osteoporosis
o Colonic cancers
o Impaired kidney function

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
HEAT
Exercise in the heat, compared to neutral environments causes many physiological changes in the human. Many
processes work together to;

- Maintain blood pressure

- Cool the body
- Maintain muscle function
- Regulate fluid

Attempting to sustain exercise in hot condition can overload the body’s ability to respond resulting in;

- Increased body temp.

- Dehydration
- Decreased physical and mental performance
- Serious heat illness

METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

CONDUCTION
Involves direct heat transfer via contact from one object to another (from one molecule to another).
Factors that determine rate at which conduction occurs.

- Different in temp. between 2 surfaces (heat flown from hot to cold)

- Surface area (increased SA  increased heat loss)
- Thermal conductivity of material (metal = good conductor of heat)

This method of heat loss plays a very small role in the regulation of the body’s temperature.
Might be used when an athlete is immersed in cool water or wears an ice vest.
CONVECTION
Heat transfer in a gas or liquid by the circulation of currents from one region to another.
** Accounts for approx. 12% of heat loss.
This will occur when heat is carried away form body by air or water currents.
Explanation – the layer of warm air which continually surrounds our body is continually displaced by cold air when air
temperature is lower than skin temperature.

- This is also why we wear less clothes when exercising in the heat – to allow our zone of insulation (warm air)
to be exposed to the cooler air surroundings.

If the air flow is slow, then the air next to our skin acts as a zone of insulation and heat loss is minimal.
If airflow is fast (running, use of external fan, breezy day) then heat loss increases as the zone of insulation is
continually replaced.
Convection is most effective when temperature of the air or water surrounding the body is low.
RADIATION
The transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves.
** Accounts for 60% of heat loss from body at rest on a cool day.
It does not require contact between bodies.
This is only an effective heat loss mechanism if the body remains warmer than the environment.
Solar radiation (from the sun) and radiant heat from tracks, roads, and surrounding structures, can be a major
contributor to an athlete’s heat load.
Entering a cool room at half time is an example of accelerating radiant heat loss.
EVAPORATION
Heat loss when a liquid is vaporised into a gas.
** At rest it accounts for approx. 25% heat loss, in hot conditions can account for up to 80%
When the body exercises, muscle create heat.

- To avoid overheating the body uses blood to help regulate temperature.

- Heat is transferred to the
skin’s surface via
vasodilation of peripheral
blood vessels, where it
is released as sweat.
- Evaporation of the sweat on
skin creates a cooling effect.
o As a result, the blood
travelling to the
skins surface is
cooled,
maintaining the
blood travelling to
the skins surface is
cooled,
maintaining the
body’s core temperature.
- High humidity limits sweat evaporation and therefore, heat loss

Rate of sweat is dependent on;

- Gender (male more than female)

- Number of sweat glands
- Body surface area (the greater the SA, the more you sweat)
- How fit you are (fitter athletes sweat more if all factors are equal)

Excessive sweating leads to a loss of body fluids and when level fluid drops, body’s core temp increases.

- It is this gradual dehydration which leads to heat exhaustion and heatstroke.

- Sweat loss can reach 6-10% of body mass
- >2% generally means performance and thermoregulation are compromised!

As temp. increases, conduction, convection and radiation decrease their effectiveness to facilitate body heat loss.
When temperature exceeds body temperature, the body gains heat by these three methods. In these conditions,
sweat evaporation from the skin and respiratory tract provide the means for heat dissipation.
Therefore, increase in temperature = increase sweat rate.
EXERCISING IN HOT CONDITIONS
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES EXPLANAITION
Increase in Heart rate (cardiac Elevated body temperature means blood must be delivered to skin for heat
drift) and cardiac output. and muscles to continue exercising.

Heart rate also increases due to reduced blood volume / stroke volume (due
to fluid loss decreasing plasma volume)

Decreases cardiac output Due to continued decrease in stroke volume, body cannot keep up demand
for blood.

Decreased stroke volume Due to reduction in blood volume through the loss of sweat.

Increase in blood pressure Due to increased blood viscosity / reduced blood volume resulting from the
body sweating.

Decrease blood / plasma volume Due to increase in sweating or increase blood viscosity – blood viscosity is a
measure of resistance of blood to flow. It can be described as the thickness
and stickiness of blood.

Vasodilation of blood vessels in Due to blood being redirected to the skin to dissipate heat through
skin convection.

Increased peripheral blood flow Due to blood being redirected to the skin to dissipate heat through
convection.

Increased sweat rate Increase sweat rate enhances heat loss via evaporation – effective cooling
mechanism to dissipate heat.

Increased core and skin Exercising in hot conditions results in a ‘double heat load’ (metabolic heat
temperature production and heat absorbed through the environment) – which results in
competition for blood flow.

This ultimately results in increased skin and core temperature.

INTENSE EXERCISE IN THE HEAT:

Cardiovascular system cannot meet demands of the skin (to decrease thermal load) and the muscle (for continued
energy production).

ULTIMATELY:

Blood flow to the skin (i.e. body cooling) and muscle blood flow (i.e. performance capacity) is compromised.

TWO KEY PERFORMANCE IMPLICATIONS:

- Increase blood lactate: accelerates fatigue (as blood flow is directed away from the liver – involved in
buffering; and decrease blood plasma)
- Decrease cardiac output: limits supply of oxygenated blood to the entire body which decreases VO2 max

IMPLICATIONS OF FLUID LOSS

During prolonged exercise in extreme heat:

- Sweat can be lost at rates more than 2L/hr.

- Fluid replenishment to counteract fluid loss is difficult, therefore cardiovascular capacity and
thermoregulatory function are affected.
- The body contains ~65% water, contained in blood plasma, within the cells (intracellular) and our side the
cells (extracellular).

Decrease in stroke
Gradual decrease in
Fluid loss via sweat volume and eventually,
plasma volume
cardiac output

DOUBLE HEAT LOAD

The core temperature of the body increases rapidly due to:

1. Continued metabolic heat production (by-product of aerobic energy production).

2. The heat load experienced through the environmental conditions.

Together this forms a double heat load.

The body then faces a competition for blood flow;

1. To the muscles which require oxygenated blood to sustain energy production.

2. To periphery for cooling as blood and core temperature.

Redistribution of blood due to vasodilation of peripheral blood vessels, and vasoconstriction around internal organs.
CARDIAC DRIFT
Cardiovascular drift is a gradual,
time- dependant
downward ‘drift’ in a number of
cardiovascular responses.

** it essentially explains how all the

acute responses previously
discussed, interrelate over time.
It is the ‘Whole Story’…. not new
content (UNDERSTANDING
THE PROCESS).

It occurs OVERTIME when exercising in hot conditions.

1. Fluid loss exceeds fluid gain, therefore, there is subsequent decrease in blood plasma.
2. This decreases blood volume and stroke volume.
3. To maintain cardiac output (Q), HR increases, but it cannot offset the decrease in blood/plasma volume, so Q
eventually decreases.
4. This reduces blood flow to the periphery for cooling, and the muscles for continued energy reduction
compromising exercise intensity.
5. Eventually, the continually decreasing cardiac output is preference to the muscles/vital organs over the skin
for survival.
6. The compromise in the skin blood flow, decreases the effectiveness of heat dissipation and therefore placing
significant strain on the thermoregulatory system.
7. Core temp. increases = heat related illness.

REST VS. EXERCISE IN HEAT

The impact of cardiac drift, as a result of dehydration, on cardiac output.

PERFORMANCE STATE HEART RATE (bpm) STROKE VOLUME (mL) CARDIAC OUTPUT (L)
 Rest 60 100 6

Submaximal exercise,
150 140 21
optimal hydration
Submaximal exercise,
165 115 ~19
dehydration

HUMIDITY
The amount of water vapor that exists in the air.

WHY DOES A HOT HUMID DAY FEEL HOTTER THAN A HOT, DRY DAY?

Because our sweat evaporates more easily on a dry day, creating a better cooling effect.

Humidity places greater stress on the body as it limits the body’s ability to lose heat via evaporation making it more
difficult to exercise in the heat, placing the athlete at increased risk of overheating.

THE HEAT INDEX

Used to determine how hot it feels by taking into account the air temperature and the relative humidity.

Measurements are based on subjective descriptions of how hot a subject feels for a given temperature and
humidity.

EFFECTS OF DEHYDRATION
A harmful reduction in the amount of water in
the body.

Because a fluid deficit leads to a decrease in plasma volume, stroke volume and cardiac output, the following occurs;

1. Decreased blood flow to skin so as to maintain blood flow to muscles and essential organs.
2. Decreased sweating leading to dry skin.
3. Decreased heat loss by evaporation.
4. Increased body temperature  unconsciousness.

o Confusion o Brain damage

o Coma o Death

HEAT ILLNESS SYMPTOMS

HEAT EXHAUSTION HEAT STROKE
Headaches. Head aches.
Nausea + vomiting. Nausea + vomiting.
Fatigue, weakness + restlessness. Rapid pulse.
Thirsty. Extremely thirsty.
Anxiety. Dry, swollen tongue.
Poor coordination. Disorientated.
Weak, rapid pulse. Dizzy or delirious, slurred speech.
Sweating heavily. Body temp. more than 40*C.
Raising body temp. Convulsion, seizures or coma.
WHAT TO DO May be sweating, skin may feel deceptively cool.
Lie down in shade or air-conditioning. WHAT TO DO
Drink water. Call 000 immediately.
Cool compress or tea towel. Reduce temp. until ambulance arrives.
Cool shower or bath.
EXERCISING IN THE HEAT
Strategies to minimise impact of performance;

PRECOOLING

Reduces skin and core body temperature which means the athlete is further from upper limiting temperature.

Whole body and part body

- Ice-baths, cool rooms, showers

- Ice-vests, ice-packs, towels, slushies (decrease core temp.)

CLOTHING

This is a layer of insulation which imposes a barrier to heat transfer.

- Wear minimal clothing

- Loose fitting to allow convective currents to cool skin.
- Light colours to reflect and not absorb heat
- Lightweight, breathable material

ACCLIMATISATION

The body’s ability to adapt to repeated daily exposure of exercise in the heat.

HYPERHYDRATION

Before – consume 600mL of fluid in the hour before training.

During –200mL fluid every 15-20mins.

After – consume 1.5L for every kg body weight lost.

OTHER

Ventilation / fans on sideline (enhance heat loss via convection)

Move out of direct sunlight if possible, find protective shade.

FLUID REPLACEMENT TO MINIMISE DEHYDRATION

HYPONATREMIA
An abnormally low concentration of sodium in the blood.

When a person is sweating profusely for an extended period of time, drinking too much water can cause problems
because the body is losing salt and water in sweat, but only water is being replaced.

- Imbalance, or lack of salt can interfere with brain, heart and muscle function.

SPORTS DRINKS

Contain carbohydrates, sodium and potassium.

Effective due to the fact they;

- Taste good
- Provide athlete with rapid supply of energy (high GI)
- Replace lost electrolytes (particularly effective in ultra-endurance activities where massive amounts of sweat
loss and electrolyte loss occurs.

HEAT ACCLIMATISATION
The body’s ability to adapt to repeated daily exposure of exercise in the heat to reduce the impact of heat on
physiological function and exercise performance.

METHODS

Training at the location, therefore training is completely competition specific.

Train in an alternative, similar environment (e.g. if competing in Dubai, Perth is too cold to replicate these
conditions so travel to Broome – cheaper and closer!)

Simulate conditions – create a hot training environment by using internal heating, heat chamber, and warm, heavy
clothing.

GUIDELINES

FACTORS GUIDELINES
Length (duration) 7-14 days (4-6 weeks prior then maintain with 2 sessions per week).

Frequency No more than 3 days apart.

Number of sessions 10 – 12

Length of sessions 60 – 90mins

Conditions 25 – 30*C

ADAPTATIONS
 SWEATING
Increases sweat rate (enhances heat loss via evaporation)
Early onset of sweating (lowers sweating threshold)
Effective distribution of sweat (i.e. more on limbs and periphery, not trunk).
More dilute sweat (less NaCl lost)

These changes optimise cooling and preserve essential electrolytes.

TEMPERATURE
Decreased core temperature.
Means that you are further away from limiting temperature i.e. whilst the same relative gain in temperature
would occur at any given workload, the resulting core temp. would be lower in someone who is heat acclimatised.

CARDIOVASCULAR
Decreased heart rate
Increase plasma volume
Lower vasodilation thresholds (i.e. increased skin blood flow!)

These changes result in greater proportion of cardiac output to the muscles.

** once acclimatised, benefits last several weeks (max acclimatisation occurs after ~3 weeks).

INCREASED LACTATE THRESHOLD AND CARDIAC OUTPUT

At any given exercise intensity, heat acclimatisation has been shown to reduce the blood lactate concentration
and threshold at which blood lactate levels begin to rise is delayed by heat acclimatisation.
Increased plasma volume increases total blood volume = increased cardiac output.
This also increases blood flow to the liver, enhancing lactate removal, and thus delaying blood lactate
accumulation.

ALTITUDE
Air at any level contains the same amounts of gases in the air. Oxygen (20.93%), Nitrogen (79.04%) and Carbon
Dioxide (0.03%).

Barometric Pressure: aka. atmospheric pressure, is the force exerted by the atmosphere at a given point. It is also
known as the “weight of the air”.

At any point on earth, the more air above that point, the grater the barometric pressure will be.

- At sea level, air has a barometric pressure of 760mmHg.

- At Mexico City, 2240m above sea level, air has a barometric pressure of 585mmHg.
- At Mount Everest, 8848m above sea level, air has a barometric pressure of 231mmHg.

Partial pressure: the pressure that would be exerted by one of the gases in a mixture if it occupied the same volume
on its own.

CONDITIONS
The conditions at altitude differ to those at sea level.

At altitude, there is;

- A decreased barometric pressure.

- A decreased partial pressure of oxygen.
- The air is ‘less dense’ and ‘thinner’.

This results in a hypoxic environment.

Hypoxia: refers to conditions with lower than normal (i.e. sea level) oxygen availability.

Hypoxia decreases the pressure gradient in the lungs, which decreases pulmonary diffusion capacity (less O2 diffuses
from the alveoli into the capillaries).

Therefore, a hypoxic environment results in diminished supply of oxygen to the tissues.

Exercise performance is decreased as this lack of O2 decreases VO2 max and aerobic performance/ anaerobic
recovery.

OXYGEN IMPACTS HOW OUR BODY FUNCTIONS

As you go up in altitude the amount of available oxygen decreases – not because the percentage of oxygen in the air
goes down but because the barometric pressure decreases.

This makes less oxygen available for your use.

LUNGS
As barometric pressure decreases, there is less pressure driving air into the lungs.
To get the same amount of air and oxygen as at sea level, you have to breathe faster and deeper to compensate.
You feel this as shortness of breath and being breathless.
This is a ‘good’ adaptation and can help you adjust to the lower amount of available oxygen.

HEART
When your body has less oxygen available, it adapts to this hypoxia.
First your heart beats faster and harder to pump more blood around… you can notice a faster pulse in the first few
days after you arrive at altitude.

BRAIN
Less oxygen also causes changes I the brain which can lead to insomnia and feelings of fatigue.
One of the most common effects of hypoxia is headache. Some people even get nauseated.

ALTITUDE TRAINING – ACUTE RESPONSES

RESPIRATORY – Bodies Response

Less oxygen molecules per given amount of air means that increased ventilation is required to consume the same
amount of oxygen as at sea level.

RESPIRATORY RESPONSES
RESPONSE DESCRIPTION WHY
 respiratory rate @ rest Increase in the number of breaths per Both responses occur as an attempt to
and submaximal levels minute. increase O2 intake.
 tidal volume @ rest and Increase in the depth of each breath.
submaximal levels
RESPIRATORY IMPLICATIONS – NEGATIVE EFFECT FROM BODIES RESPONSE
RESPONSE DESCRIPTION WHY
 oxygen diffusion Less oxygen diffuses from the lungs to As altitude increases  partial pressure
the blood of oxygen in the air drops, so does the
pressure gradient between oxygen in the
lungs and blood.
 VO2 max VO2 max is the amount of oxygen that Body cannot uptake as much O2
can be consumed in 1 minute. compared to sea level, despite increases
in RR and TV. Therefore, less O2 is
‘consumed’ refers to the ability of the consumed.
body to intake, transport, extract and
utilise oxygen for energy production.

CARDIOVASCULAR – Bodies response

The lack of oxygen diffused into the blood stream means that the cardiovascular system needs to increase the
delivery of O2 to the muscle cells.

CARDIOVASCULAR RESPONSES
RESPONSE DESCRIPTION WHY
 HR and Cardiac Output Increase beats per minute These changes occur as an attempt to increase
(Q) @ rest and submaximal O2 delivery to the muscles.
Increase in the amount of blood
exercise
circulated around the body in 1
** cannot use these as minute.
separate answers as one
leads to another.

 blood volume Plasma volume decreases by up This is a deliberate response by the body as
to 25% within the first few hours reducing plasma in effect increases the density
of exposure. of red blood cells.
While no extra red blood cells have been
produced, the amount of haemoglobin per unit
of blood (haematocrit) is now increased
resulting in greater oxygen transport.
CARDIOVASCULAR IMPLICATIONS – NEGATIVE EFFECT FROM BODIES RESPONSE
RESPONSE DESCRIPTION WHY
 maximal cardiac output Amount of blood (therefore O2, Due to decrease in blood volume and decrease
delivered through the body per in max HR (lack of O2 means involuntary heart
minute) is decreased. muscle cannot work as hard at altitude) Cardiac
output is reduced
MUSCULAR/METABOLIC
 MUSCULAR/METABOLIC IMPLICATIONS – NEGATIVE EFFECT FROM BODIES RESPONSE
RESPONSE DESCRIPTION WHY
 tissue diffusion Less oxygen is diffused from the O2 passes from the oxygen-rich arterial blood
capillaries into the muscle cell. to the active tissues via a pressure gradient. As
this decreases, less O2 diffuses from the blood
to the tissues.
 concentration of lactic More lactic acid accumulated in Less O2 and plasma volume decreases the
acid at any given intensity the muscles, resulting in earlier ability for the body to ‘buffer’ lactic acid.
compared to sea level fatigue.
Lack of O2 availability also places a greater
demand on anaerobic metabolism to produce
energy. The by-product of which is lactic acid.

PERFORMANCE ISSUES AT ALTITUDE

Athletic performance dependent on oxygen for energy production i.e. an event lasting longer than roughly two
minutes, will experience a decrease in performance due to compromised aerobic energy production.

Performance in repeat sprint exercise is impaired at altitude due to lower oxygen availability to replenish creatine
phosphate stores and remove lactic acid.

Nutrition for athletes at altitude can be a major problem, and weight loss will be significant at moderate to high
altitudes.

A prolonged stay at altitude may result in a loss of body mass and reduces training capacity (eventually leading to
detraining).

PERFORMANCE ADVANTAGES AT ALTITUDE

Because the air at high altitude is less dense (i.e. thinner) than at sea level, performance in one-off sprint or power
events (those in which air resistance needs to be overcome) might be enhanced when competing at high altitude.

ALTITUDE ACCLIMATISATION
Altitude acclimatisation describes the improved physiological response to the hypoxia experienced at altitude.

Improved physiological responses at altitude are a result of chronic adaptations (similar to those produced via
anaerobic training).

Duration varies, but the higher the altitude, the longer the period of acclimatisation required.

Athletes use altitude training to prepare for;

- Performance at altitude
- Performance at sea level

Altitude stimulates ‘stress’ due to hypoxia experiences, which means the body responds through gaining adaptations
(similar to those produced via aerobic training)

METHODS OF ALTITUDE ACCLIMATISATION

1. Live high – train high

2. Live low – train high
3. Live high – train low

WHAT DESCRIBE EXTRA INFO

 Live high Athlete lives at altitude to achieve Need minimum of two weeks to ensure altitude sickness
physiological benefits of decrease in has subsided, and adaptations begin to occur.
– concentration of O2 and trains at
Can be used in conjunction with live low, train high prior to
Train high altitude to obtain adaptations.
leaving.
Training intensity is compromised
POSSIBLE ISSUES
compared to at sea level.
There is a compromise in training intensity when at
altitude.
Disruption to the training program due to travel, being
away from home, costs incurred.

Live low Athlete lives at sea level to have Can train at competition venue or stimulated
access to high concentration of O2 environment, live in normal conditions.
–
Training at altitude (altitude - Prepares athletes physiologically and psychologically
Train high chamber or hypobaric) to obtain for the stress of hypoxic competition.
adaptations. - Adaptations not as effective as those gained via
option 3 (live high – train low), due to reduction in
intensity.
HOW?
Train at higher altitude for at least 2 weeks prior to
competition.
Although full acclimatisation to altitude takes 4-6 weeks,
many of the physiological adaptations occur in the first
two weeks and the more severe disturbances should have
settled.

Live high Athlete lives at altitude (or sleeps in This method allows athletes to continue to train at high
hypoxic tent) intensities whilst still gaining the adaptations of high
– altitudes.
- Achieve physiological benefits
Train low of decrease in concentration of They should spend a minimum of 12hrs sleeping or resting
O2. in a stimulated altitude tent set at roughly 3000m for 3-4
weeks.
Trains at sea level to work at higher
intensities WHY IS THIS THE BEST PROVEN METHOD?
- Due to increase in O2 - Enables benefits of altitude exposure whilst ‘doing
concentration. nothing’ e.g. living/sleeping

- Continuing to train at sea level ensures that the

quality and intensity of the training session is not
compromised.

PREPARING FOR COMPETITION AT ALTITUDE

When preparing to compete at altitude, it is important the athlete takes into account the following considerations;

- Increased recovery between sessions is required following exercise bouts at altitude.

- An extended tapering period in lead up to major competitions is required to enable the athletes time to
peak.
- Training intensity at altitude must be decrease given the strenuous nature of the conditions.
- A strict fluid preplacement regime is needed as less humid conditions create greater risk of dehydration.

COMPETITION
The adaptations essentially aid in the diffusion, carrying capacity, extraction and utilisation of oxygen.

- Helps deal with hypoxia in altitude environments or enhances performance in aerobic events.

Adaptations include;

- Increased red blood cells and haemoglobin.

- Increased mitochondria
- Increased aerobic enzymes
- Increased capillaries
- Increased myoglobin

CHRONIC ADAPTATIONS
BLOOD RELATED

ADAPTATION HOW / PURPOSE PERFORMANCE BENEFIT

 red blood cells Increased secretion of EPO by the Increasing O2 delivery to the
kidneys stimulates RBC production muscles for energy production.
Therefore  haematocrit (% of RBC by the bone marrow.
in the blood).
Increases the oxygen carrying
capacity of the blood.

FUNCTION OF MYOGLOBIN

MUSCLE RELATED

ADAPTTION WHY / PURPOSE PERFORMANCE BENEFIT

 mitochondria Enhances the utilisation of O2 and Greater aerobic capacity as more ATP is
breakdown of aerobic fuels (triglycerides produced under aerobic conditions.
and glycogen) for energy production.

 aerobic enzymes Increases the rate at which aerobic fuels Can work at a higher intensity for a given
are broken down, thereby enhancing the work rate aerobically.
rate of energy production.
 capillaries Greater surface area for O2 transfer. Increases the delivery of O2 to muscle cells
which increase aerobic energy production.
 myoglobin Can store and extract more O2 at the Increases the availability of O2 which
muscle level. increases aerobic production.

ADAPTATIONS
RETURNING TO SEA LEVEL AFTER ALTITUDE

The benefits for athletes who train at altitude will occur after 2-3 weeks of training at altitude and will last up to 2
months at sea level.

AFTER 2 WEEKS;

- Haemoglobin and haematocrit levels decrease significantly.

-  mitochondria, capillary and enzyme levels thought to last longer provided training is maintained.

** elite sporting clubs try to maintain these adaptations by intermittent hypoxic training exposure (i.e. 1-2 times per
week.

EXERCISING IN COLD WEATHER

Despite the generation of heat as a metabolic by-product of exercise, thermoregulatory problems can occur in cold
weather.

Generally, cold is less of a problem that heat as you can more easily protect yourself by wearing suitable clothing.

Hypothermia: the condition of having an abnormally (typically dangerously) low body temperature (falls below
35*C).

Temperature and wind speed determines the COLDNESS of the day. This creates a WIND CHILL factor that reduces
the temperature even further.

Wind Chill: defined as the cooling effects of the wind blowing on a surface.

The balance between heat loss and heat production is controlled by a number of factors;

1. Body size
o Athletes such as children have a higher surface area/mass ratio and may sustain greater heat loss.
2. Body composition
o Subcutaneous fat acts as an insulator.

The degree of heat loss also depends on air movement (convention), humidity, evaporates (sweating), and ambient
temperature.

- Wind velocity exacerbates heat loss from convention, radiation and evaporation.

RESPONSES WHEN PERFORMING IN COLD WEATHER

There are many, however most important are shivering and vasoconstriction.

SHIVERING
Involuntary muscular contraction in response to cold.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Occur in an attempt to increase metabolic heat Issues with fine motor control.
production and reverse the fall in body temperature.
Glycogen depletion ‘lose energy’.
This can cause a 4-5 fold (times) increase in heat
production. Shivering results in decreased muscular
coordination and impairs performance.
PERIPHERAL VASOCONSTRICTION
Involves the narrowing of the blood vessels to the periphery to limit blood flow to extremities.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
This prevents heat loss and maintains core Impacts ability to throw/catch (decrease skin temp.
temperature. causing tingling, numbness, ‘burning’ sensation)
Reduced sensation in hands and feet (decrease in fine
motor skills)
Severe circumstances – frostbite.
DECREASE IN MUSCLE TEMPERATURE
DISADVANTAGES
Exercise in the cold can affect muscle function. Muscle functions best at temp. of 40*C.
Cooling alters the nervous system and the muscle fibre’s recruitment pattern.
Muscle shortening velocity and power decrease when the temp. is lowered.
Results in earlier fatigue, decrease movement speed, muscle strength and mechanical efficiency.
DECREASE VO2 MAX
This is an effect of the conditions as opposed to a direct physiological effect.
WHY?
Occurs due to shivering and exercise occurring simultaneously.
Decrease O2 supply leads to rapid accumulation.

PREPARING FOR PERFORMANCE IN COLD WEATHER

1. Wear insulating clothing – under uniform ( heat loss via radiation)
o Body’s extremities (heads, hands, feet) are all areas of high heat loss, experiencing vasoconstriction
during cold exposure.
o It is critical these areas are appropriately covered when exercising in cold conditions.
2. Minimise exposed skin
o Wear long sleeves, beanie, gloves ( heat loss via convention)
3. Adequate hydration
o A lot of water is lost via respiration on top of normal sweat rate (by humidifying the incoming air,
and then exhaling it)
4. Ensuring appropriate CHO intake
o Sports drinks (shivering depletes glycogen stores.
5. Vigorous warm-ups to slightly elevate core temperature
o So that subsequent decrease is not as detrimental.

COLD RELATED ILLNESS

Hypothermia: the condition of having an abnormally (typically dangerously) low body temperature (falls below
35*C).

CATEGORY RECTAL TEMPERATURE SYMPTOMS / SIGNS

Mild hypothermia 33 – 35*C Shivering.
Hunger.
Lethargy.
Confusion.
Muscle spasm.
Difficulty with motor tasks.
Decreased race pace.
Slurred speech.
Ataxic gait.
Slow reflexes.

Moderate hypothermia 30 – 33*C May not be shivering.

Semi-conscious with confused actions and irrational
behaviour.