Thesis
Thesis
Thesis
On
Design and Development of Metamaterial-Based
Radome Structures for Space-Borne Communications
degree of
DOCTOR of PHILOSOPHY
in
Electronics Engineering
Submitted by
Surabhi Dwivedi
(DS11EC003)
Under the Supervision of
Dr. J. N. Sarvaiya
Associate Professor, SVNIT, Surat
Dr. Y. P. Kosta
Director, MEF, Rajkot
Declaration
I hereby declare that the work being presented in this thesis entitled “Design and
Development of Metamaterial-Based Radome Structures for Space-Borne Commu-
nications” by me and submitted to the Department of Electronics Engineering of
Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, is an authentic record of
my own work carried out during the period of 2012-2015 under the supervision of
Dr. J. N. Sarvaiya and Dr. Y. P. Kosta towards partial fulfillment for obtaining the
degree of Ph.D. in Electronics Engineering.
Surabhi Dwivedi
i
Department of Electronics Engineering
Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology
Surat-395007, Gujarat, India
Certificate
is a part of research work carried out by Ms. Surabhi Dwivedi, DS11EC003, under
our guidance and supervision at Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology,
Surat, Gujarat, India, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree
of Doctor of Philosophy in Electronics Engineering. To the best of our knowledge,
the work included in this thesis is an original work carried out by her independently.
The results of the thesis in part or whole have not been submitted to any other Insti-
tute/University for the award of any degree or diploma.
This is to further certify that Ms. Surabhi Dwivedi has fulfilled the prescribed
conditions of duration and nature given in the statues and ordinances of Sardar Val-
labhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat.
ii
Abstract
The thesis provides a carefully structured design methodology of radome struc-
ture and elegant discussion on the optimization and fabrication techniques applied
to the radome structure over the patch antenna. The variation in the spacing height
of a metamaterial cover over the slotted patch antenna is reported to improve its
directivity. Multiple Attribute Decision Making (MADM) techniques of optimiza-
tion are used. In the present work, Multiple Attribute Decision Making optimization
techniques are used for selecting the best substrate for microstrip patch antenna and
Teflon is obtained as best material for the antenna substrate. Analytical Hierarchy
Process (AHP), Weighted Product Method (WPM) and Technique for Order Pref-
erence by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) methods are used for optimizing
the result parameters of an antenna and selecting the best available substrate for mi-
crostrip antenna design.
The antenna is designed with a metamaterial cover to work in three bands within
the frequency range of 1-4 GHz. This synopsis report presents the design issues,
modeling, fabrication and characterization of a radome structure, a metamaterial
cover over the slotted patch antenna for triband operation with center frequency 2.45
GHz. The dimensions of the slots patterned over the patch antenna are designed
to control the lower resonant frequency and the bandwidth. The report presents the
selection of the best optimized dimensions of the slotted patch antenna and metama-
terial cover to control the resonant frequencies and bandwidth of the antenna. The
experimental results are presented thoroughly and compared with the analytical cal-
culations. A comparative result analysis of the effect of varying the spatial height of
the metamaterial cover over patch antenna is shown theoretically. The proposed novel
slotted patch antenna design has triband operation in the frequency range of 1-4 GHz
with the miniaturized overall antenna size of the dimension 52.5mm×36.5mm×1.56mm,
that is equivalent to miniaturized design reported to our knowledge so far. High
Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS) software is used for simulations. Numerical
simulation and theoretical studies are used first to design a metamaterial based an-
tenna substrate; then experiments are used to prove the predictions. Simulating the
real size structure requires full wave analysis which needs more memory and takes
longer time; with the effective permittivity and permeability, analytic formula is used
to obtain far-field results. Moreover, the design of metamaterial based radome an-
tennas are presented for different wireless communication applications. This study
shows the effects of different parameters on the antenna structure.
For the very first time, the concept of Newton’s divided difference method is ap-
iii
plied for evaluating the performance parameters of the antenna. A global formula
is developed to indicate the relationship of the directivity with the spatial height. A
more directional and higher gain patch antenna with radome cover is proposed. An
analytical method, Newton’s divided difference method is utilized to predict the fea-
tures of the simulation results, implying that within a certain frequency range, the
spatial height of the metamaterial cover can be adjusted for maximum directivity at-
tainment. Negative value of permittivity and permeability are obtained due to the
use of metametarial cover over the patch antenna. S-parameters, directivity and ra-
diation patterns as performance matrices are obtained using the software tool High
Frequency Structure Simulator version 11. These parameters are used to retrieve the
effective permittivity and permeability. Numerous simulations have been carried out
for different heights of the cover from the patch antenna in the microwave regime.
The optimally simulated structure is proposed for the application of metamaterials as
antenna cover to primarily enhance directivity by minimizing its refractive index in
negative regime. Further design includes review and critical discussions on the effect
of using different substrate materials for the patch antenna.
The core of the work is to design multilayer radome structures using computa-
tional tools High Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS) based on Finite Element
Method (FEM) and the effective dielectric permittivity and permeability are calcu-
lated. By incorporating magnetic materials, the effective magnetic permeability is
manipulated . After designing optimal structures, fabrication of the device is carried
out using Plated Through Hole (PTH). Hence, Plated Through Hole related princi-
ples, fabrication issues and analysis of radome structure are reported. The compari-
son of theoretical, numerical and measured results are made and degree of agreement
is calculated. The designed antenna is expected to be used for space-borne commu-
nication.
iv
Acknowledgement
I wish to express my cavernous sense of obligation and gratitude to my research su-
pervisors, Dr. J. N. Sarvaiya of Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology
(SVNIT) and Dr. Y. P. Kosta of Marwadi Education Foundation (MEF) for their gen-
uine guidance and constant encouragement throughout this seminar work. Through
their vast knowledge and expertise, they made me aware of the recent developments
in the subject related to this thesis work.
I am highly obliged to Dr. Upena Dalal, Head of the Department of Electronics
Engineering, SVNIT for providing the support at Institute and department level. I am
deeply indebted to her for her kind support and encouragement throughout the work.
I am also thankful to Prof. B. R. Taunk for providing me a nice platform for
fabrication and testing of the designed antenna models and Dr. R. V. Rao for teaching
the concept of advanced engineering optimization through intelligent techniques. I
am thankful to all the faculties of SVNIT, who helped me directly or indirectly in the
completion of my work.
I also wish to express my heartfelt appreciation to my husband Mr. Pawan
Chaturvedi, family, friends, colleagues and many who have rendered their support
for the successful completion of this work, both explicitly and implicitly. And last
but not the least to the Almighty for bestowing me with all his bliss.
Surabhi Dwivedi
Ph.D. Scholar
(Roll No. DS11EC003)
January 2016
v
Contents
Declaration i
Certificate ii
Abstract iii
Acknowledgement v
vi
1.6.6 Effect of loss tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.7 Effect of substrate parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Analysis models of MSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.8 Applications of MSAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.9 Research gaps / Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.10 Objectives of the present work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 Metamaterials: An Introduction 14
2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.1 Engheta’s Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.2 Hrabar’s Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.3 Kong’s Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Features of Metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.1 Refraction and Snell’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.2 Veselago and negative index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Classification of Metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.1 Left-Handed Metamaterials (LHM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.2 Electromagnetic metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.3 Artificial dielectric material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.4 Artificial magnetic material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.5 Artificial left-handed metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.6 High impedance surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.7 Terahertz metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.8 Photonic metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.9 Tunable metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Effects of array dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.1 Split Ring Resonator (SRR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.2 Micro-Split Ring Resonator (MSRR) . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 Properties of Metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.1 Reverse Doppler Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.2 Negative Group Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.6 Applications of metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.6.1 Metamaterials in microstrip antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6.2 Metamaterials as an absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.6.3 Metamaterials as a superlens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.6.4 Metamaterials as a cloaking device . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6.5 Metamaterials as a sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
vii
2.6.6 Metamaterials as a phase compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.7 Significance of metamaterial for microstrip patch antenna . . . . . . 32
viii
5.1.1 Variables description for MSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.1.2 Grid designing variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.1.3 Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.2 Designing of MSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.2.1 Line feed patch antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.2.2 Inset feed patch antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2.3 Coaxial feed patch antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.3 Metamaterial array in slotted patch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.3.1 Negative parameter retrieval of MTM . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4 Radome Structure (Grid Structure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.5 Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.6 Fabrication and characterization of radome structure . . . . . . . . 95
5.7 Steps of fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.8 Testing and troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.8.1 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6 Conclusions 101
Publications 103
ix
List of Figures
3.1 (a) The conventional patch antenna, (b) The metamaterial patch an-
tenna cover; and in H-plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 (a) Ordinary patch antenna, (b) Metamaterial cover patch antenna . 39
3.3 (a) Electric field, (b) Metamaterial cover patch antenna . . . . . . . 40
3.4 (a) Electric field, (b) Magnetic field and H-plane intensity distribu-
tion of metamaterial cover patch antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.1 (a) Impedance of unit cell, (b) Refractive index of unit cell . . . . . 46
4.2 (a) Permittivity of unit cell, (b) Permeability of unit cell . . . . . . . 46
4.3 Isometric View of the grid antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4 (a) Positive refractive index [72], (b) Negative refractive index [72] . 49
4.5 The metallic wire arrays with radius of wire r and separation between
rods is a [74] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
x
4.6 (a) Circular structure (b) Square structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.7 Directivity versus spacing height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
xi
5.31 VSWR for metamaterial cover over the microstrip patch antenna . . 92
5.32 Directivity of metamaterial cover over the microstrip patch antenna
for x=10mm, 6mm and 2mm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.33 Return Loss of metamaterial cover over the microstrip patch antenna
for x=8.4mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.34 VSWR of metamaterial cover over the microstrip patch antenna for
x=8.4mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.35 Peak directivity of metamaterial cover over the microstrip patch an-
tenna at x=8.4mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.36 Optimized HFSS model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.37 (a) PCB designed for fabrication, (b) Model transported to PCB Pro-
totype Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.38 PCB Prototyping Machine(Purchased under TEQIP-II grant at SVNIT) 97
5.39 Grid design layout in Eagle PCB design software . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.40 Fabricated patch antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.41 Fabricated optimized copper grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.42 Demonstration of Plated Through Hole process . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.43 Setup Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.44 Experimental Setup 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.45 Experimental Setup 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
xii
List of Tables
xiii
5.8 Multiple band operation for simple(Model 1), slotted(Model 2) and
metamaterial included patch(Model 3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.9 Comparative analysis with reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.10 Comparative Analysis of Patch Antenna with increasing substrate
thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.11 Comparative Analysis of Patch Antenna with decreasing dielectric
constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.12 Return loss and VSWR analysis of MSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.13 Return loss and VSWR analysis of radome structure . . . . . . . . . 95
5.14 Degree of agreement of the mathematical results with the simulated
results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.15 Degree of agreement of the measured results with the simulated results100
xiv
Chapter 1
1.1 Overview
The introductory chapter presents metamaterials that can efficiently improve antenna
directivities. With the correct selection of the working frequency and the metamate-
rial cover dimensions, patch antenna directivity can be increased. The metamaterial
has congregating effect on the electromagnetic wave’s transmission direction, which
is similar to the congregation effect of the convex lens to the radiation of light-wave.
Under ideal conditions, larger cover size of the metamaterial is better; and number of
layers are better. But under actual conditions, one must use the least space resources
to obtain the best functions of the antenna as suggested by Hu et al. [1]. Gain and
directivity enhancement methods through the use of dielectric superstrates or covers
have been described in various manners for decades. Trentini [2] and Sasser [3] noted
that the multiple reflections off of a semi-transparent reflector can produce images of
the original antenna so that the gain increases similar to that of arraying the antenna.
This configuration can increase gain for certain wavelengths or frequencies at a par-
ticular angle. A thorough treatment of this configuration with dielectric/magnetic
materials is provided by Jackson and Alexopoulos [4], where it is described as a
substrate-superstrate effect. Further work by Jackson and Oliner [5] and Ostner et
al. [6] described the gain enhancement through leaky wave. The gain enhancement
comes at the cost of a monotonically-decreasing gain bandwidth. The beamwidths
decrease with increasing gain as explained by Meagher et al. [7]. Nakano et al. [8]
showed that a further increase in spacing height also leads to higher sidelobes and
less gain. If one wants to improve the directivity and gain of the antenna, the most
direct method is to reduce the radiation power in the far-field region of large theta; in
1
other words, forbid the sideward radiation as advocated by Alexopoulos and Jackson
[9]. The gain enhancement method of microstrip antennas, relying on structural res-
onance by dielectric cover, has been investigated by Jackson and Alexopoulos, Yang
and Alexopoulos and Pendry et al. [4, 10, 11].
requires antennas that operate at more than just one frequency whilst maintaining
a small size. The MSA can be excited directly either by a coaxial probe or by a
microstrip line. It can also be excited indirectly using an electromagnetic coupling,
aperture coupling and through a coplanar waveguide feed.
2
models had started in 1979 [17]. A special issue of IEEE transactions on Antenna &
Propagation publication started in the year 1981 [18].
• They are lightweight, have a small volume and possess a low-profile planar
configuration.
• They are easier to integrate with other Microwave Integrated Circuits (MICs)
on the same substrate.
3
1.3.2 Circular Patch
Cavity model is used to analyze it where cylindrical coordinates are applied. Circular
polarized antennas have larger dimensions. Therefore, it is hard to achieve miniatur-
ization for devices using circular polarized signals via circularly polarized antennas.
Invention of linearly polarized patch antenna which can receive circularly polarized
signals is being done. As far as the dimensions of the patch, there are two parameters
to control (length and width) for the rectangular MSA. However, for the circular
patch there is only one parameter to control and that is radius of the patch.
4
without the need for any additional matching element. This is achieved by properly
controlling the inset position [20].
moving in a distance R from the end will increase the current by cos(πy/L),his is just
noting that the wavelength is 2y, and so the phase difference is 2πy/(2L)=πy/L.
5
The voltage also decreases in magnitude by the same amount that the current in-
creases. Hence, using Z=V/I, the input impedance scales as:
Where Zin is the input impedance if the patch was fed at the end and Z0 is impedance
of feed line usually 50 Ω.
6
Table 1.1: Yearwise improvement in performance parameter of MSA
7
Parameters Year of Techniques Researcher(s) and pub-
publica- lished Source(s)/ Refer-
tion ence(s)
1999 Use of feed- Luk et al. [29]
ing methods
like proximity
method
2003 Loading the Vadak and Gupta [30]
suspended MSA
with a dielectric
resonator
2015 A High- Maroufi et al. [31]
Bandwidth
MEMS Nanopo-
sitioner
Size Re- 1988 Use of short cir- Pinhas and Shtrikman [32]
duction cuits
1997 Cutting slots Iwasaki [33]
in the radiating
patch
2004 Use of a par- Lee and Harackiewicz [34]
tially filled high
permittivity sub-
strate
2011 Scaling of losses Khurgin and Sun [35]
with size and
wavelength in
nanoplasmonics
and metamateri-
als
2013 Size reduction in Patel and Kosta [36]
microstrip based
meandered radi-
ating structure
2015 Characteristics Gupta et al. [37]
of a compact
circularly polar-
ized microstrip
antenna
8
With the increasing requirements for personal and mobile communications, the
demand for smaller and low-prole antennas has brought the concept of MSA. Re-
cently, there has been growing interest in both the theoretical and experimental study
of metamaterials inspired antennas. MSAs, which are mainly used for defense and
commercial applications, are replacing many conventional antennas. However, the
types of applications of MSAs are restricted by the antennas’ inherent narrow band-
width. Hence, researchers are making various attempts to improve its bandwidth
while maintaining the overall gain of the antenna. Scientists and researchers also
made various attempts to reduce the overall size of the microstrip antenna from 1988
onwards [32]. Use of short circuits was the rst technique adopted in 1988 [32], cutting
slots in the radiating patch was the revolutionary technique that came into practice
from 1996 and the use of a partially lled high permittivity substrate was introduced
in 2002 [34].
9
A = 200 for
h
0.045 < √ < 0.075 (1.5)
λ0 r
A = 220 for
h
√ ≥ 0.075 (1.6)
λ0 r
If W is smaller, then the BW and gain will decrease. If W is larger, then the BW
increases due to the increase in the radiated fields. The directivity also increases due
to the increase in the aperture area.
10
1.6.5 Effect of permittivity
With an increase in permittivity the following effects are observed: BW increases
because the resonance frequency has increased. A better comparison of effect of per-
mittivity is obtained when the antenna is designed to operate in the same frequency
range for different values of permittivity [38].
11
1.7 Analysis models of MSA
By using transmission line implementation of metamaterials, an MSA can be de-
signed to operate in left handed mode where the propagation constant approaches
negative innity while wavelength becomes innitesimally small as the frequency de-
creases to lower cut off. A dual band and triband antenna can be realized by slightly
changing the shape of a rectangular patch antenna. The dual band antenna is very use-
ful for satellite communication to cover both transmit and receive operation simul-
taneously. Its applications are in radar, satellite communication, wireless network,
mobile communication and microwave sensors.
Table 1.2: Analysis models of Microstrip patch antenna [16]
12
• Aircrafts and ship antennas communication and navigation, altimeters, blind
landing systems.
• Mobile radio pagers and hand telephones, man pack systems, mobile vehicles.
• To enhance the response using metamaterial based radome structures with the
miniaturization of the overall antenna size.
13
Chapter 2
Metamaterials: An Introduction
2.1 Overview
The first attempt to explore the concept of “artificial materials appears to trace back
to the late part of the nineteenth century when Jagadis Chunder Bose conducted the
first microwave experiment on twisted structures,geometries that were essentially ar-
tificial chiral elements by today’s terminology [16]. Lindman worked on “artificial
chiral media by embedding many randomly oriented small wire helices in a host
medium [17]. Kock made lightweight microwave lenses by arranging conducting
spheres, disks, and strips periodically and effectively tailoring the effective refractive
index of the artificial media [17]. Since then, artificial complex materials have been
the subject of research for many investigators worldwide.
In recent years new concepts in synthesis and novel fabrication techniques have
allowed the construction of structures and composite materials that mimic known ma-
terial responses or that qualitatively have new, physically realizable response func-
tions that do not occur or may not be readily available in nature. These metamaterials
can in principle be synthesized by embedding various constituents/inclusions with
novel geometric shapes and forms in some host media Figure 2.1. Various types of
electromagnetic composite media, such as Double-Negative (DNG) materials, chi-
ral materials, omega media, wire media, bianisotropic media, linear and nonlinear
media, and local and nonlocal media, to name a few, have been studied by various
research groups worldwide. Metamaterial is the combination of the word “Meta” &
“Material”. “Meta” is the Greek prefix meaning “Beyond”. Metamaterials are syn-
thetic structures that possess electromagnetic properties beyond conventional mate-
rials. They gain electromagnetic properties from their structure as opposed to their
intrinsic material property. Metamaterials are useful because they are designed to
function as continuous effective media to electromagnetic radiation.
14
Figure 2.1: Generic sketch of a volumetric metamaterial synthesized by embedding various
inclusions in a host medium
A metamaterial (or meta material) is a material which gains its properties from its
structure rather than directly from its composition. Metamaterials are a broader class
of materials which enables us to manipulate the permittivity and permeability for op-
timizing physical properties of radiating patch primarily for improvement in radiation
from antenna. Recently, there has been growing interest in both the theoretical and
experimental study of metamaterials. Many properties and potential applications of
left-handed metamaterials have been explored and analyzed theoretically [40]. The
main principal is to characterize a sample with effective material parameters ef f and
µef f , which result from spatial averaging of the electric and magnetic fields.
Kock developed materials that had similar characteristics to metamaterials in the
late 1940s [17]. Materials, which exhibited reversed physical characteristics were
first described theoretically by Veselago [41]. Metamaterials that provide a structure
with an effective negative index of refraction is called Negative Index Metamaterial
(NIMs). This is also first conceptualized by Veselago [41]. In DNG media, materi-
als with both negative permittivity and negative permeability are almost synonymous
with MTM referred to as Left-Handed Metamaterials (LHM) by Veselago, back-
ward wave media and negative refraction index [41]. Pendry proposed the focusing
phenomenon in a perfect lens [16]. It has been attributed to two effects: propaga-
tion mode and evanescent modes. He also proposed physical structures that lead
to their physical realization [11, 16, 42]. A little over 30 years later, Smith et al.
reported the experimental demonstration of functional electromagnetic metamateri-
als by horizontal stacking, periodically arranged Split-Ring Resonators (SRRs) and
Thin-Wire(TW) structures [17]. Hence, this is first physically realized by Smith et
al. Smith et al. defined the Metamaterial(MTM) as artificial structures that display
properties beyond those available in naturally occurring materials. It may include ar-
tificial dielectrics, magnetic and bi-anisotropic materials. Since metamaterials were
first physically realized in 2000, many research groups have exploited these synthetic
15
structures to create novel devices and components. Later, a method was provided to
realize negative index metamaterials using artificial lumped-element loaded trans-
mission lines in microstrip technology [43]. At microwave frequencies, the first real
invisibility cloak was realized [17]. However, only a very small object was imper-
fectly hidden. Researchers stated that for metamaterial applications to be realized,
several goals must be achieved viz a viz reducing energy loss (which is a major
limiting factor), developing three-dimensional isotropic materials instead of planar
structures and finding ways for mass production [17].
Metamaterial attracted great interest in the last years mainly from 2000 onwards
[11, 17, 41, 44, 45]. They are the class of materials which exhibit unique properties
not existing for natural materials and are also called LHM as the vectors E, H and k
form a left-handed set of systems. Since the idea first proposed by Veselago in 1968
[41], the availability and applications of such materials are explored recently and
their concepts are extended [46]. Researchers Smith and Schurig have shown that a
modulated Gaussian beam undergoes negative refraction at the interface between a
positive and negative refractive index material. It is shown that both the group and
phase velocities undergo negative refraction at the interface between a positive and a
negative index material [47].
The use of MTM coatings to enhance the radiation and matching properties of
electrically small electric and magnetic dipole antennas has been championed by
researchers like Ziolkowski and Erentok. It has also been demonstrated recently
that enclosing an electrically small dipole antenna in an electrically small epsilon-
negative shell behaves as an efficient radiators. As the inductive nature of the ENG
shell compensates for the capacitive nature of the electrically small electric dipole an-
tenna and functions as a distributed matching element. It has also been demonstrated
that the zero-index metamaterials can be used to achieve high directivity antennas.
The ability of oppositely-signed index of refraction layers to attain a zero phase
change across the bilayer and hence a resonance condition based on a ratio of the
dimensions rather than a sum, was suggested by Engheta [48]. The uses of properly
designed slow-wave artificial reactive surfaces and magneto-dielectric layers have
been proposed by Mosallaei et al. to achieve antenna miniaturization [49]. In the
related work of Bilotti et al. improved bandwidth and impedance matching with
smaller thicknesses have been proposed through the use of polygonal patch shapes
and proximity coupling feeding techniques [50]. The theoretical studies also show
that MTMs are highly suitable for designing physically miniaturized and compact
dual band and triple band printed low profile MSA which are useful for RF and
wireless communication.
16
2.1.1 Engheta’s Study
Engheta proposed theoretically that negative index metamaterials could be used to
create thin subwavelength cavity resonators.In his paper, he analyzed a 1-D cavity
loaded with a bilayer composed of dielectric and negative index slabs. His aim was to
show that by loading a cavity with dielectric and negative index slabs, the resonance
depends on the ratio of slab thicknesses, and not their sum [48].
17
traverses the interface from a material with refractive index n1 to another material
with refractive index n2 , the change in its trajectory can be determined from the ratio
of refractive indices n2 /n1 by the use of Snell’s Law [41].
To apply Snell’s Law, consider an interface between two materials and an imagi-
nary line that runs perpendicular to the interface (the surface normal). The angles in
Snell’s law are measured away from the surface normal. If the refractive indices of
the two materials are not equal, the angle of the transmitted beam will differ from the
angle of the incident beam. The beam is then bent at the interface.
A common way to determine the refractive index of a material is to form a prism
out of the material, shine a beam of light through it and observe the deflection of
the beam on the other side. Light enters the prism through one of the interfaces at
direct incidence, striking the opposite interface at an oblique angle. The angle of the
prism defines the angle of incidence of the beam to the interface. A measurement
of the angle of the exit beam from the surface normal provides a measurement of
the refractive index of the prism. Snell’s Law shows that a material with a negative
refractive index, not a material that exists in nature, would refract a beam to negative
angles.
18
time, the speed of the wave must also be reduced, again by a factor of 1/n.
When the refractive index is negative, the speed of the wave given by c/n is neg-
ative and the wave travels backwards toward the source. Yet, we would reasonably
expect that since energy is incident on the material from the left, the energy in the
material should likewise travel to the right, away from the interface.
This seeming paradox is resolved, as Veselago showed, by realizing there are
more ways to define the velocity of a wave. The definition c/n is well known as the
phase velocity and determines the rate at which the peaks (or zeros) of a wave pass
a given point in time. But this is not most relevant definition of a wave’s velocity:
we can also define the group, energy, signal and front velocities, and these generally
differ from the phase velocity.
When the refractive index of a material does not vary with the wavelength of light
that travels through it, then all of the velocity definitions above are the same and we
can intuitively use the index as a measure of the wave’s velocity. However, when a
material is dispersive i.e. it has an index that varies with wavelength then the various
definitions of velocity no longer agree and we can no longer determine the actual
velocity of the wave, or at least the rate at which energy is transported, from the
value of the refractive index alone. A calculation of the group or the energy velocity
reveals that energy is actually flowing to the right in both cases. Thus, as Veselago
showed, the phase and energy velocities are opposite in a negative index material.
19
bination of SRR and Thin Wire (TW). Since the introduction of LHM twelve years
ago, numerous researchers were interested in investigating this artificial material and
several of them were using LHM to improve the properties of the microwave devices
such as antenna and filter. Many papers have been published concerning the LHM
integrated with antennas and their properties have been analyzed. Researchers had
verified that not only were these engineered materials possible, but they also could
enable ”perfect” lenses that were nevertheless flat. The focusing affect of LHM made
a low gain antenna becomes directive with an increment of gain. The designed LHM
is a combination of a modified SRR and Capacitance Loaded Strip (CLS).
The length of the SRR is very crucial where the resonance frequency can be al-
tered to what we desired. The introduction of CLS make the SRR become smaller
and it will reduce the size of the structure and the return loss better than before. The
range of negative value of permittivity and permeability should be close to the res-
onance frequency observed from S11 . The radiation pattern of microstrip antenna
integrated with LHM structure has an improved gain compared to the gain of the
microstrip antenna without LHM structure. The increment of gain of the microstrip
antenna shows the LHM structure act as a lens where the wave focus in front of
the LHM structure. The Half-Power Beam-Width (HPBW) of the single patch mi-
crostrip antenna with LHM structure is narrower than the HPBW of the single patch
microstrip antenna. This also shows that LHM can be a focusing device where the
beam become narrow and the gain increased. However, despite increasing of gain,
the side and back lobe was also increased. If the side and back lobe can be reduced,
the gain of the microstrip antenna with LHM structure can be further improved.
20
The size and typical spacing of atoms within a material are on the order of
angstroms, or tenths of one nanometer. That means that visible light waves, which
are hundreds of nanometers in size, or longer wavelength waves cannot even come
close to resolving the atomic structure. Although materials are formed from collec-
tions of atoms, one cannot see the individual atoms because the light perceived is so
much larger than the atomic scale. So, approximate the discrete atoms and molecules
of a material as a continuous substance, whose properties derive not only from the
individual atoms and molecules, but also their interactions.
Metamaterials avoid the techniques of chemical synthesis, and arrive at new elec-
tromagnetic materials by changing the geometry of other objects. There is now no
longer need to consider about reaction dynamics, but rather how to design the geom-
etry of metamaterial elements so that a composite formed from these elements will
have desired properties.
21
(a) (b)
Figure 2.2: (a) Split Ring Resonator, (b) Swiss Roll [53]
resonant frequency of the single split-ring resonator, it is widely used to create LHMs.
Metallic waveguides filled with such artificial magnetic materials support to guide
waves at frequencies below the cutoff frequency of hollow waveguides, hence such
guides are also referred to as the subwavelength waveguides. This effect can be used
for miniaturization of guided wave structures [54].
this design, an array of metallic wires are used to realize negative permittivity of
medium, and a lattice of split ring resonators are used to create a negative permeabil-
ity of medium. The maxwell equation for plane wave with time harmonic function in
22
homogeneous, isotropic, source free background with permittivity and permeability
µ are
K~ ×E ~ = ωB~ = ωµH ~ (2.1)
~ ×K
H ~ = ωD
~ = ωE
~ (2.2)
where
~ = Wave vector,
K
~ = Electric field intensity,
E
~ = Magnetic field intensity,
H
ω = Angular velocity of wave,
= Permittivity of the Medium,
µ = Permeability of medium,
For ordinary media the E,~ H ~ and K ~ are right-handed, but in case of both ≤ 0 and
µ ≤ 0 it make the medium left-handed, so the time dependent Pointing vector S ~ =E ~
×H ~ is parallel to K
~ in the right handed media and antiparallel in the latter one, that
are shown in Figure 2.4.
23
by Ohm’s law: the ratio of the voltage to the current along the sheet, expressed in
Ohms/square. A smooth conducting sheet has low surface impedance, while with a
specially designed geometry, the textured surface can have high surface impedance.
A high-impedance surface, shown in cross section in Figure 2.5, consists of an array
of metal protrusions on a flat metal sheet. They are arranged in a two-dimensional
lattice, and are usually formed as metal plates, connected to the continuous lower
conductor by vertical posts. They can be visualized as mushrooms or thumbtacks
protruding from the surface. An example of a top view is shown in Figure 2.6. The
hexagonal metal patches are raised above the surface, and the dots in the center are
vertical connecting posts. If the protrusions are small compared to the wavelength,
their electromagnetic properties can be described using lumped circuit elements that
are capacitors and inductors. The proximity of the neighboring metal elements pro-
vides the capacitance, and the long conducting path linking them together provides
the inductance. They behave as parallel resonant LC circuits, which act as electric
filters to block the flow of currents along the sheet.
24
between 3 mm (EHF band) and 0.03 mm (long-wavelength edge of far-infrared light).
Since the terahertz frequency higher than microwave but lower than infrared radia-
tion and visible light. So it is difficult to influence the terahertz radiation with general
or common electronics components and devices. The electronics technology control
the flow of electrons which are well developed for microwave frequency rang and
for radio frequency. We can use the terahertz frequency range for security screen-
ing, medical imaging, wireless communication system, Non-destructive evaluation,
chemical identification and Non-ionizing radiation because it does not have the risk
like X-ray screening.
The fundamental elements for terahertz and infrared frequencies have been pro-
gressively scaled to smaller sizes. Terahertz metamaterials devices have been demon-
strated in the laboratory as tunable far-infrared filters, optical switching modulators
and as an absorbers. The recent existence of a terahertz radiating source in gen-
eral are THz quantum cascade lasers, optically pumped THz lasers, Backward Wave
Oscillators (BWO) and frequency multiplied sources [57].
25
2.3.9 Tunable metamaterials
Metamaterials based devices could come to include filters, modulators, amplifiers,
transistors, and resonators, among others. The usefulness of such a device could be
extended tremendously if the metamaterials response characteristics can be dynam-
ically tuned. Control of the effective electromagnetic parameters of a metamaterials
are possible through externally tunable components. A tunable metamaterials are ma-
terials which have capability to arbitrarily adjust frequency changes. It have ability to
determine whether the EM wave is transmitted, reflected, or absorbed. The tenability
of metamaterial are achieved by changing the unit cell structure in real time [58].
In study, it has examined the ability to control the response of individual particles
using tunable devices such as varactor diodes, semiconductor materials, and Barium
Strontium Titanate (BST) thin films. A multielement tunable magnetic medium is
reported by Zhao et al. [17]. This structure immersed SRRs in liquid crystals, and
achieved a 2% tunable range.
26
2.4.2 Micro-Split Ring Resonator (MSRR)
The Micro-Split Ring Resonator (MSRR) type unit cell structures to be used for
multi-band and tunable metamaterial design. The on/off state of the extremely narrow
additional splits of MSRRs can be efficiently controlled in microwave frequencies
by proper switching techniques such as the RF MEMS switching technique. The
resonance frequency of a MSRR cell can be easily increased by additional micro-
splits which effectively reduce the equivalent capacitance of the SRR unit cell.
The vector S always forms right handed set with vectors E and H. For right-
handed substances S and k are in the same direction & for left-handed substances they
are in opposite direction. In left handed substances, the phase velocity is opposite to
the direction of energy flux. Therefore, there will be a reversed doppler effect [41].
27
2.6.1 Metamaterials in microstrip antenna
We can improve the antenna performance by using metamaterials. It can be used to
modify the following antenna parameters.
• For size reduction
• For gain and directivity improvement
• For input impedance matching
2.6.1.3 For input impedance matching Metamaterials ground planes also known
as artificial magnetic conducting ground planes are widely used as the planar antenna
ground planes in order to enhance the input impedance bandwidth. Metamaterials
ground planes provides high resistive surface that can be used to improve the axial
ratio and radiation efficiency of low profile antennas located close to the ground plane
28
surface. High impedance surface also increase the gain of antenna.
29
Figure 2.9: Planar Metamaterial lens[62]
• The sensor must have low operating frequency (Sub GHz range). Because at
high frequencies, we can not receive good signals due to absorption coeffi-
30
cient of soft tissue since EM wave does not penetrate the soft tissues at high
frequencies.
• The sensor have a high quality factor in order to trace the operating frequency
and shift in the operational frequencies easily.
• The sensor must have high sensitivity, because the sensed spectrum may have
low data point.
• The sensor must be linear because with low non-linearity error we can easily
monitor the strain by just looking the slope of the shift of operating frequency
Vs micro-strain curve. This criterion is related to Q-factor since a sensor with
high Q-factor will have higher Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) and will have less
nonlinearity-errors.
Figure 2.11: Unit cells (a) Multiple SRR (b)Sierpinski SRR (c) Spiral Resonator [63].
31
2.7 Significance of metamaterial for microstrip patch
antenna
Theoretical analysis of metamaterials is studied and an overview is presented with the
explanation of the word “Metamaterial” and its associated principals. The concept of
SRR was introduced in detail. Various properties of metamaterial including reverse
doppler effect and negative group velocity are explored with mathematical support.
Features of metamaterial which includes refraction, snell’s law, Veselego’s negative
index are studied. Theoretical support with the history and researcher’s experiment
associated with the evaluation of metamaterial through a decade is presented.
Metamaterials introduction and their design for the applications in antenna de-
signs are presented. The concept of microstrip patch antenna was introduced in Chap-
ter 1 stating its advantages, disadvantages and applications. The effect of varying
height, width of the substrate and various parametric study of the microstrip antenna
are presented.
Next chapter presents practical realization techniques of metamaterials within
microstrip patch antenna. The metamaterials response is enhanced as artificial sub-
strate. Miniaturization of the overall antenna size is the core of the effort. Conceptual
clarity of metamaterial application in microstrip antenna and its associated properties
through literature review is obtained. The main objective is to analyze and design a
metamaterial substrate for a microstrip patch antenna and radome structure.
32
Chapter 3
3.1 Overview
Metamaterial inclusion required because despite many attractive electrical and me-
chanical features of microstrip antennas, their use in a number of applications at low
microwave frequencies has been limited due to their limited BW & size.
The use of MTM coatings to enhance the radiation and matching properties of
electrically small electric and magnetic dipole antennas has been championed by
researchers like Ziolkowski and Erentok [64, 65]. It has also been demonstrated
recently that enclosing an electrically small dipole antenna in an electrically small
epsilon-negative shell leads to an efficient radiator. As the inductive nature of the
ENG shell compensates for the capacitive nature of the electrically small electric
dipole antenna and functions as a distributed matching element. It has also been
demonstrated that the Zero-index MTMs can be used to achieve high directivity an-
tennas.
MTMs have proved themselves to be a material of the superb choice to increase
these performance parameters to a great extent. Based on the concept of MTMs, it is
reported in that sub-wavelength resonance of patch antennas can be achieved by par-
tially loading the patch cavity with a properly designed homogeneous and isotropic
permeability negative MTM. An implementation of this approach was later proposed,
where inclusions consisting of arrays of resonant structures such as SRRs are used
to create the required permeability negative medium, but a prototype was not con-
structed. The practical implementation of the approach remains problematic since
several arrays of planar resonant structures need to be oriented vertically within the
patch cavity in order to be effectively excited by the dominant mode magnetic field,
33
which is horizontal. Thus, the fabrication process can be quite complex and costly.
Additionally, placing the inclusions increases the overall height of the antenna (to 5
mm for the antenna) which is not desirable in applications requiring thin substrates.
A new approach to achieve a thin, easy to fabricate, and low cost miniaturized patch
antennas is introduced. Hence, the radome structure is introduced in the field of
MTMs.
Miniaturization can be achieved by the conventional approach to miniaturizing
an antenna is to print the radiator on a high dielectric substrate. Since the volume
under the patch of the standard patch antenna acts as a cavity resonator with at least
one dimension being a half wavelength, a possible solution to shrink its dimensions
would be to fill its volume with a high permittivity dielectric. This effectively re-
duces the wavelength inside the cavity and hence the physical dimensions required
for resonance. Grounded substrates with high dielectric constants support surface-
wave propagation. Moreover, these high-permittivity dielectric are quite lossy. The
gain, radiation efficiency, and bandwidth are reduced when excitation of these modes
is increased.
The methods adopted for miniaturization is phase compensation property of matc-
hed DPS-DNG or ENG-MNG bilayers to achieve thin, sub-wavelength cavity res-
onators.
A metamaterial is introduced into the cover of a patch antenna and its band struc-
ture is analyzed. The mechanism of the metamaterial cover, the number of the cover’s
layers, and the distance between the layers, are analyzed in detail. Investigation of
metamaterials is currently one of the most active frontiers in engineering and physics
[1].
Metamaterials are also called backward-wave materials, double-negative materi-
als, or left-handed materials. Left-handed materials were proposed by Veselago [41].
The applications of metamaterials are widely spread in many fields such as imaging
apparatus, planar light wave circuits, optical waveguides, antennas, etc. Metamateri-
als have periodic structures. Metamaterial can also very efficiently improve antenna
directivities [66].
Microstrip patch antennas, though popular in these applications, are difficult to
miniaturize, since their resonant frequency is determined by the dominant mode of
the patch cavity (the region immediately beneath the patch). Nevertheless, numerous
miniaturization techniques using shorting posts, active loading or high permittivity
dielectrics have been conceived to lower the resonant frequency of patch antennas
without increasing their size. Unfortunately, as the demand for ever smaller patch
antennas increases; these techniques fail to produce the required size reductions.
34
The MSA can be excited directly either by a coaxial probe or by a microstrip line.
It can also be excited indirectly using electromagnetic coupling or aperture coupling
and a coplanar waveguide feed [14].
Sometimes the R-MSAs are covered with the dielectric layer to protect them from
the real world environment or painted with dielectric material or placed in a radome
with some air gap. The dielectric layer influences the characteristics of the antenna
and in general, reduces the resonance frequency due to increase in the ef f . If the r
of the cover is increased, the resonance frequency decreases due to an increase in the
overall ef f of the patch. The decrease in resonant frequency implies decrease in BW
while gain remains unchanged.
Now a new concept has been introduced in this seminar report. A metamaterial
is introduced into the cover of a patch antenna. The metamaterial presented here is
similar to that described in [67]. Its effective index is between 0 and 1.
The simulations of such a metamaterial-cover patch antenna were computed by
the finite element method (Ansoft HFSS 13.0), computations are run for enough steps
to ensure that a steady results are achieved. The optimization procedure is based on
the integration of a full-wave solver HFSS.
35
Over the past decade, the need for small, compact and low cost antennas has
increased tremendously for applications such as wireless communications and radar.
Microstrip patch antennas, though popular in these applications, are difficult to minia-
turize, since their resonant frequency is determined by the dominant mode of the
patch cavity (the region immediately beneath the patch). Nevertheless, numerous
miniaturization techniques using shorting posts, active loading or high permittivity
dielectrics have been conceived to lower the resonant frequency of patch antennas
without increasing their size. Unfortunately, as the demand for ever smaller patch
antennas increases, these techniques fail to produce the required size reductions.
Based on the concept of metamaterials, it is reported in that sub-wavelength reso-
nance of circular patch antennas can be achieved by partially loading the patch cavity
with a properly designed homogeneous and isotropic µ negative metamaterial. An
implementation of this approach was later proposed, where inclusions consisting of
arrays of resonant structures such as SRRs are used to create the required µ negative
medium, but a prototype was not constructed. The practical implementation of the
approach remains problematic since several arrays of planar resonant structures need
to be oriented vertically within the patch cavity in order to be effectively excited by
the dominant mode magnetic field, which is horizontal. Thus, the fabrication pro-
cess can be quite complex and costly. Additionally, placing the inclusions increases
the overall height of the antenna (to 5 mm for the antenna) which is not desirable
in applications requiring thin substrates. A new approach to achieve a thin, easy to
fabricate, and low cost miniaturized patch antennas is introduced. By combining an
in situ optimization scheme with the concept of duality of SRRs, the geometry of
a circular conducting disk placed between the ground plane and radiating patch is
optimized to achieve sub-wavelength resonance.
It is shown that magnetic resonant structures such as SRRs exhibit µ negative
properties only when placed in an environment where the magnetic field is aligned
along the SRR axis. By using the concept of duality, it is shown that epsilon negative
properties may be created when a CSRR is excited by an axial electric field. There-
fore, given that the electric field of the dominant mode of circular patch antennas is
polarized vertically, it should be possible to excite a properly designed complemen-
tary split ring resonator placed within the patch cavity parallel to the patch and the
ground plane.
To create the desired patch antenna, a horizontal circular conducting disk is
placed half way between the radiating patch and the ground plane, and complemen-
tary split rings of various radii are created by removing metal from the disk. To
achieve resonance at a frequency lower than that of the unloaded patch antenna, the
36
radius of the disk and the geometry of the complementary split rings (number of
rings, spacing between rings, gap width, etc.) are varied through optimization. The
optimization procedure is based on the integration of a full-wave solver HFSS.
37
gain enhancement method of microstrip antennas, relying on structural resonance by
dielectric cover, has been investigated [4, 10, 11].
Single copper grid layer over the microstrip patch antenna for achieving high
directivity is described. Copper grid is chosen as the patch cover because sym-
metric structures are convenient when performing the retrieval of the material pa-
rameters from the scattering S-parameters [68]. Using the driven solution in HFSS
Ansoft, a finite-element based software package that solves Maxwell’s equations,
the S-parameter (Return Loss), Voltage Standing Wave Ratio(VSWR) and directivity
were simulated for variations of different material parameters retrieved by standard
methods [11]. The metamaterial presented here is similar to that described in [67]. It
has many advantages such as compact size, convenient preparation and low cost.
A novel approach of analytically and numerically calculating the relationship of
directivity with the spacing height of metamaterial cover over the microstrip patch
antenna is presented. It is adopted for obtaining directivity as the function of spacing
height of the copper grid layer and to formulate a global relationship of these two
parameters. Out of various numerical techniques which are available and can be used
for different engineering problems, Newton’s divided difference method is selected
and applied because this method can easily extract the interpolating polynomial for
any interval and any degree desired. Moreover, new set of points can be added to
the table to create a new interpolation polynomial function without recalculating the
old coefficients. It is also supported by the simulated results obtained by using FEM
based HFSS solver. The agreement between the simulated and measured data over
the negative index region is excellent, both quantitatively and qualitatively.
38
(a) (b)
Figure 3.1: (a) The conventional patch antenna, (b) The metamaterial patch antenna cover;
Distribution of Poynting vector in the H-plane (y-z plane) [1]
(a) (b)
Figure 3.2: (a) Ordinary patch antenna, (b) Metamaterial cover patch antenna; Distribution
of Poynting vector in the E-plane (x-z plane) [1]
the metamaterial. This shows that the metamaterial has congregating effect on the
EM wave’s transmission direction, and is similar to the congregation effect which
convex lens to the radiation of light-wave. Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2 shows that there
are still some EM waves leaking into the edge of the metamaterial cover. In order to
reduce the leak as effectively as possible, larger metamaterial cover should be used.
At the same time, to make the congregation effect of metamaterial to the EM wave
direction more evident, more layers of metamaterial are needed in the cover. Under
ideal conditions, the larger the cover size of the metamaterial, the better; the more the
layers, the better. But under actual conditions, we must use the least space resource
to obtain the best functions of the antenna, the resource performance of which must
be as high as possible. So the size and layer number of the metamaterial cover need
be adjusted accordingly [1].
Figure 3.3 (a) and Figure 3.3 (b) are H-plane intensity distribution of ordinary
patch antenna in electric field and magnetic field respectively; while Figure 3.4 (a)
and Figure 3.4 (b) are H-plane intensity distribution of metamaterial cover patch
antenna in electric field and magnetic field respectively. Comparison of those two
groups of figures clearly shows that the main lobe of the ordinary patch antenna has
39
(a) (b)
Figure 3.3: (a) Electric field, (b) Magnetic field and H-plane intensity distribution of ordinary
patch antenna [1]
(a) (b)
Figure 3.4: (a) Electric field, (b) Magnetic field and H-plane intensity distribution of meta-
material cover patch antenna [1]
a large distribution angle; this means its directivity is bad. And the main lobe of the
patch antenna with metamaterial cover points toward the z-axis direction; it means
its directivity is better [48].
Metamaterial has remarkable effect on the congregation of the radiation energy.
The far field directivity three dimensional patterns of ordinary patch antenna, 1 layer,
2 layers and 3 layers of patch antenna with metamaterial cover respectively. By
comparison, we can see that with addition of layer, the main lobe becomes sharper,
indicating that the congregation effect is intensified gradually to radiation direction.
But, when added layers were increased from two to three, the EM wave reaching
the cover’s edge is very strong. So the side lobe is as strong in directivity as the main
lobe. This indicates that the radiation wave at the boundary has become the main
holdback affecting the antenna’s directivity of increasing intensiveness. The three
layers cover limits the various directivity lobes to the cover’s boundary as the EM
wave diffuses toward the cover. Moreover when the layer number is 1, the charac-
teristics of the cover are weak, so the coupling of EM energy and cover is not strong
enough and more energy reflects to the boundary via the space between cover and
40
substrate, which brings about very strong scattering [38].
From comparison between the radiation direction under those three different dis-
tances, under condition of optimum layer number of the metamaterial cover, appro-
priate working frequency of certain structure and proper size of patch antenna cover,
the distance between the metamaterial layers of the antenna patch cover has great
effect on the main and back lobe radiation patterns of the patch antenna. So, for
metamaterial cover with certain structure and size, there exists the problem of choos-
ing the layer number and distance between the layers.
From a survey of the near field’s EM wave of two patch antennas, the processing
mechanism of the EM field distribution of the patch antenna with metamaterial cover
is analysed. The radiation main lobe of the metamaterial-cover patch antenna is very
sharp. When the directivity increases strongly, the side lobe will decrease sharply, the
back lobe of the antenna radiation (mainly the range less than −900 and higher than
+900 of the radiation direction) will expand a little. There are two ways to improve
the pattern, the first one is to enlarge the size of the cover but this will decrease
the resource performance of the antenna; the other way is to adopt PBG or PMC
substrate. This is a feasible scheme and worthy of deep research.
Patch cover modeling, designs and comparisons are made with the metamate-
rial included patch. Various advantages are evaluated over the existing technology.
Single and dual layer stacked patch antenna (Radome) designs for achieving the re-
quired performance parameters are described. These techniques include different
patch shapes, radome structures, etc. The next chapter presents numerical analy-
sis of microstrip patch antenna and metamaterial based radome structure. Various
performance parameters are enhanced by using these special techniques. Radome
structures are used to characterize and improve the directivity for required frequency
of operation as they possess inherent advantages like reduced size, this concept is
explained further in next chapter.
41
Chapter 4
As = ap + 6Hs (4.1)
Bs = bp + 6Hs (4.2)
4.1.1.2 Actual and effective length of patch antenna Actual length is repre-
sented by L and effective length is represented by Lef f in Equations 4.4 and 4.5:
42
1
L= √ √ − 2∆L (4.4)
2fr µ0 0 ref f
Lef f = L + 2∆L (4.5)
43
tions, the material is some collection of objects (whether atoms, molecules, compos-
ites or anything else) that can be described by a permittivity and a permeability
µ.
If ω < ω0 , follow Equation 4.9 and if ω < ωM , Equation 4.10 holds good.
X ω2
0
=1− (4.9)
ω2
X ω2
M
µ=1− (4.10)
ω2
At lower frequencies, values of permittivity and permeability is less than zero.
Where,
ω0 : Emission frequency of the source,
N : Concentration of the carriers,
N1 : Concentration of charges,
e : Charge of an electron,
g1 : Magnitude of charges,
m : Mass of matter,
m1 : Mass of charge
ω2 2
k2 = n (4.13)
c2
n2 = µ (4.14)
where,
K: Wave vector,
n: Index of refraction of the substances,
ω: Frequency of monochromatic wave,
c: Velocity of light
Snell’s law (considering the rightnesses of the two medium):
r
n1 sinθ2 P2 2 µ2
n1,2 = = = (4.15)
n2 sinθ1 P1 1 µ1
44
Where,
P1 and P2 are the rightnesses of the first and second medium. Hence,index of refrac-
tion can be negative if the rightnesses of the two medium are different. Hence, it can
be analysed that the simultaneous change of the signs of permittivity & permeability
has no effect on these relations. But, it contradicts some fundamental laws of nature.
B = µH (4.16)
D = E (4.17)
ω
k × E = µH (4.18)
c
ω
k × H = H (4.19)
c
Where,
B : Magnetic flux density,
D : Electric flux density,
H : Magnetic field intensity,
E : Electric field intensity.
It can be seen from these equations that if both permittivity and permeability
are positive, then E, H and k form a right-handed triplet of vectors and if both are
negative they form left handed set.
45
(a) (b)
Figure 4.1: (a) Impedance of unit cell, (b) Refractive index of unit cell
(a) (b)
Figure 4.2: (a) Permittivity of unit cell, (b) Permeability of unit cell
46
Figure 4.3: Isometric View of the grid antenna
47
surface modes exist when ωes and ωms are equal to 25.9 GHz and 21.9 GHz respec-
tively. It means that the dispersion relation of the propagating modes in this structure
is shaped like in plasmas of electron gas.
This opened the field of composite materials or metamaterials for microwave and
optical applications. Several structures have been proposed to simulate materials with
a dielectric or a magnetic plasma frequency or even both together (always using non-
magnetic conducting structures) [71]. The ideas developed here have been applied in
the microwave domain of the frequency band 1-4 GHz to realize a directive emitter
using metallic grids.
Table 4.1: Plasma frequency for three operation bands of slotted antenna
Table 4.2: Plasma frequency for three operation bands of metamaterial cover over the mi-
crostrip patch antenna
48
(a) (b)
Figure 4.4: (a) Positive refractive index [72], (b)Negative refractive index [72]
wp2
(w) = 1 − (4.23)
w(w + iwc )
ne2
wp2 = (4.24)
0 mef f
49
where n is the electron density, e is the charge of an electron and mef f is the effective
mass of free electrons. Plasma frequency is extremely high in metals, e.g., silver has
wp = 2π × 2184 THz and wc = 2π × 4.35 THz. As a result, the absolute value of
permittivity is extremely large, Re() < −108 , and, therefore, not suitable for LHM.
Pendry proposed a wire array design, which can significantly decrease the plasma
frequency and realize negative permittivity ≈ −1 at microwave frequencies. More-
over, the value of and the frequency are completely controllable via the geometrical
parameters [16]. As shown in Figure 4.5, the wire array structure consists of peri-
odically arranged “infinite” long wires with separation a and radius r. The effective
permittivity of wire arrays is similar to the permittivity in bulk metal, except the
plasma frequency is much lower.
Figure 4.5: The metallic wire arrays with radius of wire r and separation between rods is a
[74]
2πc20
wp2 = (4.25)
a2 ln(a/r)
One can see that the plasma frequency, wp , only depends on the radius of wire, r, and
the lattice constant, a. By changing these geometric parameters, one can control the
plasma frequency and therefore control the value of the permittivity.
50
Figure 4.6: (a) Circular structure (b) Square structure
51
permeability medium. The original objective in defining permittivity and permeabil-
ity, is to present a homogeneous view of the electromagnetic properties of a medium.
The macroscopic electric and magnetic properties of a material, e.g. polarization and
magnetization, are average behaviors of electrons and atoms in the external electric
and magnetic fields of EM waves [76]. In this sense, the normal materials are also
composites, where the individual ingredients are atoms and molecules. The sizes of
these ingredients are much smaller than the wavelength of EM waves. So, one can
consider periodic structures, defined by a unit cell with dimension, a, as a homoge-
nous medium [77]. The total EM properties of structures inside a unit cell will be
considered as an effective response of the unit cell as a whole. Clearly, there must be
some restrictions on the dimension of the unit cell, defined as follows:
a << λ (4.27)
If this condition is obeyed, the external EM wave will not see the fine details of each
individual structure inside the unit cell, and the periodic structure can be considered
as a homogeneous medium. So, the effective permittivity and permeability are valid
concepts. On the contrary, if this condition is not fulfilled, the internal structure of
the unit cell could diffract and refract EM waves, which leads to material properties
not seen in homogeneous media.
1
n= {[Im[ln(eik0 d )] + 2mπ] − j[Re[ln(eik0 d )]]} (4.29)
k0 d
The permittivity (ε) and permeability (µ) are then directly calculated from µ =
nz and ε = n/z respectively. These two parameters will help in determining the
intrinsic material characteristics and its properties.
52
4.3.8 Calculation for directivity and spacing height relationship
of radome structure
Newton’s divided difference method applied on the metamaterial cover over mi-
crostrip patch antenna is presented in this section. Newton’s polynomial is the inter-
polation polynomial function for a known set of discrete data points in the mathemat-
ical field of numerical analysis. The coefficients of the polynomial function are calcu-
lated using divided difference method. For a given set of equidistant data points, there
is only one polynomial that exists with least possible degree which passes through all
of them and covers the entire range of the function. Given a set of n + 1 data points
(x0 , y0 )...(xn , yn ), where no two xi are same, then the interpolation polynomial in
the Newton’s form is a linear combination given in Equation 4.30. Furthermore the
calculation of the divided differences becomes considerably simpler if the values of
xi are distributed equidistantly [79].
Table 4.3 shows different data points in terms of spacing height and directivity.
Here xi is spacing height of copper grid layer from the patch antenna in mm and
fi is the directivity of the patch antenna with metamaterial cover. Hence, using this
numerical technique, the relationship of directivity and spacing height is formulated.
Table 4.4 is obtained by computing Newton’s divided differences using divided dif-
ference table for three equidistant points, which is obtained by using HFSS solver
and simulating the structure for different spacing heights. Spacing height is varied
53
from 2mm to 10mm in steps of 4mm, and its effect is observed on the directivity
pattern of the antenna.
Let us compute directivity for three spacing height differences, using Newton’s
divided difference method, the expression obtained for f (x) = 0.1585+0.033975(x−
2) − 0.0041(x − 2)(x − 6). Simplifying the above equation, we obtain f (x) =
−0.00412x2 + 0.06677x + 0.04135. Since the given data is for the polynomial f(x),
the analytical value is f (10) = 0.2955. The analytical value exactly matches with
the computed value because there are three data points available using which one
can approximate any data exactly up to second degree polynomial. Moreover, the
advantage of formulating analytical formula is that for a number of discrete points of
spacing height the value of directivity can easily be calculated.
The graph of directivity versus spacing height is shown in Figure 4.7 , which
depicts the ideal behavior of the proposed structure. A calculation of the directivity
shows that this is indeed the case shown in Figure 4.7, depends upon the spac-
ing height, consistent with Meagher and Sharma [80]. With this intent, a function
has been implemented in Mathematica [81] for estimating the value of directivity at
different spacing heights. With the increasing spacing height directivity gradually
increases and attains maximum value of 0.3112 at 8.4 mm height and then gradually
decreases to 0 at 17 mm height of the copper grid layer from the patch antenna. It
can easily be analyzed that the directivity shows parabolic relationship with respect
to spacing height, which is showing linearly increasing relation at the starting and
then gradual decaying relation at the end of the curve. Therefore, an optimized value
of the spacing height at 8.4 mm has to be adjusted for achieving the best directiv-
ity. Analytically solving the equation of directivity is advantageous as it saves the
simulation time of the software and produces exact value of the same as the function
of spacing height. Moreover, the advantage of formulating analytical formula is that
for a number of discrete points of spacing height, value of directivity can easily be
calculated. The graph of directivity versus spacing height, which depicts the ideal
behavior of the proposed structure.
54
Figure 4.7: Directivity versus spacing height
parameters. Out of various numerical techniques which are available and can be used
for different engineering problems, Newton’s divided difference method is selected
and applied because this method can easily extract the interpolating polynomial for
any interval and any degree desired. Moreover, new set of points can be added to
the table to create a new interpolation polynomial function without recalculating the
old coefficients. It is also supported by the simulated results obtained by using FEM
based HFSS solver. The agreement between the simulated and measured data over
the negative index region is excellent, both quantitatively and qualitatively. The meta-
material presented here is similar to that described in 2002 by Enoch et al. [67]. It
has many advantages such as compact size, convenient fabrication and low cost.
The theoretical and mathematical analysis of radome structure and the considera-
tion of picking up a particular spacing height of the radome structure is demonstrated
in this section. Now in the subsequent sections, decision making method is applied
in antenna designing for selecting the best substrate material for microstrip patch
antenna by optimizing various performance parameters.
55
selection from among a finite number of alternatives and it specifies how attribute
information is to be processed in order to arrive at the best choice. MADM methods
require both inter-attribute and intra-attribute comparisons, and involve appropriate
explicit tradeoffs [82]. The author used MADM techniques to retrieve the best result
parameters of the designed radome structure.
MODM methods,on the other hand, have decision variable values with a large
number of choices and select the best that should satisfy the decision maker’s con-
straints and preference priorities. Each decision table matrix in MADM methods has
four main parts, namely: (a) alternatives, (b) attributes, (c) weights and (d) measures
of performance of alternatives with respect to the attributes. The decision table is
shown in Table 4.5.
The decision table shows alternatives, Ai (for i = 1, 2, .. , N), attributes, Bj (for
j = 1, 2, .. , M), weights of attributes, wj (for j=1, 2, .., M) and the measures of
performance of alternatives, mij (for i= 1, 2, .., N; j=1, 2, .., M) [82].
Attributes → B1 B2 B3 -- -- BM
Alternatives ↓ (w1 ) (w2 ) (w3 ) (-) (-) (wM )
A1 m11 m12 m13 -- -- m1M
A2 m21 m22 m23 -- -- m2M
A3 m31 m32 m33 -- -- m3M
------- -- -- -- -- -- --
------- -- -- -- -- -- --
AN mN 1 mN 2 mN 3 -- -- mN M
Given the decision-making method, the task of the designer is to find the best
alternative and to rank the entire set of alternatives. All the elements in the deci-
sion table must be normalized to the same units, so that all possible attributes in the
decision problem can be considered [82]. For the present set of antenna designing
problem, alternatives are the different substrate materials and attributes are the per-
formance parameters of an antenna.
56
4.4.2 Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Method
One of the most popular analytical techniques for complex decision-making prob-
lems is the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). In 1980, Saaty developed AHP [83],
which decomposes a decision-making problem into a system of hierarchies of objec-
tives, attributes and alternatives.
An AHP hierarchy can handle decision situations involving subjective judgments,
multiple decision makers, and the ability to provide measures of consistency of pref-
erence [84]. AHP can efficiently deal with tangible (i.e., objective) as well as non-
tangible (i.e., subjective) attributes, especially where the subjective judgments of dif-
ferent individuals are required [82].
Its ability:
(i) To incorporate data and judgements of experts into the model in a logical way,
• Step-1: Determine the objective and the evaluation attributes. Develop a hier-
archical structure with a goal or objective at the top level, the attributes at the
second level and the alternatives at the third level.
57
of the analytic hierarchy process [85, 86]. An attribute compared with itself
is always assigned the value 1, so the main diagonal entries of the pair-wise
comparison matrix are all 1. Table 4.6 details out Saaty’s nine-point scale for
relative importance of attributes.
Stage
Verbal Judgement Characteristics
of Scale
1 Equal Importance Two attributes contribute equally
Experience and judgement moderately
3 Moderate Importance
favour one attribute over another
Experience and judgement strongly
5 Strong Importance
favour one over another
An attribute is strongly favoured and
7 Very Strong Importance
its dominance demonstrated in practice
The evidence favouring one attribute
9 Absolute Importance over another is of the highest possible
order of affirmation
Intermediate values
2, 4, 6, 8 between the two When compromise is needed
adjacent judgements
The AHP method may use the same weights as those in the SAW method. In
that case, the ranking of the materials will be same as that suggested by the
SAW method.
However, if the decision maker decides to use the AHP method rather than
SAW and the weights used in it, then he or she has to make pair-wise compar-
isons of the attributes to determine the weights (wj ) of the attributes.
Assuming M attributes, the pair-wise comparison of attribute i with attribute j
yields a square matrix BM ×M .
Where, bij denotes the comparative importance of attribute i with respect to
attribute j.
In the matrix, bij = 1 when i = j and bji = 1/bij .
58
Let the decision maker prepares BM ×M matrix:
1 b12 b13 ... ... b1M
b21 1 b23 ... ... b2M
b31 b32 1 ... ... b3M
BM ×M = :
(4.31)
: : 1 : :
: : : : 1 :
bm1 bm2 bm3 ... ... 1
• Step-3: Find the relative normalized weight (wj ) of each attribute by (i) calcu-
lating the geometric mean of the i-th row, and (ii) normalizing the geometric
means of rows in the comparison matrix. This can be represented as:
" m
#1/M
Y
GMj = bij (4.32)
j=1
GMj
wj = PM (4.33)
j=1 GMj
The geometric mean method of AHP is commonly used to determine the rel-
ative normalized weights of the attributes, because of its simplicity, easy de-
termination of the maximum Eigen value, and reduction in inconsistency of
judgements.
• Step-6: Calculate consistency index. The smaller the value of CI, smaller is
the deviation from consistency.
• Step-7: Obtain Random Index (RI) for the number of attributes used in decision
making, where matrix size is N from Table 4.7 given below:
Table 4.7: Average random number index for each size of the matrix saaty1980analytic
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
RI 0.00 0.00 0.58 0.90 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41 1.45
59
• Step-8: Calculate consistency ratio, CR = CI/RI. CR of 0.1 or less is consid-
ered as acceptable, and it reflects an informed judgement attributable to the
knowledge of the analyst regarding the problem under study.
• Step-9: Compare the alternatives pair-wise w.r.t. how much better (i.e. more
dominant) they are in satisfying each of the attributes.
• Step-10: Obtain the overall or composite performance scores for the alterna-
tives by multiplying the relative normalized weight (wj ) of each attribute (Step-
2) with its corresponding normalized weight for each alternative (Step-9) and
summing over the attributes for each alternative.
The overall or composite score is calculated using the Equation 4.35. Now,the
AHP method is applied for the antenna design problem. The steps of implementation
are shown below in subsequent steps. The overall or composite performance score of
an alternative is given by Equation 4.34.
M
X
Pi = wj mij (4.34)
j=1
However, if all the elements of the decision table are normalized, then AHP can
be used for any type and any number of attributes. In that case, Equation 4.34 will
take the following form of Equation 4.35:
M
X
Pi = wj (mij )normal (4.35)
j=1
where (mij )normal represents the normalized value of mij , and Pi is the overall or
composite score of the alternative Ai . The alternative with the highest value of Pi is
considered as the best alternative. The attributes can be beneficial or non-beneficial.
When objective values of the attribute are available, normalized values are calculated
by (mij )K /(mij )L , where (mij )K is the measure of the attribute for the K-th alter-
native, and (mij )L is the measure of the attribute for the L-th alternative that has the
best measure of the attribute out of all alternatives considered. This ratio is valid for
beneficial attributes only.
A beneficial attribute,represented by ‘B’ in Table 4.8 (e.g. Peak Gain (PG),
Directivity (D), Radiation Efficiency (RE), Front to Back Ratio (FBR)) means its
higher values are desirable for the given decision-making problem. By contrast, non-
beneficial attribute,represented by ‘NB’ in Table 4.8 (e.g. Resonant Frequency (RF),
60
Table 4.8: Objective data of the attributes for different materials
Return Loss (RL), Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)) is that for which the lower
values are desirable and the normalized values are calculated by (mij )L /(mij )K .
The dataset in Table 4.8 is normalized and is shown in Table 4.9.
• Step-1: The objective is to select the best substrate material from the given al-
ternatives(Bakelite, Diamond, RT Duroid 5880, F R4 epoxy, Rogers RT/Duroid
6006, Teflon) and the evaluation attributes are Resonant Frequency(RF), Re-
turn Loss(RL), Voltage Standing Wave Ratio(VSWR), Peak Gain(PG), Direc-
tivity(D), Radiation Efficiency(RE) and Front to Back Ratio(FBR).
61
1 1/3 1/3 1/7 1/7 1/5 1/5
3 1 1/3 1/5 1/5 1/3 1/3
3 3 1 1/5 1/5 1/3 1/3
A1 = 7 5 5 1 1 3 3 (4.36)
7 5 5 1 1 3 3
5 3 3 1/3 1/3 1 1
5 3 3 1/3 1/3 1 1
62
A3 represents Index/Score A3 = A1 ∗ A2 and A4 = A3 /A2 :
0.2031
0.3593
0.4993
A3 = 2.1451 (4.38)
2.1451
0.9403
0.9403
7.3710
7.4778
7.5912
A4 = 7.1933 (4.39)
7.1933
7.1722
7.1722
• Step-8: Consistency ratio is obtained as 0.0909 which is less than 0.1 and hence
acceptable.
• Step 10: Overall or composite score is calculated using equation Equation 4.35
and priority generation using AHP is shown below in Table 4.11.
63
Table 4.11: Priority generation using AHP method
M
Y wj
Pi = (mij )normal (4.45)
j=1
The normalized values are calculated as explained under the AHP method in Ta-
ble 4.9. Each normalized value of an alternative with respect to an attribute, i.e.,
(mij )normal , is raised to the power of the relative weight of the corresponding attribute
as shown in Table 4.10. The alternative with the highest Pi value is considered the
best alternative [82].
Overall or composite score is calculated using Equation 4.45 and priority gener-
ation using WPM is shown below in Table 4.12.
64
4.6 Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to
Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) Method
This method is based on the concept that the chosen alternative should have the short-
est Euclidean distance from the ideal solution, and the farthest from the negative ideal
solution. The ideal solution is a hypothetical solution for which all attribute values
correspond to the maximum attribute values in the database comprising the satisfy-
ing solutions; the negative ideal solution is the hypothetical solution for which all
attribute values correspond to the minimum attribute values in the database. TOPSIS
thus gives a solution that is not only closest to the hypothetically best, that is also the
farthest from the hypothetically worst. The main procedure of the TOPSIS method
for the selection of the best alternative from among those available is described be-
low:
• Step 1: The first step is to determine the objective, and to identify the pertinent
evaluation attributes.
• Step 2: This step represents a matrix based on all the information available on
attributes. This matrix is nothing but the decision table shown in Table 4.8.
Each row of this matrix is allocated to one alternative, and each column to one
attribute. Therefore, an element mij of the decision table ‘D’ gives the value of
the j-th attribute in original real values, that is, non-normalized form and units,
for the i-th alternative.
In the case of a subjective attribute (i.e., objective value is not available), a
ranked value judgement on a scale is adopted. Once a subjective attribute is
represented on a scale, then the normalized values of the attribute assigned for
different alternatives are calculated in the same manner as that for objective
attributes.
• Step 3: Obtain the normalized decision matrix, Rij . This can be represented
as:
mij
Rij = h i1/2 (4.46)
PM 2
j=1 mij
65
• Step 5: Obtain the weighted normalized matrix Vij . This is done by the mul-
tiplication of each element of the column of the matrix Rij with its associated
weight wj . Hence, the elements of the weighted normalized matrix Vij are
expressed as:
Vij = wj Rij (4.47)
Step 6: Obtain the ideal (best) and negative ideal (worst) solutions in this step.
The ideal (best) and negative ideal (worst) solutions can be expressed as:
( max ! min
! )
0
X X
V+ = Vij /jJ , ( Vij /jJ /i = 1, 2, ..., N ; (4.48)
i i
( min
! max
! )
0
X X
V− = Vij /jJ , ( Vij /jJ /i = 1, 2, ..., N ; (4.50)
i i
66
Where, i = 1, 2, ., N
(M )0.5
− 2
X
Si− =
Vij − Vj (4.53)
J=1
Where, i = 1, 2, ., N
Now, for the case of antenna designing, following steps are adopted:
• Step-1: The objective is to evaluate the six alternative materials (Bakelite, Di-
amond, RT Duroid 5880, F R4 epoxy, Rogers RT/Duroid 6006, Teflon) and
the seven evaluation attributes are Resonant Frequency(RF), Return Loss(RL),
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio(VSWR), Peak Gain(PG), Directivity(D), Radia-
tion Efficiency(RE) and Front to Back Ratio(FBR). For this particular material
selection problem, PG, D, RE and FBR are considered as beneficial attributes,
and remaining attributes RF, RL and VSWR as non-beneficial.
• Step 2: The next step is to represent all the information available for the at-
tributes in the form of a decision matrix. The data given in Table 4.8 are
represented as matrix D6x7 . However, the matrix is not shown here, as it is
simply the repetition of data given in Table 4.8 but represented in a matrix
form.
• Step 3: The quantitative values of the material selection attributes, which are
given in Table 4.8, are normalized and the normalized matrix R6x7 is shown
below:
67
0.4060 0.3132 0.3229 0.3556 0.3567 0.4142 0.3149
0.4094 0.1308 0.7355 0.1944 0.1761 0.4585 0.1106
0.4077 0.3242 0.3172 0.5926 0.5480 0.4493 0.5672
R6x7 =
0.4094
0.7460 0.1779 0.2016 0.3705 0.2260 0.3667
0.4077 0.2657 0.3887 0.3038 0.3063 0.4120 0.2412
0.4094 0.3906 0.2673 0.5930 0.5571 0.4422 0.6117
(4.55)
• Step 6: The next step is to obtain the ideal (best) and negative ideal (worst)
solution. These are calculated as:
+ +
VRF = 0.0112, VRL = 0.0063, VV+SW R = 0.0117, VP+G = 0.1768, VD+ = 0.1661,
+
VRE = 0.0601, VF+BR = 0.0802
− −
VRF = 0.0113, VRL = 0.0358, VV−SW R = 0.0484, VP−G = 0.0580, VD− = 0.0525,
−
VRE = 0.0296, VF−BR = 0.0145
• Step 7: The next step is to obtain the separation measures, and these are calcu-
lated as:
s+ + + + + +
1 = 0.1015, s2 = 0.1808, s3 = 0.0146, s4 = 0.1398, s5 = 0.1251, s6 = 0.0140
s− − − − − −
1 = 0.0878, s2 =0.0425, s3 = 0.1789, s4 = 0.0764, s5 = 0.0672, s6 = 0.1827
68
• Step 8: The relative closeness of a particular alternative to the ideal solution is
calculated and these are:
This relative closeness to ideal solution can be considered as the ‘material se-
lection index’
In the Table 4.13 below, hierarchy generation using all the three methods is
shown.
Priorities of selection of the substrate materials are shown in Table 4.13. Teflon
is obtained as the best material for microstrip patch antenna substrate according to
the hierarchy generated by AHP method, WPM and TOPSIS method of decision
making. Hence, Teflon as the substrate of microstrip patch antenna is used. The
result parameters are obtained and directivity is compared with the measured results
of the fabricated metamaterial based radome antenna.
69
Chapter 5
70
height - Height of grid from the antenna
Figure 5.2: Metamaterial cover over the microstrip patch antenna (Isometric view)
Two types of designs are shown in Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2. Figure 5.1 and
Figure 5.2 shows the complete dimension of slotted patch antenna and metamate-
rial cover over the microstrip patch antenna respectively in detail inspired by the
71
calculated values obtained. Slotted patch antenna design is presented to improve the
bandwidth of the microstrip patch antenna. After having various iterative simulations
on HFSS and using optimization property of the solver, the slot dimensions are fixed
at 7mm × 0.1 mm in positive x direction and 8mm × 0.5mm in positive y dimension.
For the very first time, slots perpendicular to the edges of the patch are presented for
proper tuning of the frequency within 1-4 GHz range. Figure 5.2 depicts the isomet-
ric view of the geometry of the proposed structure, the spatial height in between the
patch and the copper grid layer in z-axis direction is denoted as x. The metamaterial
is composed of perfect conductor copper grids with a square lattice whose period ‘a
is equal 0.5mm × 0.5mm in x-y plane. Metamaterial cover is composed of 13 ×
9 arrays of unit cells. Following the method outlined by Zhu, Lin and Hu [88, 89]
and radiation improvement shown by Patel and Kosta [90], the authors designed the
microstrip patch antenna and the copper grid layer enclosed within a radiation box.
Substrate Teflon with dielectric constant of 2.1 and dimension 52.5mm × 36.5mm is
chosen. The thickness of the substrate is 1.56mm. The feed (x,y,z) of the antenna
is located at (17.16mm, 9.16mm,0) from the center left of the antenna as shown in
Figure 5.1.
5.1.3 Specifications
Software used for modeling and simulation is HFSS. Frequency of operation is 2.5
GHz (1-4 GHz), band swept for analysis is 0.5-4.5 GHz, the band is considered where
value of S11 < −5dB, values assigned to the materials is as per ansoft Library, feed is
coaxial, circular polarization is less than -7dB, dielectric substrate material is Teflon,
mode excited is T M10 , bandwidth is 10 MHz.
72
T hck2 = Thickness of inner ring
T Wx = Thickness of TW(Rod) in X-direction.
T Wy = Length of TW(Rod)
T Wz = Thickness of TW (Rod) in Z-direction.
a = Length of patch = 42 mm,
b = Width of patch = 30 mm,
W = Width of SRR in substrate
Depth = Depth of SRR in substrate
Gap = Gap / Separation between two rings
Sep = Separation between SRR and TW (Rod)
Co-ax feed with Inner Diameter = 1.05 mm; Outer Diameter = 2.01 mm,
Freq Sweep = 0.5 to 4.5 GHz and 0.5 GHz to 6.5 GHz,
Radiation Box Height > Lambda / 4 of working frequency,
The parameters applied to SRR-TW are listed below along with the return loss
plot for the same dimensions. There are three important parameters which are to be
considered carefully for the designing a rectangular microstrip patch antennae for
communication device/mobile devices.
Dielectric constant of the substrate ( r ): There are numerous substrates that can
be used for the design of patch antennas, and there dielectric constants are usually
in the range of 2.2 ≤ r ≤ 12 . substrate with high dielectric constant reduces the
dimensions of the patch antenna.A substrate with dielectric permittivity are tabulated
in below table.
Height of dielectric substrate (h): For the microstrip patch antenna to be used in
cellular device, it is essential that the antenna is not bulky. Hence the height of the
73
Table 5.2: Types of Substrate Material
Lg = 6h + L (5.6)
Wg = 6h + W (5.7)
74
5.2 Designing of MSA
Based on the simplified formulation that has been described, a design procedure is
outlined which leads to design of rectangular microstrip patch antennas with line
feeding, inset feeding and coaxial feeding. The essential design parameters for the
design are: f0 = 2.45 GHz, r = 2.1, h = 1.56 mm and thickness of copper layer is
taken as 0.017 mm. The patch antenna parameters are summarized in Table 5.3.
Figure 5.4 shows the return loss (S11 ) characteristics of coaxial feed microstrip
patch antenna. The result shows that antenna has about -9.9858 dB return loss at
75
resonance frequency of 2.45 GHz. Since the return loss is very poor due to improper
impedance matching it can not used for practical application.
Figure 5.4: Simulated return loss of line feed microstrip patch antenna
Figure 5.6 and Figure 5.5 shows the radiation pattern of coaxial feed microstrip
patch antenna.
The result shows that antenna directivity and gain at resonance frequency of 2.45
GHz is 3.1303 dB and 0.2298 dB respectively.
76
Figure 5.6: Gain of line feed microstrip patch antenna
Figure 5.8 shows the return loss (S11 ) characteristics of coaxial feed microstrip
77
patch antenna . The result shows that antenna has about -17.19 dB return loss at reso-
nance frequency of 2.45 GHz. Patch antenna with inset feeding hold the good return
loss characteristic as compared to line feeding because of perfect line impedance
matching.
Figure 5.8: Simulated return loss of patch antenna with an inset feed
Figure 5.9 and Figure 5.10 shows the radiation pattern of coaxial feed microstrip
patch antenna. The result shows that antenna directivity and gain at resonance fre-
quency of 2.45 GHz is 2.74 dB and -0.17 dB respectively. Here both directivity and
gain decreases as compared to line feeding because of the cut in radiating plate for
matching purpose.
78
Figure 5.10: Gain of patch antenna with an inset feed
79
Figure 5.11: Designed coaxial feed patch antenna
Figure 5.12: Simulated return loss of coaxial feed microstrip patch antenna
80
Figure 5.13: Directivity of coaxial feed microstrip patch antenna
81
Figure 5.15: Microstrip patch antenna
eration is obtained for simple, slotted and metamaterial included patch. It has been
observed that with the shifting of the bands towards left of the frequency axis, im-
provement in the return loss is obtained upto -35.1532 dB after metamaterial inclu-
82
Table 5.4: Comparative analysis to show the shifting of the bands in triband operation for
different patch structure
Table 5.5: Comparative analysis of metamaterial included patch antenna return loss and res-
onant frequency shifts with conventional patch antenna in triband operation
Table 5.6: Comparative analysis of metamaterial included patch antenna dimensions and size
reduction with conventional patch antenna
Table 5.7: Comparative analysis of metamaterial included patch antenna with conventional
patch antenna considering antenna parameters
W L RF RL Gain
Patch Antenna
(mm) (mm) (GHz) (dB) (dB)
Conventional Design 36.2 52.4 1.4200 -20.9514 1.88
Metamaterial included Patch 30 40 1.4450 -35.1532 7.01
sion.
Patch antenna dimension is reduced further upto 36.7% and better return loss of
-29.577 dB is obtained and shown in Table 5.6. The return loss should always be
better than -10 dB.
As shown in Figure 5.18, in slotted patch antenna unit cells are duplicated to
obtain a metamaterial array structure. Array of unit cells are developed for tuning the
83
Table 5.8: Multiple band operation for simple(Model 1), slotted(Model 2) and metamaterial
included patch(Model 3).
Figure 5.19 shows the overall height of the MSA including the height of the
substrate and patch. The location of coaxial feed is also very prominent from the
diagram. Figure 5.20 shows various ways to arrange the unit cells within substrate
for getting the desired results in terms of return loss, bandwidth, gain and efficiency.
84
It can be analyzed that by having different arrangements of unit cell patch response
can be modified drastically.
A pair of SRR and Thin Wire (TW) was inserted in the dielectric substrate of
the slotted patch antenna. Figure 5.18 shows the shape, size and position of the
SRR-TW in Teflon substrate. The antenna dimensions are yet to be changed. But the
response shows the resonant frequencies to be lowered due to insertion of SRR-TW.
Slotted Patch responds between 1.4910-2.6810 GHz which is optimized for patch
dimensions 30mm x 50mm. Tribands are made to be shifted for the application of
LEO and MEO satellite.
Overall antenna size reduction is achieved. More than 36.7% size has been re-
duced from that of the conventional patch as shown in Table 5.9 and Figure 5.21.
After reduction, desired return loss and frequency bands can be achieved by varying
parameters of the metamaterials [49].
85
Figure 5.21: Reduced metamaterial included patch compared with standard patch
Metamaterial included
RF (GHz) RL (dB) Reduction in size (%)
patch antenna dimension(mm)
Band 1: 1.4450, -17.9261,
52.4 x 36.2 Band 2: 2.1000, -16.3489, 0
Band 3: 2.4100 -35.1532
Band 1: 1.6750, -17.4901,
50 x 35 Band 2: 2.1350, -13.2782, 7.7
Band 3: 2.5200 -18.0051
Band 1: 2.1500, -20.1161,
40 x 30 Band 2: 2.6350, -19.9743, 36.7
Band 3: 3.7200 -29.5770
retrieved material parameters are presented below. Figure 5.23(a) and Figure 5.23(b)
show the magnitude and phase of the computed S parameters. The dip in the phase
of S21 , which indicates the presence of a negative index band. In Figures 5.23- 5.24,
the x-axis shows frequency in GHz.
Finally, Figure 5.24(a) shows the permittivity and Figure 5.24(b) shows the per-
meability which, when both are negative at a given frequency, results in a negative
86
Figure 5.22: Unit cell of LHM in Waveguide
(a) (b)
Figure 5.23: (a) Magnitude of the simulated S parameters, (b) Phase of the simulated S
parameters
(a) (b)
87
Figure 5.25: Retrieved refractive index
many applications because it represents a matched case. In other words, if the wave is
traveling from a material with a refractive index of one into a medium with a refrac-
tive index of negative one, then there will be no reflections and also it has focusing
effect. Reflections are generally undesirable because we normally want as much
power as possible to be delivered from the source to the load.
The objective of this thesis work was to study and design of the LHM and its appli-
cation for the performance improvement of the microstrip patch antenna. We have
designed the unit cell of Left-Handed Metamaterial and analyze its constitutive pa-
rameters means and µ by effective medium . The simulation result show that both
and µ having the negative value in the frequency band 2.3 GHz to 3.2 GHz. Since
in this band, it is having negative refractive index, it can act as lens when it is illu-
minated by the EM fields radiated from the patch antenna, which is similar to the
focusing of convex lens on the propagation of light waves.
Microstrip patch antennas have been widely used in a various useful applications,
due to their low weight and low profile, easy and cheap realization. we have designed
the microstrip patch antenna for the operating frequency 2.45 GHz for WLAN ap-
plication. Antenna was designed with various feeding technique and simulated in
HFSS software to evaluate the performance. The patch antenna with inset feeding
and Coaxial feeding has good return loss characteristic as compared to line feed-
ing, But still has low gain and low directivity. This can be improved by using Left-
Handed metamaterial cover. Microstrip patch antenna for the operating frequency
2.45 GHz for WLAN application is designed. Antenna was designed with various
feeding technique and simulated in HFSS software to evaluate the performance. The
patch antenna with inset feeding and coaxial feeding has good return loss character-
istic as compared to line feeding, But still has low gain and low directivity. This can
be improved by using LHM cover.
To enhance the gain and directivity of microstrip patch antenna we need to develop
Left-Handed Metamaterial Cover, by periodic arrangement of unit cell as discussed
88
in chapter 2. By placing the LHM cover over the microstrip patch antenna at appro-
priate height will have focusing effects. By doing this we can get high direction and
high gain patch antenna.
Table 5.10: Comparative Analysis of Patch Antenna with increasing substrate thickness
Figure 5.26: Comparative Return Loss depicting BW for different substrate thickness
89
Figure 5.27: Comparative analysis of return loss depicting BW for different dielectric con-
stant
Table 5.11: Comparative Analysis of Patch Antenna with decreasing dielectric constant
composed of an ordinary patch antenna and one metamaterial layers each composed
of 13 × 9 units. Given the structure of ordinary patch antenna and the structure
of metamaterial layer, there are three key factors to adjust: the working frequency,
the number of the layers and the distance between the layers (the grid’s spacing in
the z-axis direction). The working frequency of ordinary patch antenna is to be 2.5
GHz. The substrate is 1.56 mm thick, and composed of medium Teflon with the
relative dielectric coefficient equal to 2.1. The input mode is back coaxial-feed. The
patch size is 30 mm × 45.9 mm, and the feed which is a 1.0225 mm diameter metal
cylinder.
90
Figure 5.28: Return loss (S11 ) parameter for slotted patch antenna
Figure 5.30 and Figure 5.31 shows return loss and VSWR of metamaterial cover
over microstrip patch antenna which depicts great agreement with the desired spec-
ifications, with single band in L-band frequency and dual band in S-band frequency
same as obtained for slotted patch antenna. Table 5.13 shows the result analysis for
frequency tribands of the same.
For the first L Band, resonant frequency is 1.6550 GHz, return loss is -20.6230 dB
and VSWR is 1.2299. For the second S Band, resonant frequency is 2.3150 GHz,
return loss is -14.7714 dB and VSWR is 1.5788. For the third S Band, resonant fre-
quency is 2.6550 GHz, return loss is -17.7571 dB and VSWR is 1.2974, all within
the acceptable range. And this perfectly matches with the same three bands that were
obtained in case of simple slotted patch antenna. As shown in Table 5.13, one band
is in L band frequency region and two bands are in S band frequency region, which
matches perfectly with the three bands obtained for slotted patch antenna shown in
Table 5.13 .
91
Figure 5.30: Return loss (S11 ) parameter for metamaterial cover over the microstrip patch
antenna
Figure 5.31: VSWR for metamaterial cover over the microstrip patch antenna
In Figure 5.32, directivity patterns are plotted for spacing height of 10 mm, 6
mm and 2 mm. It can easily be analyzed that the directivity decreases from 0.2983
to 0.1585 as spacing height decreases from 10 mm to 2 mm respectively. Hence, this
results in the improvement of the antenna’s directivity. The graphs are obtained for
the same value of theta and phi i.e. for theta 90 degree and phi 45 degree.
92
which is desirable for good antenna design. Figure 5.35 shows the directivity 0.3089
at x=8.4 mm, which matches with the analytical value of directivity obtained in Sec-
tion 3 for theta 90 degree and phi 45 degree.
Figure 5.32: Directivity of metamaterial cover over the microstrip patch antenna for x=10mm,
6mm and 2mm.
Figure 5.33: Return Loss of metamaterial cover over the microstrip patch antenna for
x=8.4mm
Tables 5.12 and 5.13 show the result analysis for frequency tribands, single band
in L band region and dual band in S-band region of MSA and radome structure re-
spectively.
93
Figure 5.34: VSWR of metamaterial cover over the microstrip patch antenna for x=8.4mm
Figure 5.35: Peak directivity of metamaterial cover over the microstrip patch antenna at
x=8.4mm
94
Table 5.13: Return loss and VSWR analysis of radome structure
Fabricated patch antenna and grid of two different copper thicknesses are shown
in Figures 5.40 and 5.41 respectively. PTH process is demonstrated in Figure 5.42.
95
Figure 5.36: Optimized HFSS model
(a) (b)
Figure 5.37: (a) PCB designed for fabrication, (b) Model transported to PCB Prototype Ma-
chine
5.8.1 Procedure
Part 1
(i) Use the experimental arrangement as shown in Figure 5.44. Use the two identicle
planar biquad antennas. The distance between the two biquad antennas must satisfy
96
Figure 5.38: PCB Prototyping Machine(Purchased under TEQIP-II grant at SVNIT)
97
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
98
Figure 5.43: Setup Diagram
Part 2
Use the biquad antenna with known gain as a standard to measure the gain of radome
antenna.
(i) Use the experimental arrangement as shown in Fig.5.45. Use one biquad antenna
as the transmitting antenna. The second planar radome as reference antenna is to be
used as the receiving antenna. The distance between the two antennas must satisfy
the far zone criterion.
(ii) Align the two antennas for the same polarization and boresight radiation.Record
the distance R between the two antennas and the VSWR reading PS (dB).
(iii) Remove the reference antenna and connect the radome antenna in the place and
orient the antenna for the same polarization.All other settings remain the same.
(iv) Record the VSWR reading as PT (dB).
(v) Repeat the measurements at different frequency settings.
99
(vi) Calculate the absolute gain of the radome antennausing the formula: GT (dB) =
GS (dB)+[PS (dB)−PT (dB)], where GS is the gain of the biquad antenna calculated
in part 1.
Table 5.14: Degree of agreement of the mathematical results with the simulated results
Table 5.15: Degree of agreement of the measured results with the simulated results
The frequency of operation is 2.5 GHz (1-4 GHz). Teflon is the dielectric material
used for the substrate having the dielectric constant of 2.1. The height of the MSA
is kept fixed at 1.56 mm. For obtaining the desired outputs, return loss should be
better than -10 dB. Then only the band of antenna performance is considered good.
Bandwidth should be more than 10 MHz. Designed antenna should have high gain
and good efficiency with narrower beamwidth and directional characteristics.
100
Chapter 6
Conclusions
101
Miniaturization of the overall size of the microtrip patch antenna is obtained by
slotting of the patch and the enhancement of bandwidth is observed. After inclusions
of the metamatrial the bandwidth increment is 12.43% as compared to the substrate
with Teflon as the dielectric material. Size Reduction is obtained up to 36.7% by
making parametric changes in the model.
Further scope for improvement lies in the investigation of boundary conditions
at the metal-dielectric interface and the optimization of the Matlab scripts. Future
scope of metamaterials hold great promise for new applications in the megahertz
to terahertz bands, as well as optical frequencies which includes super-resolution
imaging, cloaking, hyperlensing and optical transformation.
102
List of Publications
International Journal Papers
4. Surabhi Dwivedi, Vivekanand Mishra, and Yogesh P. Kosta. Design And Com-
parative analysis of a Metamaterial included Slotted Patch Antenna with a
Metamaterial Cover over Patch. International Journal of Recent Technology
and Engineering(IJRTE), ISSN: 2277-3878, Volume-1, Issue-6,1-4, 2013.
Patent
1. Surabhi Dwivedi, Vivekanand Mishra, and Yogesh P. Kosta. Antenna size Op-
timization using Metamaterial. Patent 2571/MUM/2014.
1. Project proposal accepted from DRDO Delhi entitled “Fabrication and Char-
acterization Of Radome Structure”.
103
International Conferences
104
triband patch antenna. Nirma University International Conference on. IEEE
NUiCONE, 28-30 Nov, 2013. Ahemdabad, Gujarat, India. DOI: 10.1109/
NUiCONE.2013.6780125
10. Surabhi Dwivedi, Vivekanand Mishra, and Yogesh P. Kosta. Metamaterial in-
spired patch antenna miniaturization technique for Satellite. Emerging Tech-
nology Trends in Electronics, Communication and Networking (ET2ECN), 1st
International Conference on. IEEE, 2012, Surat, Gujarat, India. DOI:978-1-
4673-1627-9/122012 IEEE, Surat 130-136.
National Conferences
105
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