Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Part-01
Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Part-01
Introduction
Chemistry deals with the composition, structure and properties of matter. These aspects can be best described and
understood in terms of basic constituents of matter: atoms and molecules. That is why chemistry is called the science
of atoms and molecules. Can we see, weight and perceive these entities? Is it possible to count the number of atoms
and molecules in a given mass of matter and have a quantitative relationship between the mass and number of these
particles (atoms and molecules)? We will like to answer some of these questions in this unit. We would further describe
how physical properties of matter can be quantitatively described using numerical values with suitable units.
Pure Substance
ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS
Atoms Molecules
Atomic weight Molecular weight
Collectively atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, protons, neutrons etc. are

called Fundamental Particles
  Digital Pvt. Ltd. [1]

Atomic Weight
Actual mass of one atom of element
Atomic weight (Relative Atomic weight) =
1 / 12 th mass of one atom of Carbon − 12
Relative Atomic Weight is a pure number, without any unit.

Example: Na = 23; H=1; O=16; N=14, S=32, Fe=56, K=39, C=12
The quantity 1/12th mass of an atom of C12 is known as one atomic mass unit (amu).
1 atomic mass unit (amu) = 1.67× 10–24 gram
= 1.67× 10–27 Kg
Note: Actual mass of one atom of element = Atomic weight X amu

Example: Actual mass of one atom of Oxygen = 16 x amu or 16 amu.
= 16 x 1.67× 10–24 g
= 26.72 × 10–24 g


Part-02
Molecular Weight
Actual mass of one atom of element
Molecular Weight =
1 / 12 th mass of one atom of Carbon − 12
Relative molecular weight is also a pure number, without any unit.

Example: H2O = 18; NH3 = 17; H2SO4 = 98; SO2 = 64
Note: Actual mass of one molecule of compound = Molecular weight x amu
Example: Actual mass of one molecule of Ammonia = 17 x amu or 17amu.

= 17 x 1.67× 10–24 gram
= 28.39 x 10–24 gram
Therefore we can calculate the actual mass of any number of atoms or molecules given.
Illustration 1. How many atoms are there in 100 amu of He?

(1) 10 (2) 100 (3) 50 (4) 25
Solution: The relative atomic weight of He is 4.
 The actual mass of one He atom = 4 amu.
100
No. of atoms in 100 amu = = 25
4
Illustration 2. The actual mass of a molecule of the compound C60H22 is:
(1) 1.09 × 10–21 g (2) 1.24 × 10–21 g (3) 5.025 × 10–23 g (4) 16.023 × 10–23 g
Solution: The relative molecular weight of C60H22 = 742
 The actual mass of one molecule of given compound will be = 742 amu.
= 742 x 1.67 x 10–24 gram
= 1.24 × 10–21 gram
Atomicity
Total number of atoms in one molecule of elementary substance is called as ATOMICITY.
Molecule Atomicity
H2 2
O2 2
O3 3
NH3 4 (1 N atom + 3 H atoms)
H2SO4 7 (2 H atoms + 1 S atom + 4 O atoms)


Part-03
Mole Concept
A mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many entities (atoms, molecules or other particles) as there
are atoms in exactly 0.012 kg (or 12g) of the carbon - 12 isotope.
It may be emphasised that the mole of a substance always contains the same number of entities, no matter what
the substance may be. In order to determine this number precisely, the mass of a carbon-12 atom was determined by a
mass spectrometer and found to be equal to 1.992648 × 10–23 g Knowing that 1 mole of carbon weighs 12g, the number
of atoms in it is equal to
12g/mol C12
= 6.022137 × 1023 atoms/mol
1.992648×10-23g/ C12 atom
In a simple way, we can say that mole has 6.022137 × 1023 entities (atoms, molecules or ions etc.)
The number of entities in 1 mol is so important that it is given a separate name and symbol, known as 'Avogadro’s
constant' denoted by NA.
Here entities may represent atoms, ions, molecules or other subatomic entities. Chemists count the number of atoms
and molecules by weighing. In a reaction we require these particles (atoms, molecules and ions) in a definite ratio. We
make use of this relationship between numbers and masses of the particles for determining the stoichiometry of
reactions.
Formula to calculate moles are as following:

weight(gm)
(i) Mole of atoms =
atomic weight
weight(gm)
(ii) Mole of molecules =
molecular weight
(iii) Mole atoms = atomicity × mole molecules.
V
(iv) Mole of gas = (V = Volume of gas in litre at NTP or STP)
22.4
N
(v) Mole particles n = (N = Number of particles)
NA
number of atoms number of molecules
Mole of atoms = and Mole of molecules =
NA NA
Illustration 1. Find the total number of H, S and 'O' atoms in the following:
(1) 196 gm H2SO4 (2) 196 amu H2SO4
(3) 5 mole H2S2O8 (4) 3 molecules H2S2O6
Solution: (1) H = 4NA, S = 2NA, O = 8NA atoms
(2) H = 4 atoms, S = 2 atoms, O = 8 atoms.

(3) H = 10NA, S = 10NA, O = 40 NA atoms

(4) H = 6 atoms, S = 6 atoms, O = 18 atoms.
Illustration 2. The charge on 1 gram ions of Al3+ is : (NA = Avogadro number, e = charge on one electron)
1 1
(1) × NAe coulomb (2) × NAe coulomb
27 3
1
(3) × NAe coulomb (4) 3 × NAe coulomb
9
Solution: 1 gram ion = 1 mole
charge on 1 mole Al3+ is = 3 × e (NA )
Ans. (4)

Z

Part-04
Gram Atomic Mass and Gram Molecular Mass

Gram Atomic Mass (or Mass of 1 Gram Atom)
When numerical value of atomic mass of an element is expressed in grams then the value becomes gram atomic mass.
Gram atomic mass = mass of 1 gram atom = mass of 1 mole atom
= mass of NA atoms = mass of 6.023 × 1023 atoms.
Example:
Gram atomic mass of oxygen = mass of 1 g atom of oxygen = mass of 1 mol atom of oxygen.
 16 
= mass of NA atoms of oxygen. =  g  × N A = 16 g
 NA 
Gram Molecular Mass (Mass of 1 Gram Molecule)
When numerical value of molecular mass of the substance is expressed in grams then the value becomes gram molecular
mass.
Gram molecular mass = mass of 1 gram molecule = mass of 1 mole molecule
= mass of NA molecules = mass of 6.023 × 1023 molecules
Example:
Gram molecular mass of H2SO4 = mass of 1gram molecule of H2SO4
= mass of 1 mole molecule of H2SO4
= mass of NA molecules of H2SO4
 98 
=  g ×N A = 98 g
 NA 
Number
of moles
Mass in Vol (l) of

Gram gas at STP
Number
of
Particles

Z

Part-05
Illustration 1. Calculate the number of moles in11.2 litre of Oxygen at STP.

Solution:  At STP, 22.4 litre of Oxygen contains = 1 mol
1
 At STP, 11.2 litre of Oxygen contains = × 11.2 = 0.5 mol
22.4
Illustration 2. Find out the volume and mole in 56 g nitrogen at STP

Solution: Molecular weight of N2 is 28 g
(a) Calculation of volume:  28 g of N2 occupies = 22.4 litre at STP
22.4
 56 g of N2 occupies = × 56 litre = 44.8 litre at STP
28
(b) Calculation of mole:  28 g of N2 = 1 mol of N2
1
 56 g of N2 = × 56 = 2 mol of N2
28
Illustration 3. Find out the moles & mass in 1.12 litre O3 at STP.
Solution: (a) Calculation of mole:  At STP, 22.4 litre of O3 contain = 1 mol of O3
1
 At STP, 1.12 litre of O3 contain = × 1.12 = 0.05 mol of O3
22.4
(b) Calculation of mass: Molecular weight of O3 = 48 g
 weight of 22.4 litre of O3 at STP is = 48 g
48
 weight of 1.12 litre of O3 at STP is = × 1.12 = 2.4 g
22.4
Illustration 4. Calculate the volume and mass of 0.2 mol of O3 at STP.
Solution: (a) Calculation of volume:  volume of 1 mole of O3 at STP = 22.4 litre
 volume of 0.2 mole of O3 at STP = 22.4 × 0.2 = 4.48 litre

(b) Calculation of mass:  mass of 1 mol of O3 = 48 g
 mass of 0.2 mol of O3 = 48 × 0.2 gm = 9.6 g
Illustration 5. Calculate the number of molecules and number of atoms present in 1 g of nitrogen?

Z
weight 1 NA
Solution: Number of moles (n) = = Number of molecules (N) =
Mw 28 28
 1 molecule of N2 gas contains = 2 atoms
NA N NA
 molecules of N2 gas contain = 2 × A = atoms
28 28 14
Illustration 6. Calculate the number of atoms present in one drop of water having mass 1.8 g.
weight 1.8
Solution: Number of moles of H2O (n) = = = 0.1 mol
Mw 18
Number of molecules of H2O (N) = 0.1 NA
 1 molecule of H2O contain = 3 atoms
 0.1 NA molecules of H2O contain = 3 × (0.1 NA) = 0.3 NA atoms.
Illustration 7. Calculate the number of moles in 11.2 litre of oxygen at STP.

V 11.2
Solution: Number of moles of O2 (n) = = = 0.5 mol
22.4 22.4


Part-06
Vapour Density
Vapour density of a gas is the ratio of density of gas and hydrogen at the same temperature and pressure i.e. relative
density of a gas with respect to the density of hydrogen gas at same temperature and pressure condition.
d gas
V.D. =
d H2
m
d=
v
If at STP, n = 1, m = mol weight, V = 22.4 L
mol wt. gas
dgas =
22.4L
mol wt. H 2
d H2 =
22.4 L
d gas mol wt. gas mol wt. gas
V.D. = = =
d H2 mol wt. H2 2
 mol wt.gas = 2 × V.Dgas
Some Important Points:

Vapour density is unitless term.
At NTP, the density of hydrogen gas = 0.000089 g/ml
= 9.0 × 10–5 g/ml
Density of gas A
Relative density =
Density of gas B
Density of solution
Specific gravity =
Density of water
Illustration 1. The formula of a hypothetical gas is (N2)x and its vapour density is 70. Find x?
Solution: mol wt.gas = 2 × Vapour density
= 2 × 70 = 140
Hence, 140 = x (28)
x=5
Illustration 2. A hydrocarbon CnH2n+2 has Vapour density 29. What is the value of n?
Solution: mol wt. = 2 × V.D = 2 × 29 = 58
Hence, 58 = n(12) + (2n + 2) 1
58 = 12n + 2n + 2
n=4

Illustration 3. Vapour density of a gas is 11.2. The volume occupied by 11.2 g of this gas at STP is:
(1) 22.4 L (2) 11.2 L (3) 1 L (4) 2.25 L
Solution: mol wt. = 2 × V.D.
= 2 × 11.2 = 22.4
11.2 1
ngas = =
22.4 2
1
Volume occupied by gas at STP = × 22.4 = 11.2 L
2


Part-07
Percentage Formula, Empirical Formula & Molecular Formula
(a) (c) (e)

Relationship
between
Percentage Molecular Empirical & Determination
Formula Empirical Formula Molecular of Empirical
Formula Formula Formula
(b) (d)
(a) Percentage Formula

Number of atoms × atomic mass
% mass = × 100
molecular mass
If number of atom =1; Molecular mass = minimum molecular mass
(b) Empirical Formula

The empirical formula of a compound expresses the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of various elements
present in 1 molecule of the compound.
Molecular Formula → H2O2 CH4 C2H6 C2H4O2
2:2 1:4 2:6 2:4:2
1:1 1:4 1:3 1:2:1
Empirical Formula → HO CH4 CH3 CH2O
(c) Molecular Formula

The molecular formula of a compound represents the actual number of atoms present in 1 molecule of the
compound i.e. it shows the real formula of its 1 molecule.
(d) Relationship between Empirical & Molecular Formula

Molecular Formula = n × Empirical Formula
[Where n = natural no. (1, 2, 3, .........)]
or n = Molecular Formula or n = Molecular formula mass
Empirical Formula Empirical formula mass

(e) Determination of Empirical Formula

Following steps are involved to determine the empirical formula of the compounds –
(1)
First of all find the % by
weight of each element
present in 1 molecule of the (4)
compound If the value of simplest atomic ratio is
(2) fractional then raise the value to the
nearest whole number or multiply with
The % by weight of each suitable coefficient to convert it into
element is divided by its nearest whole number.
atomic weight. It gives
(5)
atomic ratio of elements
present in the compounds. Write the Empirical formula as we get
the simplest ratio of atoms.
(3)
Atomic ratio of each element
is divided by the minimum
value of atomic ratio so as to
get the simplest ratio of
atoms.
Illustration 1. In a compound x is 75.8% and y is 24.2% by weight. If atomic weight of x and y are 24 and 16
respectively. Then calculate the empirical formula of the compound.
Solution: Elements % Atomic weight % Simplest ratio Ratio
Atomic weight
75.8 3.1
x 75.8% 24 =3.1 =2 2
24 1.5
24.2 1.5
y 24.2% 16 =1.5 =1 1
16 1.5
Empirical formula = x2y
Illustration 2. In a compound Carbon = 52.2%, Hydrogen = 13%, Oxygen = 34.8% are present and molecular
mass of the compound is 92. Calculate molecular formula of the compound?
Solution: Elements % Atomic weight % Simplest ratio Ratio
Atomic weight
52.2 4.4
C 52.2 12 = 4.35 = 4.4 =2 2
12 2.2
13 13
H 13 1 = 13 = 5.9 6
1 2.2
34.8 2.2
O 34.8 16 = 2.2 =1 1
16 2.2
Empirical formula = C2H6O
Empirical mass = 12 × 2 + 16 + 6 = 46
92
n = Molecular mass = =2
Empirical mass 46
Molecular formula = 2 × (C2H6O) = C4H12O2


Part-08
Stoichiometry Based Concept (Problems Based on Chemical Reaction)

One of the most important aspects of a chemical equation is that when it is written in the balanced form, it gives
quantitative relationships between the various reactants and products in terms of moles, masses, molecules and volumes.
This is called stoichiometry (Greek word, meaning 'to measure an element'). For example, a balanced chemical equation
along with the quantitative information conveyed by it is given below:
CaCO3 + 2HCl ⎯⎯
→ CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
1 Mole 2 Mole 1 Mole 1 Mole 1 Mole

40 + 12 + 3 × 16 2(1 + 35.5) 40 + 2 × 35.5 2 × 1 + 16 12 + 2 × 16
= 100 g = 73 g = 111 g = 18 g = 44 g or 22.4 L at
STP
Thus,
(i) 1 mole of calcium carbonate reacts with 2 moles of hydrochloric acid to give 1 mole of calcium chloride,
1 mole of water and 1 mole of carbon dioxide.
(ii) 100 g of calcium carbonate react with 73 g hydrochloric acid to give 111 g of calcium chloride, 18 g of
water and 44 g (or 22.4 litres at STP) of carbon dioxide.
1 3 2 Stoichiometry
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
1 mole + 3 mole → 2 mole
22.4 litre + 3 × 22.4 litre → 2 × 22.4 litre (at STP)
1 litre + 3 litre → 2 litre
1000 mL + 3000 mL → 2000 mL
1 mL + 3 mL → 2 mL
28 gm + 6 gm → 34 g (According to the law of conservation of mass)

Mass is not expressed in the ratio of stoichiometric coefficient.

The quantitative information conveyed by a chemical equation helps in a number of calculations. The problems
involving these calculations may be classified into the following different types:
(1) (2) (3)
Mass - Mass Mass - Volume Volume - Volume

Relationships Relationships Relationships
mass of one of the mass/volume of one of volume of one of the

reactants or products the reactants or reactants or the
is given and the mass products is given and products is given and
of some other reactant the volume/mass of the volume of the other
or product is to be the other is to be is to be calculated.
calculated. calculated.
The general method of calculations for all the problems of the above types consists of the following steps:
(i) Write down the balanced chemical equation.
(ii) Write the relative number of moles or the relative masses (gram atomic or molecular masses) of the reactants
and the products below their formula.
(iii) In case of a gaseous substance, write down 22.4 litres at STP below the formula in place of 1 mole
(iv) Apply unitary method to make the required calculations.
Quite often one of the reactants is present in larger amount than the other as required according to the balanced
equation. The amount of the product formed then depends upon the reactant which has reacted completely. This
reactant is called the limiting reactant. The excess of the other is left unreacted.
Type I Involving Mass-Mass Relationship

Illustration 1. How much iron can be theoretically obtained in the reduction of 1 kg of Fe 2O3.
Solution: Writing the balanced equation for the reaction.
1 3 2 3
Fe 2 O3 + 3H 2 ⎯⎯
→ 2Fe + 3H 2 O
weight 1000
n= = mol
Mw 160
The equation shows that 2 mol of iron are obtained from 1 mol of ferric oxide.
2 × 1000 weight weight
Hence, the obtained no. of moles of Fe = =12.5 mol = =
160 Atomic weight 56
Weight of iron obtained = 12.5 × 56 g = 700 g

Illustration 2. What amount of silver chloride is formed by the action of 5.850 g of sodium chloride on an
excess of silver nitrate?
Solution: Writing the equation for the reaction
1 1 1 1
NaCl + AgNO3 ⎯⎯
→ AgCl + NaNO3
weight 5.85
n= = = 0.1 mol
Mw 58.5
1 mol of AgCl is obtained with 1 mol of NaCl
Hence, the number of moles of AgCl obtained with 0.1 mol of NaCl = 0.1 mol
weight weight weight
 n=  0.1 mol = =
MW Mw 143.5
 weight = 0.1 × 143.5 g = 14.35 g.
Type II Mass - Volume Relationship

Illustration 3. For complete combustion of 3g ethane find required moles of O 2 and formed moles of CO2.
Also find volume of O2 and CO2 at STP.
Solution: 2C2H6 + 7O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O
weight 3 1
n= = = = 0.1 mole
Mw 30 10
7
(a) Required moles of O2 = × 0.1 = 0.35 mol
2
volume of O2 at STP = 0.35 × 22.4 = 7.84 litre
4
(b) Produced moles of CO2 = × 0.1 = 0.2 mol
2
volume of CO2 at STP = 0.2 × 22.4 = 4.48 litre
Illustration 4. In the following reaction, if 10 g of H2, react with N2. What will be the volume of NH3 at STP.
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
Solution: 1 3 2
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
10 g
weight 10
n= = = 5 mol
Mw 2
2 10 10
Produced moles of NH3 = 5 = , Volume of NH3 at STP =  22.4 = 74.67 litre
3 3 3


Part-10
Limiting Reagent (L.R.) Concept

Limiting Reagent (L.R.): The reactant which is completely consumed in a reaction is called as L.R.
Ex. 1 2 1 2  Stoichiometry
A + 2B → C + 2D
given 3 mol 9mol
3 – 3 = 0 mol 9 – 6 = 3 mol 3 mol 6 mol
L.R. = A
Given value ( may moles, volume, or molecules)
Formula for checking L.R. =
Stoichiometric Coefficient
Least value indicate the L.R.

Ex. A B
3 =3 9 = 4.5
1 2
3 < 4.5 So A is L.R.

Identification: More than 1 initial quantities of reactants are given
Illustration 1. A + 5B → C + 3D. In this reaction identify the limiting reagent if the reaction starts with 10
mol of A and 10 mol of B.
Solution: For A For B
10 10
= 10 =2
1 5
2 < 10 So B is L.R.
Illustration 2. 4 g of H2 (g) and 32 g of O2 (g) are mixed and exploded.

H2(g) + 1 O2(g) ⎯→ H2O(g);
2
In the above reaction what is the volume of water vapour formed at STP?
Solution: 1 1 1
2
H2(g) + 1
2
O2(g) → H2O(g)
4g 32 g For H2 For O2
4 32 2 1
n= = 2mol n= = 1 mol =2 1
= 2 mol
2 32 1 2
V
Moles of H2O(g) = 2 mol =
22.4
2 = 2 So Both H2 & O2 are L.R.
Volume of H2O(g) at STP = 22.4 × 2 = 44.8 litre

Illustration 3. At NTP, In a container 100 mL of N2 and 100 mL of H2 are mixed together. Then find out the
produced volume of NH3.
Solution: Balanced equation will be N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
Given: 100mL 100 mL
For determination of Limiting reagent divide the given quantities by stoichiometric coefficients
100 100
= 100 = 33.3 (Limiting reagent)
1 3
In this reaction H2 is limiting reagent so reaction will proceed according to H 2.
According to stoichiometry from 3 mL of H2 produced volume of NH3 = 2 mL
2
That is from 100 mL of H2 produced volume of NH3 = × 100 = 66.6 mL
3


Part-12
Combustion reaction: (Problem based on combustion reactions):

For balancing the combustion reaction: First of all balance C atoms, then balance H atoms, finally balance Oxygen
atoms.
For Example:
Combustion reaction of C2H6 : C2H6 + O2 ⎯⎯→ CO2 + H2O (skeleton equation)
Balance C atoms C2H6 + O2 ⎯⎯→ 2CO2 + H2O
Now balance H atoms C2H6 + O2 ⎯⎯→ 2CO2 + 3 H2O
Now balance Oxygen atoms C2H6 +7/2 O2 ⎯⎯→ 2CO2 + 3 H2O
Illustration 1. For complete combustion of 1.12 litre of butane (C 4H10), the produced volume of H2O(g) &
CO2(g) will be:
Solution: 1 13 4 5
2
C4H10(g) + 13 O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g)

2
1.12 litre
Volume of H2O(g) at STP = 5 × 1.12 = 5.6 litre
Volume of CO2(g) at STP = 4 × 1.12 = 4.48 litre
Illustration 2. For complete combustion of 5 mol propane (C3H8), Find required moles of O2. Also find volume
of O2 at STP.
Solution: For C3H8, the combustion reaction is:
1 5 3 4
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
5 mol
Required moles of O2 = 5 × 5 = 25 mole = V
22.4
Volume of O2 gas at STP = 25 × 22.4 = 560 litre


Part-13
Laws of Chemical Combination
Law of Mass Conservation

(a)
Law of Definite Proportion /
Law of Constant Composition
(b)
Law of Multiple Proportion (c)

(d)
Law of Gaseous Volume
Avogadro's law (e)
(a) Law of Mass Conservation (Law of Indestructibility of Matter)

"It was given by Lavoisier and tested by Landolt"
According to this law, mass can neither be created nor be destroyed in a balanced chemical reaction or physical
reaction. But one form is changed into another form is called as law of mass conservation.
If the reactants are completely converted into products, then the sum of the mass of reactants is equal to the sum
of the mass of products.
Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products.
If reactants are not completely consumed then the relationship will be:
Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products + Mass of unreacted reactants
Illustration 3. 10g of CaCO3 on heating gives 4.4 g of CO2 then determine weight of produced CaO in quintal.
Solution: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
10 g xg 4.4 g
 1quintal = 100 kg
According to law of conservation of mass 
 1kg = 1000g
10 = 4.4 + x
10 – 4.4 = x
x = 5.6 g
kg 1
Weight of CaO(x) = 5.6 x = 5.6 x 10–3 kg = 5.6 × 10–3 × quintal = 5.6 × 10–5 quintal
1000 100

(b) Law of Definite Proportion / Law of Constant Composition

"It was given by Proust."
According to this law, a compound can be obtained from different sources. But the ratio of each
component (by weight) remain same.i.e. it does not depend on the method of its preparation or the source from
which it has been obtained.
For example: molecule of ammonia always has the formula NH3. That is one molecule of ammonia always contains,
one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydrogen or 17 g of NH 3 always contains 14 g of nitrogen and 3 g of
hydrogen.
Ex. Water can be obtained from different sources but the ratio of weight of H and O remains same.
H2 O 2H2O 2H2 + O2
Sea water
2 : 16 Tap water
River water
or 1 : 8 Ganga Jal
Rain water
(c) Law of Multiple Proportion

"It was given by John Dalton"
According to law of Multiple proportion if two elements combine to form more than one compound then the
different mass of one element which combine with a fixed mass of other element bear a simple ratio to one another.
The following examples illustrate this law.
Nitrogen and oxygen combine to form five oxides, which are: Nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen
trioxide (N2O3), nitrogen tetraoxide (N2O4) and nitrogen pentaoxide (N2O5).
Weight of oxygen which combine with the fixed weight of nitrogen in these oxides are calculated as under:
Oxide Ratio of weight of nitrogen and oxygen in each compound
N2O 28 : 16 NO 14 : 16 N2O3 28 : 48
N2O4 28 : 64 N2O5 28 : 80
Number of parts by weight of oxygen which combine with 14 parts by weight of nitrogen from the above are 8, 16,
24, 32 and 40 respectively. Their ratio is 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : 5, which is a simple ratio. Hence, the law is illustrated.
(d) Law of Gaseous Volume

"It was given by Gay Lussac"
According to this law, in the gaseous reaction, the reactants are always combined in a simple ratio by volume and
form products, which is simple ratio by volume at same temperature and pressure.
Ex. One volume of nitrogen combines with 3 volumes of hydrogen to from 2 volumes of ammonia.
Simple ratio 1 : 3 : 2
Special Note: This law is used only for gaseous reaction. It relate volume to mole or molecules. But not relate with
mass.

(e) Avogadro's law

"Equal volume of all gases contain equal number of molecules at same temperature and pressure."
Ex. 1 1 2  Stoichiometry
H2(g) + Cl2(g) ⎯→ 2HCl(g)

1 Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume
N molecules N molecules 2N molecules
1 molecule (1atom) 1 molecule (1 atom) 1 molecule
2 2
It is correct due to molecule is divisible.


Part-14
Equivalent Weight
The equivalent weight of a substance is the number of parts by mass of the substance that combine with or displaces
directly or indirectly 1.008 parts by mass of hydrogen or 8 parts by mass of oxygen or 35.5 parts by mass of chlorine or
108 parts by weight of Ag.
(a) Calculation of Equivalent Weight
Atomic weight
(i) Equivalent weight =
Valency factor
formula weight of ion
(ii) Equivalent weight of ions =
Valency
(iii) Equivalent weight of compound = equivalent weight of cation + equivalent weight of anion
Ex. Equivalent weight of H2SO4 = Equivalent weight of H++ Equivalent weight of Anion (SO4–2)
= 1 + 48 = 49
Molecular weight
(iv) Equivalent weight of acid / base =
Basicity/Acidity
Molecular weight
(v) Equivalent weight of salt =
Total charge on cation or anion
Ex. Na2SO4 (salt) → 2Na+ + SO4–2
Total charge on cation or anion is 2
Molecular weight of Na2SO4 is = (2 × 23 + 32 + 16 × 4) = 142
142
Equivalent weight of Na2SO4 = = 71
2
Molecular weight of the substance
(vi) Equivalent weight of an oxidizing or reducing agent =
Number of electrons gain/lost by one molecule


Part-15
(b) Concept of gram equivalent and law of chemical equivalence:

W(gram)
Number of gram equivalent =
E
W(gram) ×Valence factor
=
M
= n × valence factor
According to it, in a reaction equal number of gram equivalents of reactants react to give equal number of gram
equivalents of products.
For a reaction
aA + bB → cC + dD
Number of gram equivalents of A = Number of gram equivalents of B
= Number of gram equivalents of C
= Number of gram equivalents of D
Illustration 1. Equivalent weight of H3PO4 is:
molecular weight
Solution: Equivalent weight =
valency factor
98
=
3
Illustration 2. Equivalent weight of SO4–2 is:

formula weight of ion
Solution: Equivalent weight =
valency
96
= = 48
2


Part-16
Methods for Determination of Equivalent Weight
(i) Hydrogen displacement method
(ii) Oxide formation method
(iii) Chloride formation method
(iv) Metal to metal displacement method
(v) Double decomposition method
(vi) Silver salt method
(vii) By electrolysis
(i) Hydrogen displacement method: This method is used for those elements which can evolve hydrogen from acids
i.e. active metals.
weight of metal
Equivalent weight of metal = × 1.008
weight of H 2 gas (displaced)
(ii) Oxide formation method: A known mass of the element is changed into oxide directly or indirectly. The mass of
oxide is noted.
Mass of oxygen = (Mass of oxide – Mass of element)
weight of element
Equivalent weight of element = ×8
weight of oxygen
(iii) Chloride formation method: A known mass of the element is changed into chloride directly or indirectly. The
mass of the chloride is determined.
weight of element
Equivalent weight of element = × 35.5
weight of chlorine

(iv) Metal to metal displacement method: More active metal can displace less active metal from its salt's solution.
The mass of the displaced metal bear the same ratio as their equivalent weights.
m1 E
= 1
m2 E2
(v) Double decomposition method: This method is based on the following points -
(a) The mass of the compound reacted and the mass of product formed are in the ratio of their equivalent
masses.
(b) The equivalent mass of the compound (electrovalent) is the sum of equivalent masses of its radicals.
(c) The equivalent mass of a radical is equal to the formula mass of the radical divided by its charge.
AB + CD → AD (ppt.) + CB
Mass of AB Equivalent mass of AB Equivalent mass of A+Equivalent mass of B
= =
Mass of AD Equivalent mass of AD Equivalent mass of A+Equivalent mass of D
(vi) Silver salt method: This method is used for finding the equivalent weight of carbonic (organic) acids. A known
mass of the RCOOAg is changed into Ag through combustion. The mass of Ag is determined.
Equivalent weight of RCOOAg weight of RCOOAg
=
Equivalent weight of Ag weight of Ag
weight of RCOOAg
Equivalent weight of RCOOAg = × 108
weight of Ag
w 1 E1
(vii) By electrolysis: =
w 2 E2
Where w1 & w2 are deposited weight of metals at electrodes and E1 and E2 are equivalent weight respectively.
Illustration 1. If 2.4 g of a metal displaces 0.1 g of hydrogen gas then find equivalent weight of metal.
Solution: g. eq. of metal = g. eq. of H 2
Wmetal Whydrogen
=
E metal E hydrogen
2.4 0.1
 =
E metal 1
 Emetal = 24
Illustration 2. 74.5 g of metallic chloride contains 35.5g of chlorine, find equivalent weight of metal.
Solution: Weight of metal = 74.5 – 35.5 = 39 g
For a metallic chloride:
g. eq. of metal = g. eq. of chlorine
Wmetal Wchlorine
=
E metal E chlorine
39 35.5
 =
E metal 35.5
 Emetal = 39


Part-17
Methods for Calculation of Atomic Weight and Molecular Weight
1 2
Methods for Determination Method for Determination
of Atomic Weight of Molecular Weight
(1) Methods for Determination of Atomic Weight

(i) Atomic weight = equivalent weight × valency
(ii) Dulong and Petit's law - This law is applicable only for solids (except Be, B, Si, C)
Atomic mass × specific heat (Cal g–1 °C–1) = 6.4
6.4
or Atomic mass (approximate) =
specific heat
(iii) Law of Isomorphism: Isomorphous substances form crystals which have same shape and size and can
grow in the saturated solution of each other.
Examples of isomorphous compounds -
(1) H2SO4 and K2CrO4
(2) ZnSO4.7H2O and FeSO4.7H2O and MgSO4.7H2O
(3) KClO4 and KMnO4
(4) K2SO4.Al2 (SO4)3.24H2O and K2SO4.Cr2(SO4)3.24H2O
(iv) Volatile chloride method
Required condition – chloride of element should be vapour.
Required data – (i) Vapour density of chloride. (ii) Equivalent weight of element.
Let the valency of the element be x. The formula of its chloride will be MClX.
Molecular weight = Atomic weight of M + 35.5 x
Atomic weight = Equivalent weight × valency or A = E × x
2 × V.D.
Molecular weight = E x + 35.5 x or 2 × V.D. = x (E + 35.5) or x =
E + 35.5

(2) Method for Determination of Molecular Weight:

(i) Molecular weight = 2 × V.D.
(ii) Victor Mayer's method is used to determine molecular weight of volatile compound.
Illustration 1. Specific heat of a metal is 0.031 Cal g–1 °C–1, and its equivalent weight is 103.6. Calculate the
exact atomic weight of the metal.
6.4
Solution: According to Dulong and Petit's law - approximate atomic weight = = 206.45
0.031
Approximate atomic weight 206.45
Valency of metal = = = 1.99 = 2
Equivalent weight 103.6
So, the exact atomic weight of the element = Equivalent weight × valency
= 103.6 × 2 = 207.2
Illustration 2. A chloride of an element contains 49.5% chlorine. The specific heat of the element is
0.064 Cal g–1 °C–1. Calculate the equivalent mass, valency and atomic mass of the element.
Solution: Mass of chlorine in the metal chloride = 49.5

Mass of metal = (100 – 49.5) = 50.5
weight of metal 50.5
Equivalent weight of metal = × 35.5 = × 35.5 = 36.21
weight of chlorine 49.50
Now according to Dulong and Petit's law,
6.4 6.4
Approximate at. wt. of the metal = = = 100
specific heat 0.064
Approximate atomic weight 100
Valency = = = 2.7 3
Equivalent weight 36.21
Hence, exact atomic weight = 36.21 × 3 = 108.63

Some Basic Concept of Chemistry Part-18

Part-18
Definition of Solution:
When two or more chemically non-reacting substances are mixed together forming homogeneous mixture the mixture
is called solution.
When the solution is composed of only two chemical substances, it is termed as binary solution, similarly, it is called
ternary and quaternary if it is composed by three and four components respectively.
For binary solution: Solution = solute + solvent
• Generally the component present in lesser amount than other component in solution, is called solute.
• Generally, the component present in greater amount than all other components, is called the solvent.
• Physical state of solvent and solution is same.
Solute + Solvent
Solution
(B) (A)
moles n N
mass w(g) W(g)
molar mass m M
mole fraction xB xA
Ex.1: In a syrup (liquid solution) containing 60 g sugar (a solid) and 40 g water (a liquid) same aggregation as solution
water is termed as the solvent.
Ex.2: In a solution of alcohol and water; having 10 mL alcohol and 20 mL water, water is solvent and alcohol will be
solute.
• On the basis of amount of solute, solutions can be classified in two ways.
(b) Concentrated
(a) Dilute Solution
Solution
A solution in which
A solution in which
relatively a small
relatively a large amount
amount of solute is
of the solute is present
dissolved in large
is called a concentrated
amount of solvent is
solution.
called a dilute solution.

Some Basic Concept of Chemistry Part-18
Concentration of Terms:
Normality (N)
The number of equivalents or gram equivalents of solute present in one litre of the solution is known as normality (N)
of the solution.
Number of gram equivalents of solute (g)
Normality (N) =
Volume of solution (L)
Mass of solute (g)
Normality (N) =
Equivalent mass  Volume of solution (L)
Molarity (M)
The number of moles of solute present in one litre solution is called its molarity(M).
Number of moles of solute n
Molarity = =
volume of solution (L) V( L )


Part-19
Molality (m)
The number of moles of solute present in 1000 gram of the solvent is called molality of the solution.
Number of moles of solute Number of moles of solute  1000
Molality of a solution = =
weight of solvent ( kg ) weight of solvent ( g )
Mole Fraction
The ratio of the number of moles of one component to the total number of moles of all the components present in the
mixture, is called the mole fraction of that component.
moles of solute ( n )
Mole fraction of solute XB =
moles of solute ( n ) + moles of solvent ( N )
moles of solvent ( N )
Mole fraction of solvent XA =
moles of solute ( n ) + moles of solvent ( N )
XA + XB = 1
(i) Relation Between Molarity and Normality

S = Molarity × Molar mass of solute and S = Normality × Equivalent mass of solute.
So we can write
Molarity × Molar mass of solute = Normality × Equivalent mass of solute.
Molarity  Molar mass of solute
Normality =
Equivalent mass of solute
Molarity  Molar mass of solute
=
(Molar mass of solute/valency factor)
Normality = Molarity × Valency factor
N = M × n factor
(ii) Relation Between Molality (m) and Mole fraction

x B n B n B  M A  1000
= =
xA NA w A  1000
x B molality  M A
 =
xA 1000
xB molality  M A molality  M A
= : if xB <<< 1 for very dilute solution xB =
1 − xB 1000 1000


Part-20
Concentration in terms of percentage

(i) Percent By Mass (w/W)
Mass of solute (in g) present in 100 g of solution (g) is called mass percent of the solute.
Where 'w' gram of solute is dissolved in W gram of solvent.
Mass of solute ( g )  100 w 100
Mass percent = =
Mass of solution ( g ) w+W
Mass percent is independent of temperature.
(ii) Percent By Volume (v/V)

The volume of solute in mL present in 100 mL of solution is called volume percent.
Volume of solute  100
Volume percent =
Volume of solution
w
(iii) Percent by strength /percentage mass by volume   : Mass of solute (in g) present in 100 mL solution is
V
called percent mass by volume.
w mass of solute ( g )
%  =  100
 V  volume of solution ( mL )
Parts Per Million (ppm)

This method is used for expressing the concentration of very dilute solutions such as hardness of water, air pollution etc.
Mass of solute ( g )  106
ppm of substance (by mass) =
Mass of solution (g)
Volumeof solute(mL)  106
ppm (by volume) =
Volumeof solution(mL)
 w mass of solute ( g )
ppm  by = ( )
 106
 V  volume of solution mL

Basic Concepts of Chemistry

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Basic Concepts of Chemistry

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What are atoms and molecules?

What are atoms and molecules?

What is atomic weight and how is it calculated?

What is atomic weight and how is it calculated?

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Part-01

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Atomic weight Molecular weight

Collectively atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, protons, neutrons etc. are

  Digital Pvt. Ltd. [1]

Relative Atomic Weight is a pure number, without any unit.

Note: Actual mass of one atom of element = Atomic weight X amu

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Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Relative molecular weight is also a pure number, without any unit.

Note: Actual mass of one molecule of compound = Molecular weight x amu

Example: Actual mass of one molecule of Ammonia = 17 x amu or 17amu.

Illustration 1. How many atoms are there in 100 amu of He?

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Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Formula to calculate moles are as following:

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(3) H = 10NA, S = 10NA, O = 40 NA atoms

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Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Gram Atomic Mass and Gram Molecular Mass

Mass in Vol (l) of

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Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Illustration 1. Calculate the number of moles in11.2 litre of Oxygen at STP.

Illustration 2. Find out the volume and mole in 56 g nitrogen at STP

 volume of 0.2 mole of O3 at STP = 22.4 × 0.2 = 4.48 litre

 mass of 0.2 mol of O3 = 48 × 0.2 gm = 9.6 g

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 1 molecule of N2 gas contains = 2 atoms

 0.1 NA molecules of H2O contain = 3 × (0.1 NA) = 0.3 NA atoms.

Illustration 7. Calculate the number of moles in 11.2 litre of oxygen at STP.

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Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Some Important Points:

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Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Percentage Formula, Empirical Formula & Molecular Formula

(a) (c) (e)

(a) Percentage Formula

(b) Empirical Formula

Empirical Formula → HO CH4 CH3 CH2O

(c) Molecular Formula

(d) Relationship between Empirical & Molecular Formula

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(e) Determination of Empirical Formula

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Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Stoichiometry Based Concept (Problems Based on Chemical Reaction)

1 Mole 2 Mole 1 Mole 1 Mole 1 Mole

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Mass is not expressed in the ratio of stoichiometric coefficient.

(1) (2) (3)

Mass - Mass Mass - Volume Volume - Volume

mass of one of the mass/volume of one of volume of one of the