Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-022-07391-3

RESEARCH ARTICLE-CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Adsorptive Optimization of Crystal Violet Dye Using Central Composite

Rotatable Design and Response Surface Methodology: Statistical
Analysis, Kinetic and Isotherm Studies
Thuy Thi Thanh Nguyen1 · Dong Quy Hoang2 · Duyen Thi Cam Nguyen3,4 · Thuan Van Tran3,4

Received: 19 May 2022 / Accepted: 16 October 2022

© King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals 2022

Abstract
Water contamination is emerging as the most critical global issues in the world, calling for the treatment eco-techniques.
Taking advantage of biowastes as adsorbent materials is not only in accordance with the purpose of environmental protection
but also enhance the higher value-added products. In this work, water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) powder was used as an
efficient adsorbent for the removal of crystal violet from aqueous solutions. The structure of water hyacinth powder adsorbent
was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy analysis. Based on the central
composite rotatable design and response surface methodology, the effect of different parameters such as initial pH solution,
contact time, adsorbent dosage, and initial crystal violet concentration was optimized. The maximum adsorption capacity of
180.336 mg/g was achieved under the optimum condition as initial pH solution of 6.246, contact time of 125.698 min, the
adsorbent dosage of 1.382 g/L, and initial dye concentration of 615.865 mg/L. Moreover, the Langmuir isotherm provided
the best fit with a high correlation coefficient of 0.9981 and a maximum monolayer adsorption capacity of 181.818 mg/g at
30 °C. The kinetic studies indicated that the pseudo-second-order model was adequately applied for the adsorption kinetic
of crystal violet on the water hyacinth powder adsorbent. The utilization of the water hyacinth plant, an abundant species, as
a low-cost biosorbent to remove crystal violet using the central composite rotatable design combined with response surface
methodology approach is recommended for the real treatment of organic dyes.

Keywords Water hyacinth · Dye pollution · Crystal violet · Response surface methodology · Adsorption modeling

1 Introduction

The presence of industrial dyes in wastewater is a very seri-

ous environment problem because of their highly toxicity
and carcinogenicity. They are known as potential hazards to
B Thuy Thi Thanh Nguyen
nguyenthanhthuy@hcmuaf.edu.vn living organism. Dyes have complex aromatic structures and
synthetic origins that make them stable to biodegradation,
B Thuan Van Tran
tranvt@ntt.edu.vn; tranuv@gmail.com oxidizing agents, and photodegradation [1]. The undesir-
ability of the presence of dyes in aqueous prevents the
1 Faculty of Science, Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City passage of light through water, which leads to the reduc-
700000, Vietnam
tion of photosynthesis activity and consequently decreases
2 Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, University of the dissolved oxygen in the water and spoils the ecosystem
Science, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
[1, 2]. Among these dyes, crystal violet (CV), a triphenyl-
3 Institute of Applied Technology and Sustainable methane dye, is immensely used in the dyeing of textile, the
Development, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, 298-300A
printing of paper, the coloring of leather and paint indus-
Nguyen Tat Thanh, District 4, Ho Chi Minh City 755414,
Vietnam try, and then it enters into the aquatic systems that were one
4 of the major causes of water pollution [3]. CV is also well
NTT Hi-Tech Institute, Nguyen Tat Thanh University,
298-300A Nguyen Tat Thanh, District 4, Ho Chi Minh City known for its cause of certain serious problems such as muta-
755414, Vietnam genic, teratogenic, and mitotic poisoning nature. A number of

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Fig. 1 Illustrative preparation and crystal violet adsorption performance of biosorbent powder derived from water hyacinth species

Table 1 Coded units used for the variable parameters for the statistical analysis

Variable Unit Coded values

−α −1 0 +1 +α

pH solution (X1 ) 4 5 6 7 8
Contact time (X2 ) min 60 90 120 150 180
Adsorption dosage (X3 ) g/L 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Initial concentration of CV (X4 ) mg/L 400 500 600 700 800

methods aimed at removing CV from the wastewaters have dyes from textile wastewaters such as rice husk ash [8], grape-
been studied such as coagulation, adsorption, flocculation, fruit peel [9], ginger waste [10], tomato plant root [11], date
reverse osmosis, biological methods, and membrane filtra- palm fiber [12], teak leaf powder [12], and waste black tea
tion [4]. Amid them, adsorption is one of the most effective [13]. Considering advantages of these adsorbents, they are
techniques thanks to its advantages such as great ease of mainly derived from eco-friendly, low-cost, safe, and sus-
operation, selectivity, sensitivity, low cost, and low energetic tainable biowastes or agricultural by-products. As a result,
requirements [5]. Nowadays, many kinds of composites and the conversion of these biowastes into effective adsorbents is
advanced materials have been developed for adsorption and not only in accordance with the purpose of alleviating envi-
adsorption integrated degradation of hazardous contaminants ronmental pollution but also promotes the value of wastes
including CV in water [6, 7]. However, their disadvantages for value-added products.
can be multi-step synthesis procedure, using toxic chemicals Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is an aquatic weed
for material production, and eco-unfriendliness. Therefore, plant and one of the most typical invasive species. They can
utilization of green and sustainable adsorbents is highly be found ubiquitously in rivers, lakes, ponds, canals, and
expected in the field. agricultural fields. Because of their very strong adaptabil-
The use of biomass as an adsorbent has been gained much ity, reproduction, and spreading powers, water hyacinth has
attention. Indeed, many publications have revealed the use posed an alarming threat to indigenous plants, water qual-
of various biomass adsorbents for the efficiency treatment of ity, soil, as well as biodiversity [14]. To mitigate the harmful

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water hyacinth plant such as roots and leaves can be used

as effective materials for removing dyes from the indus-
trial wastewaters. A number of publications investigated
the use of the water hyacinth-based biosorbents, biocom-
posites, and bio-based photocatalysts to improve the dye
removal efficiency [16–18]. However, the production of these
adsorbents often prolonged and required toxic chemicals,
leading to the possibility of secondary pollution. Moreover,
the adsorption data in these works were analyzed in the form
of univariate, which can lead to statistical mistakes and mis-
understanding of synergistic interactions among adsorption
parameters (e.g., concentration, dosage, pH, time, temper-
ature, etc.). Difference from multivariate experiments and
univariate experiments endures step-by-step investigations,
resulting in the fact that a large number of trials is required.
Fig. 2 FTIR spectra of WHP before adsorption (red line) and after In many cases, optimum values rely completely on the results
adsorption (black line) of CV dye
of all trials. As such, it is important to develop optimization
approaches to aid the treatment process efficiently and reduce
Table 2 Biosorption equilibrium and kinetic models
the number of trials.
Response surface methodology (RSM) is considered a
Models Nonlinear common and easy-to-use tool to predict the processes in
equation chemistry in order to reduce the number of experimental
Qo KL Ce runs and produce high-quality products [19]. RSM describes
Nonlinear isotherm Langmuir qe = 1+KL Ce
model the relationship between several independent variables and
Freundlich logqe = various dependent variables [20]. For instance, Eddebbagh
logK F + n1 logCe et al. [21] reported a procedure based on the central com-
Kinetic model Pseudo-first order log(qe − qt ) = posite design combined with response surface methodology
K1
logqe − 2.303 t to optimize the conditions of several parameters such as the
Pseudo-second order
activation temperature, activation time, and chemical impreg-
t
= 1
+ 1
qe t
qt K2 qe2 nation. They found that the removal of methylene blue at
optimized process conditions was 90.5%. In a previous study
conducted by Moughaoui et al. [22], the optimum adsorption
effect of this species, a new protocol of transforming water of methylene blue and malachite green was investigated with
hyacinth into biosorbents is worth considered. Indeed, water sugarcane bagasse adsorbent using RSM. Their work showed
hyacinth can be used as a bioadsorbent to adsorb various a good correlation between the predicted factors of the RSM
industrial dyes such as CV, methylene blue, Congo red, model and the obtained experimental values. Therefore, the
and Vitoria blue from aqueous media [15]. Some parts of central composite rotatable design combined with response

Fig. 3 SEM images of WHP before (a) and after (b) adsorption of CV dye

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2.3 Biosorption Studies

WHP biosorption studies (Fig. 1) were performed in batch

using the colored solution of CV, wherein dye volume and
the stirring speed were maintained at 25 mL and at 500 rpm,
respectively, in all the experimental runs. In this experiment,
the effect of variables such as the initial pH solution (2–9), the
contact time (10–240 min), the adsorbent dosage (0.1–3.0 g),
and the initial concentration of CV (100–600 mg/L) was stud-
ied. The amount of dye adsorbed by the biosorbent and the
percent removal dye from the solution were determined based
on the difference between the initial dye concentration and
Fig. 4 Actual and predicted plot of CV adsorption capacity (qe )
the dye concentration in the following Eqs. 1 and 2:

(C0 − C) × V
surface methodology can be a useful tool for optimization of q= (1)
dyes removal from wastewaters. m
The objectives of this research, therefore, involve (i) (C0 − C)
to apply central composite rotatable design (CCRD) com- % removal = × 100 (2)
C0
bined with RSM in order to get the convenient adsorption
conditions and optimization modeling for the maximizing where q is the amount of dye taken up by the biosorbent
adsorption capacity of water hyacinth powder (WHP) for CV (mg/g), C 0 is the initial concentration of dye (mg/L), C is
removal from aqueous solution; (ii) to understand the effects the concentration of dye in the supernatant (mg/L), V is the
of four independent variables such as the initial pH solution, volume of the solution (L), and m is the mass of biosorbent
the contact time, the adsorbent dosage, and the initial concen- (g).
tration of CV and their interactions on the adsorption capacity
of WHP for CV; (iii) to study the adsorption isotherms and
2.4 Experimental Design
kinetic models of CV adsorption on WHP.
The estimation of the optimum conditions of CV removal
from aqueous solution using WHP adsorbent depends on the
2 Materials and Methods factors such as the initial pH solution, the contact time, the
adsorbent dosage, and the initial dye concentration. RSM
2.1 Materials and CCRD were used to investigate the effects of the four
independent variables on response surface for optimization
Crystal violet (C25 H30 N3 Cl, Sigma – USA), sodium hydrox- of adsorption conditions [23]. In this work, a total of 52
ide (NaOH, Merck-Germany), and hydrochloric acid (HCl, experiments were employed to evaluate the individual and
Xilong Scientific Co., Ltd, China) were used without further interactive effects of the four main independent parameters
purification. Stock solution (1000 mg/L) was prepared by dis- on the CV adsorption efficiency. The maximizing adsorption
solving accurately the weight quantity of the CV (1.0 g) in capacity of WHP for CV removal from aqueous solution was
distilled water. Experimental CV solutions of different con- carried out as a response Y of the system under four process
centrations were prepared by the dilution of a stock solution. parameters, namely the initial pH solution: 2–8, the contact
The initial solution pH was adjusted with HCl 0.1 M and time: 60–180 min, the adsorbent dosage: 1–3 g/L, the ini-
NaOH 0.1 M solution. tial concentration of CV: 400–800 mg/L. The variables and
levels of the design model are given in Table 1. Using this
design, the experimental data were fitted according to Eq. 3
2.2 Preparation of Biosorbent as a quadratic polynomial equation including individual and
cross-effects of variables.
Water hyacinth plants, which were used in this study, were
collected from Saigon River, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Y = β0 + β1 X 1 + β2 X 12 + β3 X 2 + β4 X 22
The water hyacinth was washed with distilled water to
+ β5 X 3 + β6 X 32 + β7 X 4 + β8 X 42
remove dust and dried at 60 °C for 24 h. After, the dried
plants were sieved with particle size lower than 0.15 mm and + β9 X 1 X 2 + β10 X 1 X 3 + β11 X 1 X 4
stored in a desiccator until used. + β12 X 2 X 3 + β13 X 2 X 4 + β14 X 3 X 4 (3)

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where β 0 , β 1 , β 2 , …, β 14 are regression coefficients, Y is the 3.2 Response Surface Methodology

maximizing adsorption capacity (response), X 1 is the initial
pH solution, X 2 is the contact time, X 3 is the adsorbent dose, The influence of experimental conditions with four variable
and X 4 is the initial concentration of CV. Multiple regres- parameters, namely the initial pH solution, the contact time
sion analysis, response surface plots, and statistical analyses (min), the adsorbent dosage (mg/g), and the initial concentra-
were performed using JMP 10 software (SAS Institute, North tion of CV (mg/L) on the CV adsorption, was studied using
Carolina, USA). RSM. The total of 52 experiments is shown in Table 3. The
relationship between variables and response can be repre-
sented in Eq. 4.
2.5 Equilibrium and Kinetic Models
Y (qe ) = 180.33588 + 6.1529438 X 1
In this study, the classical models of Langmuir and Fre-
undlich were used in order to describe the equilibrium + 3.4459979 X 2 − 7.319777 X 3
between biosorption capacity and sorbate concentration at + 3.5297188 X 4 + 2.1051781 X 3 X 4
a constant temperature. The nonlinear pseudo-first-order
− 3.375615 X 22 − 2.900884 X 32 − 3.298121 X 42 (4)
and pseudo-second-order models were applied to study the
adsorption kinetic [24]. The equations are presented in
The diagnostic plot of the model is shown in Fig. 4.
Table 2. where qe is the equilibrium dye uptake per g of
Accordingly, the coefficient of linear regression R2 of 0.92,
the biosorbent (mg/g), qt is the amount of dye adsorbed at
which is higher than 0.80, indicating the fitness of polyno-
time t (mg/g), KL is the Langmuir constant (L/mg), KF is the
mial models used for describing the effect of variables on the
Freundlich constant (mg/g), n is a constant dependent on the
response would be more accurate and 8% of the variations are
nature of adsorbate and temperature, and Qo is the adsorption
not considered [28–30]. The results indicated that there was
capacity (mol/L).
an agreement between the experimental and the prediction
in adsorption capacity of WHP.
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the response sur-
3 Results and Discussion face quadratic model is given in Table 4. The ANOVA results
indicated that a model with a large F-value of 30.6818 and p-
3.1 Characterization of Water Hyacinth Powder value < 0.0001 is more significant. When the p-value < 0.01
is typically viewed as an indication, the model was adequate
The FTIR spectrum of WHP before (red line) and after (black to explain the correlation between the factors and the corre-
line) adsorption of CV was shown in Fig. 2. The presence of a sponding response [31]. The lack of fit was significant with a
peak at 3427 cm−1 indicates the O − H stretching. The peak F-value of 44.1986 and a p-value < 0.0001. The probability of
at 2932 cm−1 can be ascribed to the stretching vibration of F-values which are fewer than 0.05 indicated that the model
the C − H bonds. The peaks were observed at 1640 cm−1 , terms are significant [32]. It is obvious that the p-value is
1318 cm−1 , and 1041 cm−1 , which were associated with C = found to be less than 0.005 for all four individual parameters
O, C − O, and sulfonic groups, respectively. After biosorp- such as the initial pH solution (X1 ), the contact time (X2 ), the
tion, the appearance of a peak at 1588 cm−1 reflected the C-N adsorbent dosage (X3 ), and the initial concentration of CV
group, and the disappearance of the peak at 1318 cm−1 cor- (X4 ) under linear conditions (Table 5). The model contained
responded to the –CO group. Furthermore, the characteristic a six two-way interaction (the initial pH solution x the con-
–OH band at 3427 cm−1 shifted to 3446 cm−1 confirmed tact time, the initial pH solution x the adsorbent dosage, the
the participation of these groups in the dye uptake. Similar contact time x the adsorbent dosage, the initial pH solution x
results were also reported by Kumar et al. [10] and Saha et al. the initial concentration of CV, the contact time x the initial
[25]. The results of functional groups on water hyacinth pow- concentration of CV, and the adsorbent dosage x the initial
der by FTIR analysis as a main characterization in this work concentration of CV). Only the cross-interaction between the
were also in accordance with the previous work [26, 27]. adsorbent dosage and the initial dye concentration was sig-
The textual structure examination of WHP particles can nificant while all the rest of these interactions did not have a
be observed before and after the biosorption of CV from significant effect on the determination of the CV adsorption
the SEM (Fig. 3). Before dye uptake, the PR-WH parti- since the p-value was more than 0.05. However, the quadratic
cles show porous and irregular surfaces (Fig. 3a). The pores effects of X2 2 , X3 2 , and X4 2 were all signed with a p-value <
were partially filled after the adsorption of CV, showing the 0.001 showing that the variables had a great influence on the
CV adsorbed on the surface of WHP (Fig. 3b). This find- CV adsorption capacity of the WHP. The 3-D response sur-
ing indicates that the adsorption of CV molecules over WHP face plots used for the predicted responses are shown in Fig. 5
occurred. that confirming the presence of strong interaction between

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Table 3 The observed (Y) and the predicted values of the response

Run no Uncoded values Coded values qe (mg/g)

X1 X2 X3 X4 X1 X2 X3 X4 Observed values (Y) Predicted values

1 6 120 2.0 600 0 0 0 0 180.446 180.502

2 5 90 1.5 500 −1 −1 −1 −1 166.855 168.783
3 7 90 1.5 500 +1 −1 −1 −1 179.891 179.258
4 5 150 1.5 500 −1 +1 −1 −1 169.303 174.255
5 7 150 1.5 500 +1 +1 −1 −1 191.400 188.361
6 5 90 2.5 500 −1 −1 +1 −1 158.227 151.758
7 7 90 2.5 500 +1 −1 +1 −1 162.345 162.244
8 5 150 2.5 500 −1 +1 +1 −1 152.231 153.569
9 7 150 2.5 500 +1 +1 +1 −1 163.912 167.687
10 5 90 1.5 700 −1 −1 −1 +1 172.923 179.188
11 7 90 1.5 700 +1 −1 −1 +1 181.837 180.682
12 5 150 1.5 700 −1 +1 −1 +1 178.071 178.529
13 7 150 1.5 700 +1 +1 −1 +1 185.185 192.654
14 5 90 2.5 700 −1 −1 +1 +1 158.067 161.583
15 7 90 2.5 700 +1 −1 +1 +1 175.970 172.088
16 5 150 2.5 700 −1 +1 +1 +1 164.670 166.264
17 7 150 2.5 700 +1 +1 +1 +1 181.996 180.401
18 4 120 2.0 600 −α 0 0 0 172.693 171.564
19 8 120 2.0 600 +α 0 0 0 199.592 196.176
20 6 60 2.0 600 0 −α 0 0 154.269 160.107
21 6 180 2.0 600 0 +α 0 0 180.226 173.891
22 6 120 1.0 600 0 0 −α 0 186.127 183.538
23 6 120 3.0 600 0 0 +α 0 152.103 154.259
24 6 120 2.0 400 0 0 0 −α 159.911 160.250
25 6 120 2.0 800 0 0 0 +α 175.079 174.369
26 6 120 2.0 600 0 0 0 0 180.132 180.502
27 6 120 2.0 600 0 0 0 0 180.540 180.170
28 5 90 1.5 500 −1 −1 −1 −1 166.792 168.452
29 7 90 1.5 500 +1 −1 −1 −1 179.975 178.927
30 5 150 1.5 500 −1 +1 −1 −1 169.429 173.923
31 7 150 1.5 500 +1 +1 −1 −1 191.400 188.030
32 5 90 2.5 500 −1 −1 +1 −1 158.187 151.426
33 7 90 2.5 500 +1 −1 +1 −1 162.305 161.912
34 5 150 2.5 500 −1 +1 +1 −1 152.261 153.238
35 7 150 2.5 500 +1 +1 +1 −1 163.952 167.355
36 5 90 1.5 700 −1 −1 −1 +1 173.049 169.857
37 7 90 1.5 700 +1 −1 −1 +1 181.293 180.351
38 5 150 1.5 700 −1 +1 −1 +1 177.945 178.198
39 7 150 1.5 700 +1 +1 −1 +1 185.311 192.323
40 5 90 2.5 700 −1 −1 +1 +1 158.142 161.252
41 7 90 2.5 700 +1 −1 +1 +1 176.070 171.757
42 5 150 2.5 700 −1 +1 +1 +1 164.595 165.933

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Table 3 (continued)

Run no Uncoded values Coded values qe (mg/g)

X1 X2 X3 X4 X1 X2 X3 X4 Observed values (Y) Predicted values

43 7 150 2.5 700 +1 +1 +1 +1 181.846 180.070

44 4 120 2.0 600 −α 0 0 0 172.599 171.232
45 8 120 2.0 600 +α 0 0 0 191.400 195.844
46 6 60 2.0 600 0 −α 0 0 154.175 159.776
47 6 180 2.0 600 0 +α 0 0 180.132 173.560
48 6 120 1.0 600 0 0 −α 0 185.939 183.206
49 6 120 3.0 600 0 0 +α 0 152.229 153.927
50 6 120 2.0 400 0 0 0 −α 159.879 159.918
51 6 120 2.0 800 0 0 0 +α 175.173 174.037
52 6 120 2.0 600 0 0 0 0 180.226 180.170

Table 4 Analysis of variances for

optimization of CV adsorption Source DF Adj. SS Adj. MS F-value p-value
capacity (qe ) using the JMP
software Model 14 6839.3151 488.523 30.6818 < 0.0001
Residuals (error) 37 589.1225 15.922
Lack of fit 10 555.20613 55.5206 44.1986 < 0.0001
Pure error 27 33.91638 1.2562
Total 51 7428.4376
R2 0.920694
Adjusted R2 0.890686

DF Degree of freedom; SS Sum of square; MS Mean square

Table 5 Estimated regression

coefficients and their significance Source Estimate Std. error t-value p-value Remark

Intercept 180.33588 1.995133 90.39 < 0.0001 Significant

X1 6.1529438 0.575945 10.68 < 0.0001 Significant
X2 3.4459979 0.575945 5.98 < 0.0001 Significant
X3 − 7.319777 0.575945 − 12.71 < 0.0001 Significant
X4 3.5297188 0.575945 6.13 < 0.0001 Significant
X1 *X2 0.9078531 0.705386 1.29 0.2061
X1 *X3 0.0028469 0.705386 0.00 0.9968
X2 *X3 − 0.914922 0.705386 − 1.30 0.2026
X1 *X4 0.0047281 0.705386 0.01 0.9947
X2 *X4 0.7174344 0.705386 1.02 0.3157
X3 *X4 2.1051781 0.705386 2.98 0.0050 Significant
X1 2 0.8420599 0.675356 1.25 0.2203
X2 2 − 3.375615 0.675356 − 5.00 < 0.0001 Significant
X3 3 − 2.900884 0.675356 − 4.30 0.0001 Significant
X4 4 − 3.298121 0.675356 − 4.88 < 0.0001 Significant

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Fig. 5 The 3D plots showing the effect of a the initial pH solution and time and the adsorbent dosage, e the contact time and the initial dye
the contact time, b the initial pH solution and the adsorbent dosage, concentration, f the adsorbent dosage and the initial dye concentration
c the initial pH solution and the initial dye concentration, d the contact on the CV adsorption capacity

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each pair variable. The interaction of the initial pH solution homogenous surface with a finite number of identical sites.
with the contact time, the adsorbent dosage, and the initial The maximum adsorption capacity qmax was 181.818 mg/g,
CV concentration on the CV adsorption capacity response 192.308 mg/g, and 196.078 mg/g at 30 °C, 40 °C, and 50 °C,
is shown in Figs. 4a, b, and c. The results indicated that the respectively. According to Table 6, obtained values of separa-
CV adsorption capacity of the WHP increased with increas- tion factor or equilibrium constant RL were 0.101, 0.111, and
ing pH from 4 to 6 and slightly increased from pH 6 to 8. It 0.105 at 30 °C, 40 °C, and 50 °C, respectively. These findings
seems that the maximum adsorption was found to be at pH indicated that the favorability of the adsorption process [35].
6. This result could be explained as due to the electrostatic To assess the maximum adsorption capacity obtained in
repulsion interaction between the negatively charged WHP this work, a comparison study has been conducted with
particles and the positively charged dye molecule [33]. Thus, emphasis on the biosorbents used, adsorption temperature,
as the H+ ions concentration in the solution decreased, the and capacity. According to Table 7, water hyacinth pow-
numbers of negative charges increased which results in an der can adsorb crystal violet dye with very high qm values
increase in the percentage removal of CV. Similar observa- of 181.18–196.08 mg/g at various temperatures. These out-
tions have been reported by Saeed et al. [9]. comes were so far higher than those obtained by Ficus
The effect of the contact time with the initial pH solu- religiosa leaves powder and Daucus carota pomace powder
tion, the adsorbent dosage, and the initial CV concentration (2.4–27 mg/g), date palm leaves powder (36.74 mg/g). coffee
are visualized in Figs. 5a, d, and e. From these data, it is husks (12.24 mg/g), and anatolian black pine (12.36 mg/g).
revealed that the dye CV was rapidly adsorbed at the begin- The water hyacinth powder in this work had higher adsorp-
ning of the experiment until 120 min due to a large number of tion performance than modified biosorbents such as charred
vacant sites on the adsorbent particles surface available for rice husk (62.85 mg/g) and xanthated rice husk (90 mg/g),
the adsorption of CV and then relatively stable from 120 to but slighly lower than citric acid-modified red seaweed
150 min. The interaction of the adsorbent dosage with other (217.38 mg/g) or centaurea stem powder (476.8 mg/g). The
independent process variables is presented in Figs. 5b, d, and water hyacinth biosorbents also gave good adsorption capac-
f. It can be observed that the adsorption efficiency increased ity results in comparison with Ananas comosus (pineapple)
with the increase in the adsorbent dosage from 1 to 2 g/L and leaf powder, red seaweed powder, and cottonwood seeds. To
then remained almost constant with a further increase in the sum up, it can be concluded that the water hyacinth powder
adsorbent dosage. These results could be due to the increase can be a competitive biosorbent for the removal of crystal
in available surface area and consequently more active sites violet from water.
for efficient adsorption [34].
The optimum conditions for the initial pH solution, the 3.4 Adsorption Kinetics
contact time, the adsorbent dosage, and the initial concentra-
tion of CV were found to be 6.246, 125.698 min, 1.382 g/L, In order to study the mechanism of CV adsorption by the
and 615.865 mg/L, respectively. At these conditions, the WHP at various concentrations of CV, two kinetic models
maximum adsorption of the CV dye was 180.336 mg/g were considered: the pseudo-first-order model proposed by
with a desirability of 0.600. Under the optimal condition of Lagergren and the pseudo-second-order model. Table 8 sum-
parameters, the corresponding experimental value of the CV marizes the kinetic parameters of the fitted models. Figures 6c
adsorption was 180.071 mg/g, indicating that there was con- and d indicates that the plots of nonlinear pseudo-second-
formity between the experiment results with the optimized order model showed a higher correlation coefficient R2 for
values. all initial dye concentrations than that of the pseudo-first-
order model. Moreover, the qe increased with the increase
3.3 Adsorption Isotherms in initial concentration of CV, while the nonlinear pseudo-
second-order rate constant K2 decreased with the increase
In order to investigate the adsorption isotherms of the CV in initial dye concentration. These results revealed that the
by the water hyacinth powder at different temperatures, two pseudo-second-order model is appropriate only to describe
nonlinear isotherm models have been used: Langmuir and the adsorption kinetics of CV by WHP adsorbent and it
Freundlich isotherm models. The isotherm parameters are implies that chemisorption mechanics took place during the
summarized in Table 6. Data shown in Figs. 5a and b repre- adsorption process. This is in accordance with the results
sented the three various equilibrium isotherm models for the obtained by Cheruiyot [49] using coffee husks for the adsorp-
adsorption of CV on WHP. By comparing the R2 obtained tion of toxic crystal violet from an aqueous solution [49].
from Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms (R2 > 0.97), it can From the best-fitting results obtained by the pseudo-
be suggested that the Langmuir isotherm was more favored second-order model, it can be suggested that the adsorption
by the adsorption process at various temperatures. This indi- is controlled by chemisorption phenomenon, which surface
cated that the uptakes occur by monolayer adsorption onto a functional groups are responsible for the interaction with

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Table 6 Langmuir and

Freundlich constants at different Temp. (°C) Langmuir isotherm Freundlich isotherm
temperatures
qmax KL RL R2 n KF R2
(mg/g) (L/mg) (L/mg) (mg/g)

30 181.818 0.089 0.101 0.9981 3.836 46.132 0.9709

40 192.308 0.080 0.111 0.9968 3.621 45.352 0.9817
50 196.078 0.085 0.105 0.9967 3.621 46.677 0.9777

Table 7 The comparative

adsorption performance of Adsorbents Adsorption temperature (°C) qmax (mg/g) References
various biosorbents for removal
of crystal violet dye Water hyacinth powder 30 181.818 This study
Water hyacinth powder 40 192.308 This study
Water hyacinth powder 50 196.078 This study
Ananas comosus (pineapple) leaf 30 158.73 [36]
powder
Ananas comosus (pineapple) leaf 20 78.22 [37]
powder
Artocarpus altilis (Breadfruit) skin 25 145.8 [38]
powder
Cordia trichotoma sawdust 55 129.77 [39]
Lemongrass leaf fibers 25 36.1 [40]
Date palm leaves powder 56 37.736 [41]
Red seaweed powder 20 142.86 [42]
Citric acid-modified red seaweed 20 217.38 [42]
Apple stem powder 35 153.85 [43]
Cucumis Sativus peel powder 25 149.25 [44]
Ficus religiosa leaves powder 70 2.4 [45]
Daucus carota pomace powder 30 27 [45]
Cottonwood seeds 25 153.85 [46]
Formosa papaya seed powder 25 85.99 [47]
Charred rice husk 25 62.85 [48]
Xanthated rice husk 25 90.02 [48]
Coffee husks 25 12.24 [49]
Anatolian black pine 45 12.36 [50]
Centaurea stem powder 39 476.19 [29]

Table 8 Comparison of kinetic

parameters for different initial Co Pseudo-first order Pseudo-second order
concentrations CV at 30 °C (mg/L)
qe(exp) qe(cal) k1 R2 qe(cal) k2 R2
(mg/g) (mg/g) (1/min) (mg/g) (g/mg min)

50 48.885 2.600 0.019 0.9098 69.020 0.021 1

100 93.666 7.374 0.019 0.9184 94.340 0.008 1
150 134.887 14.471 0.018 0.8683 131.579 0.004 1

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Fig. 6 The adsorption isotherm a Langmuir adsorption isotherm and b Freundlich adsorption isotherm for the adsorption of CV on water hyacinth
powder and the adsorption kinetic, c pseudo-first-order plots, and d pseudo-second-order plots for the adsorption of CV on WHP

crystal violet molecules. Indeed, the possible interaction It was observed that individual factors such as the initial pH
between the CV and WHP can be elaborated as follows. WHP solution, the contact time, the adsorption dosage, and the
adsorbent possess a range of surface functional groups such initial concentration of CV played an important role in the
as hydroxyl and carbonyl groups. These surface functional CV adsorption capacity of water hyacinth powder. Under
groups can interact with amine groups of CV through hydro- optimum operating points, giving maximum CV adsorp-
gen interaction. Such interactions have been reported in the tion (qe = 180.336 mg/g) was determined as follows: the
previous works, which enhances the adsorption performance initial pH solution, 6.246; the contact time, 125.698 min;
of the biomass adsorbent [51]. Moreover, the water hyacinth the adsorbent dosage, 1.382 g/L; and the initial dye con-
powder biosorbent was not reusable as it was reflecting the centration, 615.865 mg/L. The tested values were in very
chemical bonding mechanism between the dye molecules high correlation with the predicted model values of the
and the adsorbent sites. After the adsorption, the loss of sur- response variable, suggesting high validation and reliabil-
face functional groups led to the significant reduction of reuse ity of proposed quadratic model. The adsorption isotherms
performance. As a result, the recycle of water hyacinth pow- studies showed that the equilibrium process could be well
der biosorbent was not successful. described by Langmuir model, revealing the monolayer
adsorption of dye on water hyacinth powder. The kinetic
adsorption also suggested the best fitting of pseudo-second-
order kinetic equation, which might confirm the control of
4 Conclusion
surface functional groups toward adsorption process. With
high maximum adsorption capacity (181.18–196.08 mg/g)
In the present work, the water hyacinth powder has been
at various temperatures, our findings recommend that water
successfully produced via a facile procedure and was found
hyacinth powder can be an attractive candidate for removing
with many surface functional groups. This biosorbent was
crystal violet from the wastewater.
used as an efficient adsorbent for crystal violet adsorption
from the aqueous solution. The central composite rotatable Acknowledgements The authors would love to appreciate the effort
design combined with response surface methodology has of researchers all over the world in the fight against the COVID-19
been adopted as a powerful tool for optimization of pro- pandemic.
cess parameters to maximize the dye adsorption capacity.

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Author Contributions TTTN contributed to conceptualization; method- 7. Kubra, K.T.; Salman, M.S.; Hasan, M.N.; Islam, A.; Teo, S.H.;
ology; data curation; investigation; validation; writing—original draft. Hasan, M.M.; Sheikh, M.C.; Awual, M.R.: Sustainable detection
DQH contributed to data curation; methodology; investigation; vali- and capturing of cerium(III) using ligand embedded solid-state
dation. DTCN contributed to writing—review and editing; validation; conjugate adsorbent. J. Mol. Liq. (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/
English editing; data curation. TVT contributed to conceptualization; j.molliq.2021.116667
writing—review and editing; validation; data curation; supervision; 8. Chowdhury, A.K.; Sarkar, A.D.; Bandyopadhyay, A.: Rice husk
English editing; project administration. All authors read and approved ash as a low cost adsorbent for the removal of methylene blue
the final manuscript. and congo red in aqueous phases. CLEAN–Soil, Air, Water. 37,
581–591 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1002/clen.200900051
Funding There was no external funding for this study. 9. Saeed, A.; Sharif, M.; Iqbal, M.: Application potential of grapefruit
peel as dye sorbent: kinetics, equilibrium and mechanism of crystal
violet adsorption. J. Hazard. Mater. 179, 564–572 (2010). https://
Data Availability The authors declare that all data and materials support
doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.03.041
their published claims and comply with field standards.
10. Kumar, R.; Ahmad, R.: Biosorption of hazardous crystal violet dye
from aqueous solution onto treated ginger waste (TGW). Desali-
Code Availability The authors declare that software application or
nation 265, 112–118 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2010.
custom code supports their published claims and comply with field
07.040
standards.
11. Kannan, C.; Buvaneswari, N.; Palvannan, T.: Removal of plant
poisoning dyes by adsorption on tomato plant root and green car-
Declarations bon from aqueous solution and its recovery. Desalination 249,
1132–1138 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2009.06.042
Conflicts of interest The authors declare that there are no conflicts of 12. Alshabanat, M.; Alsenani, G.; Almufarij, R.: Removal of crystal
interest. violet dye from aqueous solutions onto date palm fiber by adsorp-
tion technique. J. Chem. 2013, 1–6 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1155/
Ethical Approval All authors have been personally and actively involved 2013/210239
in substantive work leading to the manuscript, and will hold themselves 13. Lin, D.; Wu, F.; Hu, Y.; Zhang, T.; Liu, C.; Hu, Q.; Hu, Y.;
jointly and individually responsible for its content. Xue, Z.; Han, H.; Ko, T.-H.: Adsorption of dye by waste black
tea powder: parameters, kinetic, equilibrium, and thermodynamic
Consent for Publishing The manuscript has not been published any- studies. J. Chem. 2020, 5431046 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1155/
where nor submitted to another journal. The manuscript is not currently 2020/5431046
being considered for publication in any another journal. 14. Nguyen, D.T.C.; Tran, T.V.; Nguyen, T.T.T.; Nguyen, D.H.; Alhas-
san, M.; Lee, T.: New frontiers of invasive plants for biosynthesis of
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(2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00116 exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the
50. Gemici, B.T.; Ucun Ozel, H.; Ozel, H.B.: Adsorption behaviors author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted
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