Semantics

 Semantics is traditionally defined as the study of meaning in language.

 It involves deconstruction of words, signals, and sentence structure.
 Semantic theory makes a big contribution to understanding how languages work and feeds into
other disciplines.

Semantics Theories

1. FORMAL SEMANTICS- uses techniques from math, philosophy, and logic to analyze the broader
relationship between language and reality, truth and possibility.
2. LEXICAL SEMANTICS- deconstruct words and phrases within a line of text to understand the
meaning in terms of context.
3. CONCEPTUAL SEMANTICS- deals with the most basic concept and form of a word before our
thoughts and feelings added context to it.
4. Linguists and dictionary makers face considerable problems in dealing with meaning. There are
two traditional schools of theories of meaning: the reference theory and the representation
theory.
5. Some have been trying to establish definitions of the meanings of words so that the meaning of
linguistic expressions can be given. Saeed (1997) calls it the definition theory.
6. The referential theory holds that a linguistic sign derives its meaning from something in the
reality.
7. The representational theory holds that language in general, and words in particular, are only an
icon (or representation) for an actual thing (or form) being symbolized.

SEMANTICS: TYPES OF MEANING

According to Leech (1981), there exist seven types of meaning, five of which are included in the
associative meaning.

1. Conceptual Meaning - refers to the definition given in the dictionary. It is widely assumed to be the
central factor in linguistic communication and is integral to the essential functioning of language.

2. Associative Meaning - refers to the meaning associated with the conceptual meaning, which can be
further divided into five types.

2. 1 Connotative meaning – the communicative value attributed to an expression over and

above its purely conceptual meaning.

2.2 Social meaning - what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use,
including variations like dialect, time, topic, style.

2.3 Affective meaning - the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer towards the listener
and/or what is talking about.

2.4 Reflected meaning - the meaning when we associate one sense of an expression with
another.

2.5 Collocative meaning - what is communicated through association with words which tend to
occur in the environment of another word.
3. Thematic Meaning - This is what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in
terms of order and emphasis.

(1) The young man donated the book voluntarily.

(2) The book was donated by a young man voluntarily.

Ambiguity - refers to the linguistic phenomenon in which one linguistic expression allows more than one
understandings or interpretations.

1. Lexical ambiguity- The multiple meaning of the utterance depends on the meaning of the single
word.
2. Structural ambiguity- The multiple meaning of the utterance depends on the sentence
structure.

Ambiguity is not desirable in most cases. We can employ the following means to disambiguate the
problematic expressions:

(1) Pragmatic factors-- relate an ambiguous expression to the context.

(2) Lexical or grammatical devices--to alter the linguistic context

(3) Phonological devices-- Stresses can also help to eliminate lexical and/or grammatical ambiguity

Semantic Approaches

1. Traditional Approach - Ogden and Richards (1923) argue that the link between words and things
can be made only through the use of mind. For every word, there is an associated concept. They
present the following triangle:
2. Functional Approach
 Functional linguists emphasize the social aspect of language and view language as
"social semiotic".
 According to Halliday (1978), a text is what is meant, selected from the total set of
options that constitute what can be meant.
 context of situation and context of culture
3. Pragmatic Approach
 What the hearer takes to be the speaker's meaning is the meaning of the utterance.
 sentence meaning and utterance meaning

Synonyms; Antonym; Meronymy & Hyponymy; Polysemy & Homonymn; Intersentential Semantic
Relation; Presupposition; Implicature; Compositional analysis; Tautology; Metaphor
LAVENDER LINGUISTICS (Bill Leap, 1993)

 Academic and public interests in the language of Trans and gender- nonbinary persons, of the
genderqueer, and of samesex desiring and same-sex identified women and men.
 became focus for multiple directions of inquiry not just on language and sexuality entirely
(Kulick, 2000; Gameron & Kulick, 2003)
 embraces a point of view about language, sexuality, and regulatory practice which is more
inclusive than the original interests suggested (Lavender Language and Linguistics conference,
1993)
 attentive to whose language use engages sexuality and related modes of difference, how
sexuality and related modes of difference are shaped by language use, and how the resulting
reflections/refractions of language express speakers’ claims to sexual (and other) identity and
sexual (and other) agency (adapting Vološinov 1972: 22)
 concerned with global circulations of language and sexuality, and with local resistance to
globalizing formations
 now explores various infusions of language and sexuality into emerging forms of superdiversity
in contexts of displacement, diaspora and resettlement worldwide (Blommaert and Rampton
2011)

Queer Linguistics:

 urges research to look beyond the specifics of local practice, and to theorize how structures of
power assign meanings of similarity and difference to forms of social practice in multiple
locations
 reconceptualizes the dominant discourses which shape gender and sexual identities
 attention to normalized practices must address (Motschenbacher)

GENRE ANALYSIS

 Genre means kind or form and refers to major form of literature.

 In the field of applied linguistics: Genre refers to different communicative events which are
associated with particular setting and which have recognized structures and communicative
functions.

TYPES

 Some are public, and some occluded. (Swales and Freaks, 2000)
 Genre sets: abstract and introduction in the research paper
 Genres and subgenres: -Review > book review, film review, CD review -Promotional writing >
sales letter, tourist brochure

1. Professional Genres- are characterized by the following (Bhatia, 1999):

a. Genre Integrity - This refers to generic character that makes it acceptable to the members of
a particular discourse community.
 b. Discursive Processes & Genre - points out that professional genres are often the "products of
a set of established procedures that form an important part of the disciplinary culture within a
profession"
c. Generic Purposes and intentions - combine a more immediate single purpose with the most
standardized ones of maintenance and continuance of goodwill and a mutually beneficial
professional relationship" (Bhatia, 1999, p. 25).
d. Genre Participants – Established genre participants, both writers and readers, are like skillful
players, who succeed by their manipulation and exploitation of, rather than a strict compliance
with, the rules of the game" (Bhatia, 1999, p.24).
e. Genre Versatility - Although genres like business letters follow conventional formats, different
institutions and companies have their own norms for structuring their communications. This is
the reason why new employees need to acquaint themselves with the corporate culture in their
workplace.

GENRE APPROACHES

1. The English for specific purposes (ESP) approach

 views genre as a communicative event characterized by their communicative purposes
as well as rhetorical features where the discourse community acts as those which
recognizes and sanctions the acceptance of a genre.
2. The New Rhetoric approach
 an approach which regards genre as a form of social action involving analysis of genre
through detailed accounts of the social and cultural contexts with an emphasis on how a
genre fulfills its social purpose and actions.
3. The functional-systemic approach (Halliday)
 perceives genre as the cultural purpose of texts, achieved through a genre's structural
and realizationally patterns where meanings are made within the genre.

GENRE ANALYSIS - is a process of looking at several samples of a particular genre to analyze their
similarities and differences in terms of their purposes, macrostructure and language choice.

GENRE ANALYSIS: The CARS Model Swales (1990): Move and step analysis of introductions to research
articles: the CARS (creating a research space) model

“Gere analysis adds to our understanding of how language is used within an important discourse
community, and is a model of applied linguistics in its best sense – it draws on linguistic and
sociolinguistic theory to classify the nature of language use and language learning in an educational
setting". – Long and Richards
SEMIOTICS

 Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914) formulated the innovative triadic model of the sign,
emphasizing in his theory that the way we interpret a ‘sign’ is what allows it to be
signified —what gives it its meaning.
 Peirce's Sign Theory, or Semiotic, is an account of signification, representation,
reference and meaning.
 For Peirce, developing a thoroughgoing theory of signs was a central philosophical and
intellectual preoccupation. Charles Sanders Peirce, one of the founders of semiotics,
categorized signs as being one of three types.

What is sign?

 Ferdinand de Saussure, the other founder of semiotics saw signs as the basic unit of meaning
and he defined two parts of signs.
 Signifier — The form of a sign. The form might be a sound, a word, a photograph, a facial
expression, a painting of a pipe, etc.
 Signified — The concept or object that’s represented. The concept or object might be an actual
pipe, the command to stop, a warning of radioactivity.

Signs can take many forms. They can be words, numbers, sounds, photographs, paintings and road signs
among and more. However, while signs can be many things, they can be categorized as one of a few
types.

WHAT IS SEMIOTICS?

 The study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation.

3 Types of Signifiers-the categories of signs

1. An Icon has a physical resemblance to the signified, the thing being represented. A
photograph is a good example as it certainly resembles whatever it depicts.
2. An Index shows evidence of what’s being represented. A good example is
using an image of smoke to indicate fire.
3. A Symbol has no resemblance between the signifier and the signified. The
connection between them must be culturally learned. Numbers and
alphabets are good examples. There’s nothing inherent in the number 9 to
indicate what it represents. It must be culturally learned
Signifier as Icon

 Icons bear a physical resemblance to what’s being represented. A photograph is an

example of an icon signifier. Take a picture of a tree and the resulting image will look
like that tree.
 With icons there’s a real connection between the signifier and the signified.
 When user interfaces were first being created, most of the signs were imitations of real
objects.
  As an icon, the represent a men resembles or imitates its signified object in that it
possesses some of its qualities. Therefore, the relationship between what the sign
stands for — its referent and the sense behind it, the interpretant — does not
necessarily have to be learned.
Signifier as Index

 An index describes the connection between signifier and signified. With an index, the
signifier cannot exist without the presence of the signified.
 An index is a sign that shows evidence of the concept or object being represented. An
index doesn’t resemble the object or concept being represented. Instead, it resembles
something that implies the object or concept.
Signifier as Symbol

 Symbols are at the opposite end from icons. The connection between signifier and
signified in symbols is completely arbitrary and must be culturally learned. The letters of
an alphabet are a good example of symbols. The shape of each letter and the sound it
represents bear no physical connection to each other.
 There’s no logical connection between a symbol and what it represents. The connection
must be learned, and it usually becomes associated with the concept it represents over
time.

CONVERSATIONAL ANALYSIS

 “Conversation Analysis is an inductive, micro-analytic and predominantly a qualitative

method for studying language as it is used in social interaction.”
 Its focus is on language as a resource for social action.
 It uses field recording of naturally occurring conversation.
 It bases its analysis on the details of the participant's own behavior.
THE PROPONENTS

 This approach was developed by Harvey Sacks and his colleagues – Emanuel Schegloff
and Gail Jefferson.
 It emerged from the influence of Erving Goffman and Harold Garfinkel.
THE INFLUENCERS:

 Goffman (1967) was credited for his major innovation on uncovering a new domain of
sociological inquiry, face-to-face interaction.
 Garfinkel (1967) was working on ethnomethodology.
 Social order was not to be located in aggregate descriptions of social life but in what
people deploy in situation to render their local circumstance intelligible.
THE ART OF CONVERSATION
1. TURN-TAKING:
 Turn-taking procedures address the recurrent problems of “who speaks next?”
and “when do they start?” by coordinating the ending of one turn with the
start of the next (Sacks et al., 1974).

2. SEQUENCE ORGANIZATION:
 This refers to how successive turns link up to form coherent courses of action
(Schegloff, 2007).
 Adjacency pair is the basis of this organization: FPP [first pair part] and the SPP
[second pair part]. Both the FPP [first pair part] and the SPP [second pair part]
must go together because if this condition is not satisfied there would be
something “noticeably absent”.

3. TURN DESIGN:
 This refers to how speakers format their turns to implement some action, in
some position, for some recipient/s (Drew, 2013).
 This can be manifested through:
- Conditional Design
- Declarative Design
- Interrogative Design (Curl, 2006)
4. REPAIRS:

 Repair practices address troubles in speaking, hearing, and understanding

(Schegloff, Jefferson & Sacks, 1977).

STYLISTICS
Style
 Wales (2001) says that “Style refers to the perceived manner of expression
in writing or speaking.” In other words, style is the way writers or authors
express their messages or feelings to the world through their works.
 The concept of style was traditionally adopted to refer to “personal style”
or “individual style”, it is combined with a certain author’s name as the
manifestation of the author’s personality.
Style is here thought as ‘the linguistic characteristics of a particular text’ (Leech & Short,
2007). Meanwhile, stylistics (or the study of style) investigates how readers interact with
the language of (mainly literary) texts in order to explain how we understand and are
affected by texts when we read them.

What is Stylistics?
 Stylistics is the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective. As a
discipline it links literary criticism and linguistics.
 Stylistics is a critical method that analyzes literary works on the basis of style. Its
practitioners focus on analyzing a writer’s stylistic choices with regard to Diction/
Vocabulary, Syntax, Phonology and Figurative language.
 The goal of stylistics is not simply to describe the formal features of texts for their
own sake, but in order to show their functional significance for the interpretation
of the text (Pearson, 2001).
 Stylistics also attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular
choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language, such as
socialization, the production and reception of meaning, critical discourse analysis
and literary criticism.
 Other features of stylistics include the use of dialogue, including regional accents
and people’s dialects, descriptive language, and the use of grammar, such as the
active voice or passive.
Literary Style
1. Style is a way in which language is used.
2. Therefore style consist in choices made from the repertoire of the language.
3. A style is defines in terms of a domain of language use (e.g., what chouces aee made
by a particular genre, or in a particular text).
4. Style is relatively transparent or opaque: transparency implies paraphrasability;
opacity implies that a text cannot be adequately paraphrased and that interpretation of
the text depends greatly on the creative imagination of the reader.
5. Stylistic choice is limited to those aspects of linguistic choice which concern
alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter.
6. Stylistics (or the study of style) has typically been concerned with literary language.
7. Literary stylistics is typically concerned with explaining the relation between style and
literary or aesthetic function.

Three basic principles of a linguistic approach to the literary study and criticism
(Carter, 1987)
1. That the greater our detailed knowledge of the working of the language system, the
greater our capacity for insightful awareness of the effects produced by the literary
texts.
2. That a principled analysis of language can be used to make our commentary on the
effects produced in a literary work less impressionistic and subjective.
3. That because it will be rooted in a systematic awareness of language, bits of language
will not merely be spotted and evidence gathered casually and haphazardly. Analysis of
one linguistic pattern requires checking against related patterns across the text.

LEVELS OF LINGUISTICS ANALYSIS

1. Linguistic Deviations. Linguistic deviation is creative language’s form that the
writer uses to surprise and to impress his/her readers. The language can be
considered as creative if the writer uses the different language from the
conventional and daily speech (Leech, 1969). On the other hand, Crystal (2003)
argues that deviation refers to a sentence that violates the rule which appears
grammatically, phonologically, and even semantically.
 Deviation can be interpreted as the disruption of normal the communication
process that causes difficulties on understanding the text.

2. Foregrounding. Foregrounding in language was identified by Mukarovsky (in

Ayeomoni (2012) by considered that any stylistic item that stands out or attracts
attention is called foregrounding. Essentially foregrounding theory suggests in
any texts some sounds, words, phrases, and/or clauses may be so different from
what surrounds them, or from some perceived ‘norm’ in the language generally,
that they are set into relief by this difference and made more prominent as a
result.

2.1 Phonological Level (Sounds); Phonology studies the combination of sounds

into organized unites of speech. Though phonology is considered to be the
 superficial level of language, there are some aspects of it such as tone which
contribute to the
meaning of the utterance.
1. End Rhyme
2. Alliteration
3. Assonance
4. Onomatopoeic words
5. Tone of the author (neutral, sympathetic, sarcastic, etc.)

2.2 Graphological Level means the arrangement of words, the appearance of the
text on a page.
1. Rhyme Scheme
2. Hyphens
3. Unusual Capitalization
4. Frequent use of particular of word/s
5. Contractions/contracted forms
6. Punctuations
7. Spelling

2.3 Grammatical Level

1. Structural and lexical features
2. Word classes or parts of Speech
3. Nouns to Interjections
4. Use of Verbals, coinages, unfamiliar expressions
5. Connotations
6. Colloquial references
7. Compounding

2.4 Lexical Level. It includes the study of individual words and idioms in different
linguistic contexts. It involves the study of semantics, word formation and
morphology.
2.5 Syntactic Level. It is concerned with the arrangement of the words in a
sentence. It also attempts to describe how these elements function in the
sentence.
Different types of Deviation
1. Graphological
2. Orthographic
3. Morphological
4. Syntactic
5. Lexical