84 Practical IC Projects Warring

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84 PRACTICAL
IC PROJECTS
YOU CAN BUILD
Other TAB books by the author:
No. 812 Radio Control For Models
No. 790 Twenty One Simple Transistor Radios You Can Build-
From Crystal Sets to Superhets
No. 965 Modern Transistor Radios (Make and Use Series)
No. 964 Modern Crystal Radios (Make and Use Series)
No. 958 A Beginner's Guide to Making Electronic Gadgets
No. 1023 A Beginner's Guide to Designing & Building Transistor
No. 1113 Understanding Electronics
No. 1142
$8.95
' IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 1112
I 84 PRACTICAL
I IC PROJECTS
i. YOU CAN BUILD i
.
I BY R. H. WARRING
.---._
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TAB TAB BOOKS Inc.

BLUE RIDGE SUMMIT, PA. 17214
FIRST PRINTING-AUGUST 1979
SECOND PRINTING-AUGUST 1980
Copyright C 1979 by R.H. Warring
Printed in the United States of America
Integrated Circuits How To Make Them was originally published in 1979.

Printed by permission of Lutterworth Press.
Reproduction or publication of the content in any manner, without express

permission of the publisher, is prohibited. No liability is assumed with respect
to the use of the information herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Warring, Ronald Horace.

84 practical IC projects you can build
includes
1. Integrated circuits-Amateurs' manuals. I. Title.
TK9965.W383 621.381'73 79-17480
ISBN 0-8306-1142-8 pbk.
CONTENTS
List of Working Circuits to Build 7
Preface 11
1 Introduction to Integrated Circuits 13
2 General Purpose ICs (Arrays) 23
3 Op -Amps 31
4 Audio Amplifiers 45
5 Heat Sinks 61
6 Complete Radio Circuits 65
7 Multivibrators 75
8 Voltage Regulators 81
9 Electric Motor Speed Controllers 87
10 Fillers 91
11 Introducing Digital Circuits 95
12 Electronic Organs 105
13 Miscellaneous Circuits 111
Index 135
LIST OF WORKING CIRCUITS
Figures Page
1.4 IC Radio 18
2.2 Voltage Regulator 24
2.5 Astable Multivibrator 27
2.6 High -gain Amplifier 28
2.7 Constant Current Supply 29
2.8 Constant Voltage Supply 29
3.2 Op -Amp Adder 32
3.3 Non -inverting Adder 32
3.4 Inverter 33
3.5 Non -inverting Adder 33
3.6 Adder/Subtractor 34
3.7 Integrator 35
3.8 Differentiator 35
3.9 Differential Amplifier 36
3.10 Log Amplifier 36
3.11 Logarithmic Calculator 37
3.12 Voltage Follower 38
3.13 Voltage -to -Current Converter 38
3.14 Current -to -Voltage Converter 39
3.15 Op -Amp as Current Source 39
3.16 Basic Multivibrator Circuits 40
3.17 Simple Schmitt Trigger 41
3.18 Schmitt Trigger 41
3.19 Capacitance Multiplier 42
4.1 Single -stage Amplifier (gain 100) 45
7
4.2 Single -stage Amplifier (gain 100-200) 46
4.3 Single -stage Amplifier (gain 80-120) 47
4.4 Cascaded Amplifier (gain 7000) 47
4.5 High -gain Cascaded Amplifier (gain 700,000) 48
4.6 Audio Amplifier 49
4.9 Audio Amplifier for 4 -ohm Loudspeaker 53
4.10 10 -watt Amplifier 54
4.12 Stereo Amplifier 57

Powerful Bridge Amplifier 58
4.13
4.14 Simple 2 x 6 watt Stereo Amplifier 59
6.1 Basic Working Radio 66
6.2 IC Radio with Transistor Amplifier 66
6.3 Complete High -quality IC Radio 68
6.4 AM/FM Receiver 69

6.5 FM Receiver Front End 70
7.1 Square Wave Oscillator 75
Pulse Generator 76
7.2
7.3 Audio Tone Generator 76
7.4 Adjustable Multivibrator 77
7.5 Flashing Light Circuit 78

7.6 LED 1 -second Flasher 79
Free -running Pulse Generator 80
7.7
Basic DC Supply with Regulation 81
8.1
Adjustable Voltage Regulator 83
8.4
Voltage Regulator with Zener Diode 84
8.5
8.6 Voltage Regulator with Transistor 84
8.7 Regulated Split Supply 85
9.1 Electric Motor Speed Controller 87
9.2 Electric Motor Speed Controller 88
Low Pass Filter 92
10.2
High Pass Filter 92
10.2
10.4 Notch Filter 93
10.5 High -Q Notch Filter 94

101
11.6 1 -bit Memory
Flip -Flop Circuit 101
11.7
J -K Flip -Flop 101
11.8
D -type Flip -Flop 102
11.9
Master Oscillator for Electronic Organ 106
12.1
Basic Electronic Organ Circuit 107
12.2
12.3 Sustain Circuit for Organ 108
12.4 Decay Control for Organ 109

Organ Percussion Circuit 109
12.5
Hi-Fi Tone Control 112
13.1
Simple Hi-Fi Tone Control 114
13.3
8
13.4 Treble and Bass Tone Control 115
13.5 Tone Control for Dual Supplies 116
13.6 Automatic Brightness Control for LEDs 117
13.7 LED Tuning Indicator 118
13.8 Car Thief Alarm 119
13.10 Ice Warning Indicator 122
13.11 Digital Voltmeter 124
13.12 Infra -Red Transmitter 126
13.13 Infra -Red Receiver 127
13.14 Simpler Infra -Red Receiver 129
13.15 Electronic Rev Counter 130
13.16 Quartz Crystal Clock Circuit 131
13.17 Alarm for Quartz Crystal Clock 131
PREFACE
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (or ICs) are the building blocks from
which modern electronic circuits are assembled. They save a
lot of time in construction and give better performance than
similar circuits built from separate components and, above
all, are incredibly space saving. In these respects they are a big
step ahead of single transistors and have made it easier for
amateur constructors-as well as professionals-to build
working circuits.
There are thousands of different types of ICs, each of which
may be adaptable to many different working circuits
(although some of the more complex ones are designed with a
limited range of application). This can be quite bewildering,
especially knowing how and where to start. However, from the
point of view of using ICs and putting them to work, there is
no need at all to know the actual circuits they contain-merely
what type of circuit they contain and how their leads or pins
are connected to other components to complete a working cir-
cuit.
This is what this book is about. It explains and 'classifies' in-
tegrated circuits in simple terms. It covers the various ways in
which the simplest ICs - Op -Amps - can be worked; and
describes a whole range of working circuits based on selec-
ted-and inexpensive-integrated circuits. The book con-
tains a total of 84 different working circuits.
In fact it is really a basic-and essentially practical
'course' on understanding and using integrated circuits.
-
11
Chapter One
INTRODUCTION TO
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
THE TRANSISTOR FIRST APPEARED as a working device in
1947, since which time it has been manufactured in hundreds
of millions. It took a little time to realize that the same tech-
niques used for producing individual transistors could be
applied to complete circuits and sub -circuits containing both
active components (e.g. diodes and transistors) and passive
components (e.g. resistors and capacitors), with all necessary
interconnections in a single unit familiarly known as a 'chip'.
Apart from the obvious advantage of being able to produce
complete circuits and sub -circuits in this way, the cost of pro-
ducing a complex circuit by photo -etching techniques is little
more than that of producing individual transistors, and the
bulk of the circuit can be reduced substantially since trans-
istors in integrated circuits do not need encapsulation or
canning, and resistors and capacitors do not need 'bodies'.
Another advantage is the potentially greater reliability offered
by integrated circuits, since all components are fabricated
simultaneously and there are no soldered joints. Also
performance can be improved as more complex circuits can be
used where advantageous at little or no extra cost.
The next big step in integrated circuit construction was the
development of microelectronic technology or extreme
miniaturization of such components and integrated circuits.
Photo -etching is readily suited to this, the main problem being
in checking individual components for faults due to
imperfections in the manufacturing process, and achieving a
high yield of fault -free chips per 'wafer' manufactured.
Rejection rates are liable to rise with increasing complexity of
the circuit, but modern processes now achieve a very high yield.
Basically an integrated circuit consists of a single chip of
silicon, typically about 1.25 mm square (0.050 inches square) in
size. Each chip may contain 50 or more separate components,
all interconnected (although they may contain very many less
for simpler circuits). The actual manufacturing process is
13
concerned with producing wafers, each of which may contain
several hundred chips. These wafers are processed in batches,
so one single batch production may be capable of producing
several thousand integrated circuit chips simultaneously,
involving a total of tens of thousands of components.
It is this high production yield which is responsible for the
relatively low price of integrated circuits-usually substantially
less than the cost of the equivalent individual components in a
chip produced separately, and in the case of some chips even
less than that of a single transistor. The final selling price,
however, is largely governed by demand. The integrated circuit
is a mass -production item and the greater the demand for a
particular chip, the lower the price at which it can be sold
economically.
Fig. 1.1 shows a typical-and fairly simple-IC produced as
top end
side
1.1 Outline shape of a typical 8 -pin dual -in -line integrated circuit, about
li times actual size.
a flat 'package' encapsulated in plastic. The drawing is approx-

imately fl times actual size (9.4mm long by 6mm wide). Fig.
1.2 shows the complete circuit contained in this IC, comprising
16 transistors, 8 diodes and 13 resistors. Fig. 1.3 shows the
physical appearance of the chip, much magnified, when it is
part of the wafer. The actual size of this chip is approximately
2.5 mm by 2 mm.
The actual component density or number of components per
unit area, may vary considerably in integrated circuits. The
figure of 50 components per chip has already been mentioned,
which is typical of small-scale integration (SSI). It is possible to
achieve much higher component densities. With medium -scale
integration (MSI), component density is greater than 100 com-
ponents per chip; and with large-scale integration (LSI), com-
ponent density may be as high as 1000 or more components
per chip. Both MSI and LSI are extensions of the original inte-
grated circuit techniques using similar manufacturing
methods. The only difference is in the matter of size and
14
STAGE SECOND STAGE OUTPUT
1- 1r
0.9"!"-C VS-NTAINK
1 -1 l':/j
0,
01 I I
02 03
I I07
I
SON0201,
I
RIO
05
R12
RII
25
200
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RI
Al
OUTPUT
018
03 04
04.
D3
NvERTING
INPUT
H.09 010'6 F..

CI
NON -INVERTING 120F
R2 R3
INPUT 5000 5000
01 016
011
012 013
06
R5
5000 50011 50
L_
OFFSET NULL
*0 0
1.2 Schematic diagram of one half of a CA3240 BiMOS operational amp-
lifier showing components and interconnections all formed in the sub-
strate of the chip.
physical separation of the individual components and the

method of inter -connection.
Monolithic and Hybrid ICs

Integrated circuits where all the components and
connections are formed in the substrate of the 'chip' are known
as monolithic ICs. There is a further class of ICs where the indi-
vidual components (transistors, diodes, resistors, etc.), or even
complete sub -circuits, are all attached to the same substrate
but with interconnections formed by wire bonding. These are
known as hybrid ICs. In hybrid circuits, electrical isolation is
provided by the physical separation of the components.
IC Components
Transistors and diodes are formed directly on the surface of
the chip with their size and geometry governing their electrical
15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 TO 8092
105-i
100-
90-
102 -110
/2 591-2 794/
-10
TO 102-025.1
79-87
(200, 2 1071) -- 4.1
1.3 Much enlarged illustration of the CA3240 chip containing two com-
plete circuits like Fig. 1.2. Actual dimensions of this chip are 2.5 by 2
millimetres. Grid dimensions marked around the outside of the
diagram are in thousandths of an inch.
characteristics as well as density level, etc. Where a number of
such components are involved in a complete integrated circuit
their performance is usually better than that of a circuit with
discrete (separate) components because they are located close
together and their electrical characteristics are closely
matched.
Resistors can be formed by silicon resistance stripes etched in
the slice, or by using the bulk resistivity of one of the diffused
areas. There are limits, however, to both the range and
tolerance of resistance values which can be produced by these
methods. 'Stripe' resistors are limited to a minimum width of
about 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) to achieve a tolerance of 10 per cent.
Practical values obtained from diffused resistors range from
about 10 ohms to 30k ohms, depending on the method of
diffusion with tolerances of plus or minus 10 per cent. Better
performance can be achieved with thin-film resistors with
resistance values ranging from 20 ohms to 50k ohms.
A method of getting round this problem when a high
16
resistance is required is to use a transistor biased almost to cut-
off instead of a resistor in an integrated circuit where a
resistance value of more than 50k ohms is required. This is
quite economic in the case of integrated circuit manufacture
and a method widely used in practice.
Capacitors present more of a problem. Small values of
capacitance can be produced by suitable geometric spacing
between circuit elements and utilizing the stray capacitance
generated between these elements. Where rather higher
capacitance values are required, individual capacitors may be
formed by a reversed -bias PN junction; or as thin-film 'plate'
type using a tiny aluminium plate and a MOS (metal -oxide -
semiconductor) second plate. The former method produces a
polarized capacitor and the thin film method a non -polarized
capacitor. The main limitation in either case is the relatively
low limit to size and capacitance values which can be achieved
- typically 0.2 pF per 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) square for a
junction capacitor and up to twice this figure with a thin film
MOS capacitor, both with fairly wide tolerances (plus or minus
20 per cent). Where anything more than moderate capacitor
values are needed in an integrated circuit it is usually the
practice to omit the capacitor from the circuit and connect a
suitable discrete component externally.
Both resistors and capacitors fabricated in ICs also suffer
from high temperature coefficients (i.e. working values varying
with temperature) and may also be sensitive to voltage
variations in the circuit.
Unlike printed circuits, it is not possible to fabricate
inductors or transformers in integrated circuits at the present
state-of-the-art. As far as possible, therefore, ICs are designed
without the need for such components; or where this is not
possible, a separate conventional component is connected
externally to the integrated circuit.
From the above it will be appreciated that integrated circuits
are quite commonly used as 'building blocks' in a complete
circuit, connected to other conventional components. A simple
example is shown in Fig. 1.4 using a ZN414 as a basic 'building
block' in the construction of a miniature AM radio. Although a
high gain device (typical power gain 72 dB) the integrated
circuit needs a following stage of transistor amplification to
17
«ye
RI
ve
1.4 Complete radio circuit using a ZN414 integrated circuit connected to

external components.
Resistors
RI - 100 kohms
R2- 1 kohm
R3 - 100 kohms
R4- 10 kohms
R5 -100 kohms
Capacitors
C1-tuning capacitor to match tuning coil LI
C2 -0.01µF
C3 -0.1 piF
C4 -0.11.4F
LI proprietary medium wave aerial coil on ferrite
30 s.w.g. enamelled copper wire wound on ferrite rod (matching value
of C1=250 pF).
IC- ZN414
TR -ZTX300 (or equivalent)
Speaker-transistor radio crystal earpiece.
power a crystal earpiece; high value decoupling capacitors; and a

standard coil and tuning capacitor for the tuned circuit. The
complete circuit is capable of providing an output of 500 milli-
volts across the earpiece, with a supply voltage of 1.3 and
typical current drain of 0.3 milliamps.
1.5 Examples of integrated circuit outlines.
A 16 -pin dual in -line
B 14 -pin dual in -line
C flat (ceramic) package
D 3 -lead transistor 'can' shape
E 6 -lead 'transistor' shape
F 8 -lead 'transistor' shape
G 12 -pin quad in -line with heatsink tabs
18
127 max
V- A 19,56 max
-...,
0.76 721,0,2574.44 72%0.25 .i
3,56max 0,(31 Indent - PIM
14
3,7mIn 7
IP 111Ths I
6,35
s0,13
j16 leads of 0,40320,076
pi tchtEll_.1 02710025 0305)178N.C

2.541o.05
t 0,ZW.I51
9,14t0,25 0 .910-025 0
i8,1210,13 Q. tii)2±0,13
Q483- Q483-
19
The Shape of ICs
ICs come in various 'package' shapes. Quite a number have
the same shape (and size) as a typical transistor and are only
readily identified as an IC because of the greater number of
leads emerging from the bottom (a transistor usually has only
three leads). These shapes are defined by the standard coding
adopted for transistor outlines, e.g. TO -5, TO -18, etc., which
also identifies the individual pins by numbers (e.g. see Fig.
1.5).
Other ICs come in the form of flat packages with leads
emerging from each side. These are three different arrange-
ments used (see also Fig. 1.5).
1. Dual in -line, where the leads on each side are bent down
to form two separate rows to plug directly into a printed
circuit panel or IC holder.
2. Quad in -line, like dual in -line, except that the leads on
each side form two parallel rows.
3. Flat, where the leads emerge straight and from each side
of the package.
In all cases leading numbering normally runs around the
package, starting from top left and ending at top right (again
see Fig. 1.5). The number of leads may be anything from eight
to sixteen or even more.
Some types of holders designed to match standard pin con-
figurations or flat shape ICs are shown in Fig. 1.6. These
holders have similar pin configurations to the ICs they take.
Their principal advantage is that they can be soldered to a
printed circuit or Veroboard, etc., with no risk of heat damage
to the IC itself since this is only plugged in after soldered con-
nections are completed. Most circuit constructors, however,
prefer to solder ICs directly to a printed circuit panel (or
Veroboard).
20
EF725-2-24 EF724-2-16
85"--1%5
till
F723 -2-I4 EF 722-2-8
75"---1:45
uti
uti
14 PIN 173m 10
16 PIN 20mm mm
01" PITCH
03"
0.7" 16 PIN
06' 14 PIN
1.6 Examples of integrated circuit holders (Electrovalue).
21
Chapter Two
`GENERAL PURPOSE' ICs (ARRAYS)
THE DESCRIPTION 'GENERAL PURPOSE' is not accepted
terminology but it is used here to describe integrated circuit
chips which comprise a number of individual components,
usually transistors and possibly also diodes, each component in
the chip connecting to individual outlet leads. Thus by
connecting to the appropriate three (or two) leads and
individual transistor (or diode) it can be connected to an
external circuit. Other chips of this type may also include
components connected within the chip, e.g. transistors in
Darlington pairs, but the same principle of application applies.
The technical description of such a chip is an integrated circuit
array.
A simple example of such a chip is shown in Fig. 2.1. It con-
sists of three transistors (two interconnected); two types of
diodes; and a Zener diode. This particular chip is used in the
voltage regulator circuit described in Chapter 8 (Fig. 8.4),
using two of the transistors, the SCR diode and the Zener diode.
This circuit design is shown in Fig. 2.2. The components to
be utilized which are contained in the IC are enclosed in the
dashed outline, i.e. TR1, TR2, D2 and D3. The other com-
ponents in the chip (D1 and TR3) are not required. Resistors
R1, R2, R3 and R4 and a capacitor C, are all discrete
components connected externally.
Fig. 2.3 re-examines the component disposition in the chip,
together with the necessary external connections. Note that the
arrangement of the leads or pin -out arrangement does not
necessarily follow the schematic diagram (Fig. 2.1) where the
pins are in random order to clarify connections to internal
components. The actual pin -out arrangement on ICs follows a
logical order reading around the chip. Schematic diagrams
may or may not follow in the same order (usually not).
Connections for completing the circuit of Fig. 2.3 are:
Leads 1, 2 and 3 are ignored as D1 is not used.
Lead 4 connects one side of the Zener diode to the common
23
1 2 11 14
le
3 4 12 13 15 1
substrate
2.1 Schematic diagram of CA3097E integrated circuit array which con-
tains two diodes, one zener diode, two NPN transistors and one PNP
transistor. Numbered pin connections are also shown, these providing
access to individual components in the chip. These pins are not in the
physical order as found on the chip (see Fig. 2.3).
transistorn TR 1
-0
t.
R2 R3
Cl R4
-10
2.2 Voltage regulator circuit components within the dashed outline are in
the CA3097E integrated circuit. RI, R2, R3, R4 and C are external
components.
earth line and Lead 5 to Lead 13, connecting the Zener diode
to the correct side of the SCR (diode).
Leads 11 and 12 connect together (as the SCR is worked as a
simple diode in this circuit and the gate connection is not
required).
Now to pick up the transistor connections. The base of TR1
24
R1
*ye
VO
2.3 Completed voltage regulator circuit showing wiring connections made

to the integrated circuit. Pins in this diagram are shown in the actual
physical order they appear on the integrated circuit. For ease of
reading, pins are shown numbered and enclosed in circles rather than
numbered tags. On circuit drawings pin numbers may be shown cir-
cled or not.
Note. For clarity the integrated circuit is drawn much larger in
proportion to the external components.
(15) connects to the external resistor R1; and the collector lead
(14) to the other side of R1, which is also the input point for the
circuit. The emitter lead (16) connects to output.
TR2 and TR3 in the chip are interconnected, but only one of
these transistors is required. Connecting lead (6) to (9) shorts
out TR2, which is not wanted. Connecting the emitter lead (8)
of TR3 to 11-12 (already joined); the collector lead (9) to (6);
and the base lead (7) to the centre tag of the external
potentiometer R3 connects TR3 into the circuit.
It only remains for the external component connections to be
completed. These are:
R2 to lead (14) and lead (12).
Capacitor C to lead (6) and earth point. Lead (10) on the IC
is also the substrate or earthing point of the IC, so should also
be connected to the common earth line.
One end of the potentiometer R3 to the top (output) line.
The other end of the potentiometer R3 to R4.
The other end of R4 to the bottom common earth line.
25
Spare Components
A number of components in an array may not be used in a
particular circuit, but the cost of the single IC can often be less
than that of the equivalent transistors or diodes ordered
separately and used individually to complete the same circuit.
The circuit using the IC will also be more compact and
generally easier to construct.
10. 13
TR1 TR2 TR3 v TR4 TR5 integrated

-um -am circL it
V CA 3630
Ity
8 7 11 12 14 15
12 volts
diode D1 diode D2
ve
R1
24 volts
suPPl
Input
2.4 Schematic diagram of CA3600 array (top) and voltage doubler circuit
using TR2, TR3 and TR4 from the array together with external com-
ponents:
RI =10kohms
R2= 1 kohm
CI =2.5pF
C2= 2.5µF
diodes DI and D2
The spare transistors in the array (TRI and TR5) can be used instead
of separate diodes, connected for diode working by ignoring the
collector leads.
26
A little study sometimes shows where further savings are
possible. Fig. 2.4, for example, shows a voltage doubler circuit
for a 1 kHz square wave input signal, based on a CA3096E IC
array which contains 5 transistors. Only three of these
transistors are used in this particular circuit. leaving two
`spare'.
The circuit calls for two diodes 131 and D2 (as well as three
resistorsand two capacitors) to be added as discrete
components. Transistors can also be worked as diodes (by
neglecting the collector lead), and so the functions of DI and
D2 could be performed by the two 'spare' transistors in the
array (thus using up all its components).
Alternatively, since the current needs a square wave input
signal, the two 'spare' transistors could be used in a
multivibrator circuit to provide this input, and in this case
using discrete components for D1 and D2. Since diodes are
cheaper than transistors, this is a more economic way of using
all the components in the original array.
R2
0 .ve
Al
5 13
output
IC1 102
R3
7-1
R4
0 -v.
2.5 Astable multivibrator circuit using one third of CA3600E array.
ICI -OTA CA3080
IC2 -CA3600E
RI -100kohms
R2- 5 kohms
R3 - 10kohms
R4 - 10kohms
C -0.0114F
27
The fact that popular ICs are quite cheap means that it is
seldom worth while going to elaborate methods of trying to use
all the components available in an array, unless such utilization
is fairly obvious, as above. Using only part of an array can still
show savings over the purchase of individual components for
many circuits.
The astable multivibrator circuit shown in Fig. 2.5, for
example, only uses one of the three complete switching circuits
contained in the CA3600E array, associated with an OTA
CA3080 integrated circuit and four external resistors. On the
other hand, Fig. 2.6 shows a high gain amplifier circuit using
all the components in the CA3600E array with external
resistors.
Constant Current Circuit

A useful circuit employing the CA3018 integrated circuit
array is shown in Fig. 2.7. This array comprises four transistors
(two interconnected as a super -alpha pair) and four diodes.
I 0 "ye
2.6 High -gain amplifier circuit using the complete CA3600E integrated
circuit together with external components:
R1 -1 M ohm
R2 -22 M ohms
R3 -22 M ohms
CI -1µF
C2- I piF
C3 -1 i.4F
28
Tapping the super -alpha pair of transistors, a constant current
source can be produced, the magnitude of this current being set
by adjustment of the potentiometer RI over a range of about
0.2 mA to 14mA, depending on the actual supply voltage.
R4
5) .ale
12 =1111
R3
CA 3018
9 to
18 volts
10
0 -ve
R1 R2
2.7 Constant current circuit using components found in CA3018 array.

External component values:
R1 -10kohms potentiometer
R2 -470ohms
R3- 3.3kohms
R4 is the resistance of the load through which the constant
current is to flow.
+ve
R1
121
output 9 to
LC:A 3018 0 +ve 18 volts
R2 constant
6 volts
0 ve
2.8 Circuit giving a constant 6 volts output from a 9 to 18 volts supply

voltage, again using the CA3018 array.
External Component values:
RI - 3.3 k ohms
R2 -4.7 k ohms
29
The same integrated circuit can also be used as a constant
voltage source-Fig. 2.8. In this case the constant voltage
output is the Zener voltage of the transistor worked as a Zener
diode, which is approximately 6 volts.
30
Chapter Three
OP -AMPS
OP -AMPS (OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS) are a particular
class of integrated circuit comprising a directly -coupled high -
gain amplifier with overall response characteristics controlled
by feedback. The op -amp gets its name from the fact that it can
be made to perform numerous mathematical operations. An
op -amp is the basic building block in analogue systems and is
also known as a linear integrated circuit because of its response.
It has an extremely high gain (theoretically approaching
infinity), the actual value of which can be set by the feedback.
Equally the introduction of capacitors or inductors in the
feedback network can give gain varying with frequency and
thus determine the operating condition of the whole integrated
circuit.
Z1 Z2
inverting
output
inputs
V
noninverting
3.1 A basic op -amp is a three -terminal device with the corresponding cir-
cuit as shown. A triangular symbol is used to designate an op -amp.
The basic op -amp is a three -terminal device with two inputs

and one output - Fig. 3.1. The input terminals are described as
'inverting' and 'non -inverting'. At the input there is a virtual
'short circuit', although the feedback keeps the voltage across
these points at zero so that no current flows across the 'short'.
The simple circuit equivalent is also shown in Fig. 3.1, when
the voltage gain is given by a ratio of the impedances Z2/Z1.
Some examples of the versatility of the op -amp are given in
the following simple circuits:
31
Adder (Fig. 3.2)
Input signals VI V2 .. V, are applied to the op -amp as shown
,
through resistors R1, R2 . R. The output signal is then a

.
combination of these signals, i.e. giving the sum of the inputs.
vi
R1
V2 0- operational amplifier
R2
practical circuit may need a resistor here
Rn
3.2 Adder circuit based on an op -amp. This inverts the output.
The specific performance of the op -amp as an adder can be

calculated from:
V1 V2 VN
Vout = - R RI R2 ' R
Note the minus sign. This means that the output is 'inverted',
i.e. this circuit shows an inverting adder.
By changing the inputs + to - , the op -amp will work as a
non -inverting adder - Fig. 3.3.
practical circuit may need a

resistor here
vl
V2
R2
Rn
3.3 Non -inverting adder circuit, i.e. the input and output have the same
polarity of signal and are thus in phase.
32
Amplifier or Buffer
Fig. 3.4 shows the circuit for an inverted amplifier or
inverter. The gain is equal to - R2/ R1, i.e. if RI = R2 the
R2
Vin
3.4 A circuit which inverts the input signal, known as an inverter. Voltage
gain is R2/Rl .
voltage gain is -1, meaning that the circuit works as a phase

inverter. A suitable value for R3 can be calculated from:
R1 x R2
R3 =
R1 x R2
To work as a non -inverting buffer (amplifier), the connec-
tions are made as shown in Fig. 3.5. In this case the gain is given
by:
gain = 1 + R2
R1
R1 R2
Vin 0 0 vout
3.5 Noninverting amplifier circuit where the gain is equal to 1 + R2/R1.

If the gain is unity, this is also known as a buffer.
Multiplier
This is the same circuit as Fig. 3.4, using precision resistors of
the specified values for R1 and R2 to give an exactly constant
33
gain (and thus multiplication of input voltage in the ratio
R2/R1). Note that this circuit inverts the phase of the output.
Adder /Subtractor
Connections for an adder/subtractor circuit are shown in
Fig. 3.6. If R1 and R2 are the same value; and R3 and R4 are
also made the same value as each other, then:
V out = V3 + V4 -V1 -V2
R1 R6
1/1
V2
Vout
V3
V4
3.6 Adder/subtractor circuit. See text for calculation of component

values.
In other words, inputs to V3 and V4 give a summed output

(V out = V3 + V4). Inputs V1 and V2 subtract from the output
voltage.
Values for R1, R2, and R3 and R4 are chosen to suit the op -
amp characteristics. R5 should be the same value as R3 and
R4; and R6 should be the same value as R1 and R2.
Integrator
Theoretically, at least, an op -amp will work as an integrator
with the inverting input connected to the output via a
capacitor. In practice a resistor needs to be paralleled across
this capacitor to provide dc stability as shown in Fig. 3.7.
This circuit integrates input signal with the following
relationship applying:
1
V out = SV in dt
RI .0
34
R2
Vin 0_
3.7 Op amp integrator circuit.
The value of R2 should be chosen to match the op -amp char-

acteristics so that:
V.° =R2
-
R1 Vio
Differentiator
The differentiator circuit has a capacitor in the input line
connecting to the inverting input, and a resistor connecting this
input to output. Again this circuit has practical limitations, so
a better configuration is to parallel the resistor with a capacitor
as shown in Fig. 3.8.
3.8 Practical circuit for an op -amp differentiator.
The performance of this circuit is given by:
V out = - R2C1 dV in
dt
35
Differential Amplifier
A basic circuit for a differential amplifier is shown in Fig.
3.9. Component values are chosen so that R1 = R2
and R3 = R4. Performance is then given by:
V out = V in 2 -V in 1
provided the op -amp used can accept the fact that the
impedance for input 1 and input 2 is different (impedance for
input 1 = R1; and impedance for input 2 = RI + R3).
V in1
VIn2
3.9 Basic differential amplifier circuit.
Log Amplifiers
The basic circuit (Fig. 3.10) uses an NPN transistor in
conjunction with an op amp to produce an output proportional
to the log of the input:
V out = - k logio Vin
RI°
The right hand diagram shows the 'inverted' circuit, this
3.10 Basic log amplifier circuit using a transistor in conjunction with an

op -amp.
36
time using a PNP transistor, to work as a basic anti -log
amplifier.
The capacitor required is usually of small value (e.g. 20pF).
Log Multiplier
Logarithmic working of an op -amp is extended in Fig. 3.11
to give a log multiplier. Input X to one log amplifier gives log X
output; and input Y to the second log amplifier gives log Y
output. These are fed as inputs to a third op -amp to give an
output log X Y.
If this output is fed to an anti -log amplifier, the output is the
inverted product of X and Y (i.e. X. Y).
3.11 This circuit provides logarithmic working (see text).
Voltage Follower
Because of the inherent characteristics of an op -amp the
connections shown in Fig. 3.12 will tie the two inputs together
so that the output always follows the input, i.e.
V out = V in
The value of such a voltage follower is that it offers high
input resistance with low input current and very low output
resistance. There are many practical applications of this type of
37
circuit and a number of op -amps are designed specifically as
voltage followers.
out
3.12 Tying the two inputs of an op -amp together gives a voltage -follower
circuit where V out =V in. A characteristic of this circuit is high input
resistance and very low output resistance.
Voltage -to -Current Converter

The circuit configuration shown in Fig. 3.13 will result in the
same current flowing through RI and the load impedance R2,
R2
R1
Vout
yin 0
3.13 Voltage -to -current converter using an op -amp.
the value of this current being independent of the load and

proportional to the signal voltage, although it will be of
relatively low value because of the high input resistance
presented by the non -inverting terminal. The value of this
current is directly proportional to V in/R1.
Current -to- Voltage Converter

This configuration (Fig. 3.14) enables the input signal
current to flow directly through the feedback resistor R2 when
the output voltage is equal to Iin x R2. In other words, input
current is converted into a proportional output voltage. No
current flows through R2, the lower limit of current flow being
established by the bias circuit generated at the inverting input.
A capacitor may be added to this circuit, as shown in the
diagram, to reduce 'noise'.
38
111--1
R1
R2
lin 0---4-1
0 Vout
3.14 Current -to -voltage converter using an op -amp.
Current Source
Use of an op -amp as a current source is shown in Fig. 3.15.
R3
V
in
3.15 Circuit for using an op -amp as a current source. See text for com-
ponent values required.
Resistor values are selected as follows:

RI = R2
R3 = R4 + R5
Current output is given by:
R3 Vin .
out =
RI . R5
Multivibrator
An op -amp can be made to work as a multivibrator. Two
basic circuits are shown in Fig. 3.16. The one on the left is a free
39
R1
out
3.16 Two basic circuits for a multivibrator, based on op -amps. Component

values for the right hand circuit are:
RI -1 M ohm Cl -470pF
R2 -10 M ohm potentiometer C2 -0.11.4F
R3 -2kohm
R4 -1 k ohm
diode-silicon diode
IC -CA741
running (astable) multi -vibrator, the frequency of which is

determined by:
1
f= 2R3 + 1
2C. RI loge
R2
The right hand diagram shows a monostable multivibrator
circuit which can be triggered by a square wave pulse input.
Component values given are for a CA741 op -amp.
See also separate chapter on `Multivibrators.'
Schmitt Trigger
A Schmitt trigger is known technically as a regenerative com-
parator. Its main use is to convert a slowly varying input voltage
into an output signal at a precise value of input voltage. In
other words it acts as a voltage 'trigger' with a 'backlash'
feature, called hysteresis.
The op -amp is a simple basis for a Schmitt trigger -see Fig.
3.17. The triggering or trip voltage is determined by:
-V out . R1
V trip = R1 + R2
40
Vin C
out
3.17 Schmitt trigger which gives an output once a precise value of varying
input voltage is reached. An application of this circuit is a dc voltage
level senser.
The hysteresis of such a circuit is twice the trip voltage.

Another Schmitt trigger circuit is shown in Fig. 3.18, the
triggering point being approximately one -fifth of the supply
voltage, i.e. there is a 'triggered' output once the dc input
reaches one -fifth the value of the supply voltage. The supply
voltage can range from 6 to 15 volts, thus the trigger can be
VO
supply
voltage
6-15 volts
Ve
3.18 A more complicated Schmitt trigger circuit for general use.

Component values:
R1 -2.2k ohm
R2 -3.3k ohm
R3 -3.3k ohm
R4-470 ohms
R5 - 5k ohm potentiometer
R6 -33kohms
R7 -22kohms
IC -CA3018
41
made to work at anything from 1.2 to 3 volts, depending on the
supply voltage used. The actual triggering point can also be
adjusted by using different values for R4, if required.
Once triggered, the output will be equal to that of the supply
voltage. If output is connected to a filament bulb or LED (with
ballast resistor in series), the bulb (or LED) will light once the
input voltage has risen to the triggering voltage and thus
indicate that this specific voltage level has been reached at the
input.
Capacitance Booster
The circuit shown in Fig. 3.19 works as a multiplier for the
capacitor C1, i.e. associated with a fixed value of Cl it gives an
original
capacitor C1 R1
3.19 Capacitance multiplier circuit. The effective capacitance Ce is equal

to the value of Cl multiplied by R1/R2.
effective capacitance Ce which can be many times greater. The

actual multiplication ratio is R1 /R2 so that making RI ten
times greater than R2, say, means that the effective cap-
acitance of this circuit would be 10 x Cl
As far as utilization of such a multiplier is concerned, the
circuit now also contains resistance (R2) in series with the
effective capacitance.
Filters
Op -amps are widely used as basic components in filter
circuits. Two basic circuits are shown in Fig. 3.20. The one on
the left is a low pass filter and the one on the right is a high pass
filter.
See also separate chapter on Filters.
42
low-pass filter high-pass filter
3.20 Two basic filter circuits using op -amps.
Op -amp Parameters
The ideal op -amp is perfectly balanced so that if fed with
equal inputs, output is zero, i.e.
V in 1 = V in 2 gives V out = 0
In a practical op -amp the input is not perfectly balanced so
that unequal bias currents flow through the input
terminal. Thus an input offset voltage must be applied between
the two input terminals to balance the amplifier output.
The input bias current (IB) is one half the sum of the separate
currents entering the two input terminals when the output is
balanced, i.e. V out = 0. It is usually a small value, e.g. a
typical value is IB 100nA.
The input offset current (6) is the difference between the
separate currents entering the input terminals. Again it is
usually of a very small order, e.g. a typical value is Iio = 10nA.
The input offset voltage (Vio) is a voltage which must be
applied across the input terminal, to balance the amplifier.
Typical value, Vic, = lmV.
Both and Vic, are subject to change with temperature, this
change being known as drift and Vic, drift, espectively.
The Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) is the ratio of the
change in input offset voltage to the corresponding change in
one power supply voltage. Typically this is of the order of
10 -2014V/V
Other parameters which may be quoted for op -amps are:
Open -loop gain -usually designated Ad .
Common -mode rejection ratio -designated CMPR orft This is
43
the ratio of the difference signal to the common -mode signal
and represents a figure of merit for a differential amplifier.
This ratio is expressed in decibels (dB).
Slew rate -or the rate of change of amplifier output voltage
under large-signal conditions. It is expressed in terms of
V/tis.
44
Chapter Four
AUDIO AMPLIFIERS
QUITE A NUMBER of linear ICs are designed as audio ampli-
fiers for use in radio receivers, record players, etc. Again these
are used with external components but physical layout, and the
length of leads is relatively unimportant - unlike circuits
carrying radio frequencies. The 'packaging' of such ICs can
vary from cans (usually TO -5 to TO -100 configuration) to
dual -in -line and quad -in -line. In all cases they will usually have
12 or 14 leads (but sometimes less). Not all these leads are nec-
essarily used in a working circuit. They are there to provide
access to different parts of the integrated circuit for different
applications. Integrated circuits designed with higher power
ratings may also incorporate a tab or tabs to be connected to a
heat sink; or a copper slug on top of the package for a similar
purpose.
A single chip can contain one, two, three or more amplifier
C3
output
R1 +ye
CA3035
R2 10 9 volts
C1
supply I
Input
0 01
C2
4.1 Utilization of the first amplifier in CA3035 integrated circuit by
tapping pins 1, 2, 3, 9 and 10. This circuit gives a voltage gain of 100-
160 with an input resistance of 50 k ohms and an output resistance of
270 ohms.
Component values:
RI -100kohms C1 -10µF
R2 - 100 k ohms C3 -1µF
C3 - 10µF
45
stages interconnected and following each other (technically
referred to as being in cascade). Pin -out connections provide
`tapping' points for using one or more stages separately or in
cascade as required.
The (RCA) CA3035 integrated circuit is just one example. It
consists of three separate amplifier stages connected in cascade
with a component count equivalent to 10 transistors, 1 diode
and 15 resistors. Each amplifier stage has different character-
istics. The first stage, which can be selected by connections to
pins 1, 2, 3, 9 and 10 (see Fig. 4.1), is a wide band amplifier
characterized by high input resistance (i.e. ideally suited to
connecting to a preceding transistor stage). The working
circuit using this stage is shown in Fig. 4.1. It has a gain of the
order of 160 (44dB).
The second amplifier in the CA3035 has a lower input resis-
tance (2k ohm) and a low output resistance of 170 ohms. The
gain is similar to the first stage (about 45dB). A working circuit
with tapping points is shown in Fig. 4.2.
ye
9 volts
supply
input
ye
4.2 Utilization of the second amplifier in CA3035 integrated circuit by

120 with an input resistance of 2 k ohms and an output resistance of
170 ohms.
Component values:
Cl -10 1.4F
C2 -10µF
The third amplifier is a wide band amplifier with a low input

resistance (670 ohms) and a high output resistance (5k ohms).
It offers a voltage gain of 100 (40dB). A working circuit is
shown in Fig. 4.3.
Amplifiers 1 and 2 can be cascaded; or amplifiers 2 and 3; or
46
ve
C1
9 volts
supply
ye
4.3 Utilization of the third amplifier in CA3035 integrated circuit by

120 with an input resistance of 670 ohms and an output resistance of 5
k ohms.
Component values.
RI -5kohms
Cl -10µF
C2 -10µF
amplifiers 1, 2 and 3. Fig. 4.4 shows the external connections

and components required to cascade amplifiers 1 and 2.
Using all three amplifiers in cascade results in a gain of
approximately 110 dB. The circuit in this case is shown in Fig.
4.5.
R2
C2 siL-1 11-
C1
R1I CA3035
9
0
C5 9 volts
supply
10 C<output
°--0 I
input
C3
ve
4.4 Circuit for using first and second amplifiers

contained in CA3035 in
cascade. This circuit gives a voltage gain of about 7000 with an input
of 50 k ohms and an output resistance of 170 ohms.
Component values.
RI - 220 kohms C1 -10µF
R2 -1.2 kohms C2 - 0.22µF
C3 -0.04µF
C4 -10µF
C5 -50µF
47
Modifying Amplifier Performance
The output impedance of an amplifier stage can be modified
by connecting RI to provide a negative feedback from output
to input. This has the effect of reducing the working value of R1
and R1/Av where Av is the amplifier open loop voltage gain.
This is accomplished without affecting the actual voltage gain.
In the case of cascaded amplifiers a capacitor C2 is needed in
series with RI to act as a block to dc (i.e. RI only is needed for
amplifier 1 part of CA 3035, Cl being effective as a blocking
capacitor in this case). Since amplifier 2 in this chip is directly
R4
R3
C7
12 volts
supply
output
I I
0 ye
4.5 This circuit shows all three amplifiers in CA3035 cascaded to give a
voltage gain of about 200,000
Component values:
RI - 220 kohms Cl 10µF
R2 -1.2 kohms C2 --0.04µF
R3-- 680 ohms C3 --0.22µF
R4 -1 kohm C4 --0.05µF
R5 -4.7 kohms C5 -0.05µF
C6 -50µF
C7 -10µF
coupled to amplifier 1; and amplifier 2 is directly coupled to

amplifier 3; the use of an impedance -matching resistor
applied to amplifier 2 (or amplifier 3) will require the use of a
blocking capacitor in series with the resistor.
The gain of the amplifier stage can be modified by the use of
a series resistor in the input (RI). This acts as a potential
divider in conjunction with the effective input resistance of the
48
stage so that only a proportion of the input signal is applied to
the stage. In this case:
1. actual voltage gain = RI
.
RI + RI /Ay
2. input resistance = Ri + RI / Av
where Ri is the input resistance of the IC
Thus by suitable choice of R1 and Ri, both voltage gain and
input resistance of an amplifier circuit can be modified to
match specific requirements. It follows that if a number of
different resistors are used for Ri, the circuit can be given
different response (sensitivity) for a given input applied to each
value of Ri by switching. This mode of working is useful for pre-
amplifiers. Virtually the same circuit is used for an audio
mixer, separate input channels being connected by separate
series resistors (Ri) and thence commonly connected to the
Q? .ve
input C4
10 CS
R1 TAA611 2 a
A55
7
0
C6
R2
AI*
C2
II-
C3
C1
0 ye
4.6 Audio amplifier for radio receiver based on the TAA611 A55
integrated circuit. Pin numbers shown are for the can -shaped version
of this IC.
Component values:
RI -22kohms
R2 -30ohms
CI -50µF/6 volt
C2 -56 pF
C3 -150 pF
C4 -1µF
C5 -500µF/12 volt
C6 -100µF/12volt
loudspeaker -8ohms
49
input. In this case each channel has the same input resistance
with an overall gain of unity.
Fig. 4.6 shows a circuit for a low power (1.8 watt) audio
amplifier using a TA 611 monolithic integrated circuit. This
particular IC is available in two configurations, a TO -100
metal case and in a quad -in -line plastic package. Lead
positions are shown in Fig. 4.7 for the two different config-
urations.
This is a particularly attractive circuit for it needs a
minimum number of external components and is capable of
9mm
7mm
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
TAA611
6mm
A55
8mm
4.7 The two versions of the TAA6I 1 integrated circuit. The TAA611 A55
is a 14 -pin dual -in -line package. The TAA611 A55 is a 'can' shape
package in a metal case (T0-100). The circuits are identical so either
can be used in Fig. 4.1 with the same external components. Note,
however, the different pin -out arrangement for the TAA611 Al2 on
the left.
driving an 8 -ohm loudspeaker direct with any supply voltage

between 6 volts and 12 volts. Also it does not require a heat
sink.
Exactly the same circuit can be used with a number of other
integrated circuits in the same family, offering higher output
powers. These zre the TA611B and TA611C. The only
50
difference is the values required for the external components
required, viz:
TA611B TA611C
supply volts 6 -15 supply volts 6 -18
max. power output 2.1 watts 3.3 watts
R1 22k ohms 220k ohms
R2 30 ohms 150 ohms
Cl 50µF 25µF
C2 56pF 82pF
C3 150pF 1.2µF
C4 omit omit
C5 5001.4F 500µF
C6 100µF 100µF
Lead arrangement for the TA611B and TA611C are the same
as TAA611 Al2.
Because of its higher power the current based on the TA611C
really requires the IC to be mounted with a heat sink (Chapter 5
deals specifically with heat sinks), although this is not absol-
utely essential. The type is, in fact, available with a special
mounting bar or spacer to which a heat sink can be attached.
method of mounting is shown in Fig. 4.8,
the heat sink itself being a piece of aluminium sheet cut to a
suitable size and bent to the shape shown. The IC itself has a
copper slug on its top face on to which the heat sink sits (and is
clamped down by the mounting bolts). Better thermal contact
between the IC and the heat sink can be achieved if the contact
area is very lightly coated with silicon grease.
There are other methods of fitting heat sinks to this IC (and
other types). The TA611C is also available with an external
bar, the ends of which can be soldered to copper 'patches' on
the printed circuit panel (also shown in Fig. 4.8). In this
example the copper areas form the actual heat sink. A suitable
area in this case would be about 30mm square for each copper
patch. These copper areas are, of course, merely used for heat
dissipation and are not part of the actual printed circuit as
such, although it is normally advisable-and necessary with
some types of IC-to connect the heat sink area to the common
earth of the circuit. It is just a convenient method of making
heat sinks integral with (and at the same time as) the printed
circuit panel.
51
Mak
-- Contact
(moon Fore)
P4r, t. 51*
25.4
PC board
4.8 Aluminium sheet heat sink applied to the TA611C integrated circuit
(left) and alternative external bar fitted to this IC (right) for connect-
ing to heat sink areas on copper of printed circuit board.
A further audio amplifier based on a TBA641B integrated

circuit is shown in Fig. 4.9. This is a little more complicated in
terms of the number of external components used but has the
advantage of driving a 4 -ohm speaker (the more readily
available value with larger loudspeakers) and is suitable for
direct coupling of the input. It will operate on a supply voltage
ranging from 6 volts to 16 volts and give 4.5 watts output power
at 14 volts. Again the IC needs mounting with a heat sink of the
type illustrated in Fig. 4.8.
Short Circuit Protection

A feature of many audio amplifier circuits is that if the
output is shorted when the circuit is switched on (e.g. loud-
speaker connections accidentally shorted), excessive current
may be passed by the output transistors sufficient to destroy
52
Vs
014V
10.1 11004E
ZuFT 25V 680
4
IN 0- 250p F
12 15 V
10k0 TBA 641 B 1
I
6 10000F
15V
0
560pF
8
T"" 1au F
360 RL
40
1000F 10
F=15V
mon mr.422.7nF
4.9 Audio amplifier for 4 -ohms loudspeaker based on the TBA641B inte-
grated circuit. Component values are shown on the diagram (SGS-
Gates).
them. It is possible to provide short-circuit protection with

additional circuitry limiting the current which can flow
through the output transistors. This can readily be incor-
porated in an IC, an example being the TCA940 designed as a
10 watt class B amplifier. Other characteristics of this partic-
ular IC are high output current (up to 3 amps) very low
harmonic and crossover distortion and a thermal shut down
feature (See later).
The circuit is shown in Fig. 4.10. Supply voltage is up to 24
volts. Power rating depends both on the supply voltage used
and the resistance of the loudspeaker:
Supply voltage 4 -ohm speaker 8 -ohm speaker
20 10 watts 6.5 watts
18 9 watts 5 watts
16 7 watts
A feature of this circuit is that the bandwidth is controlled by
the values of Rf and C3 and C7. For a value of Rf = 56 ohms
with C3 = 1000pF and C7 = 5000pf the bandwidth is 20kHz.
For the same capacitor values the bandwidth can be reduced to
10kHz by making Rf = 20 ohms. For the original resistor value
(Rf = 56 ohms), the bandwidth can be reduced to 10kHz by
making C3 = 2 000pf and C7 = 10000pF.
53
R3
I CS
0 .ve
C6
7T
input
0
R1 [ TCA940
7
5
12
C5
0
>,
a
C1 o C9
7
C2 C3 R4
R2 c:=1
C4
ij I T T ve
4.10 10 -watt amplifier circuit based on the TCA940 integrated circuit.

The TCA940 is a 12 -lead quad -in -line plastic package.
Component values:
RI -100kohms
R2 - 56 ohms
R3 -100ohms
R4 - 1 ohm
Cl -100µF/3volt
C2 -1001.4F/15volt
C3 -4700 pF
C4 - 1 t4F
C5 -1000 pF
C6 -100µF/15 volts
C7 -100µF/25 volts
C8 -0.1µF
C9 -20001.4F/16 volts
Circuit assembly is straightforward, except that the IC needs
a heat sink. It is provided with tabs which should be bolted to
an external aluminium sheet heat sink of generous area.
Thermal Shut Down

The short-circuit protection built into this IC effectively
works as a power -limiting device. It is only effective on a short -
duration basis, i.e. to provide protection against temporary
overload and short circuiting of the output. An additional
circuit is included to ensure that regardless of how long a short
circuit is present across the output the junction temperature of
the output transistors is kept within safe limits.
54
In other words, this additional piece of circuitry incor-
porated in the IC provides complete protection against a
shorted output. It also has another advantage. The same
protection is present if there is another cause of overheating,
e.g. the heat sink used is not really large enough for the job it is
intended to do. The thermal shut -down circuitry simply reacts
to the junction temperature becoming too high by reducing the
output current and power to compensate.
Hi-Fi Stereo Amplifier

The excellent performance and extremely good stability
possible with integrated circuits makes them a logical choice
for Hi-Fi circuits. The TDA 2020 monolithic integrated
operational amplifier is an excellent up-to-date example of such
a device, designed to be used as a Class B audio power amplifier
for Hi-Fi circuits. It is capable of providing a 20 -watt power
output into a 4 -ohm loudspeaker with a supply voltage of 18
volts, and with a guaranteed output power of 15 watts. It is also
a device for providing high output current (up to 3.5 amps) and
has a very low harmonic and cross -over distortion. It also incor-
porates short-circuit protection and thermal shut -down
protection.
The TDA2020 is in the form of a quad -in -line plastic
package of conventional appearance with 14 leads. Because of
its high power rating it is intended to be used with a specially
formed heat sink mounted on a spacer designed to provide
proper thermal contact between the IC itself and the heatsink
when assembled on two bolts -Fig. 4.11. The most negative
supply voltage of the circuit is connected to the copper slug on
the IC and hence also to the heat sink.
The basic amplifier circuit is completed by the addition of
four external resistors and seven capacitors, plus a coupling
capacitor to enable the circuit to be used with a split power
supply. This provides direct drive for a 4 -ohm loudspeaker.
Since the Hi-Fi circuits are usually stereo, two ICs are used in
this basic circuit configuration, each IC powering its own loud-
speaker. The complete circuit is shown in Fig. 4.12.
Another simpler stereo audio amplifier circuit is shown in
Fig. 4.13, based on the (Mullard) TDA1009 integrated circuit.
is IC is a low frequency Class B amplifier with no crossover
55
Heat sink
at, . 2 to teCtW
Contact
(silicone grease)
Pt h . 0.5.04
Spacer
P C board
Ca.,
4.11 Heat sink for TDA2020 integrated circuit.
56
distortion designed for use with a minimum number of
external components. It delivers 2 x 6 watts output power at 10
per cent distortion into speakers of 4 -ohms impedance with 8 to
16 volts supply; and can also deliver the same power into
speakers with 8 -ohms impedance using a 24 -volt supply. The IC
4.12 Stereo amplifier circuit with split supply voltage ± 17 to ± 24 volts.

Component values:
RI - 1 kohm CI -0.1µF
R2 -100 kohms C2 -0.11.4F
R3 - 1 ohm C3 - 68 pF
R4 - 100 k ohms C4 -0.1µF
R5 -47 k ohms C5 -0.1µF
R6 - 1 k ohm C6 -47µF
R7 - 100 k ohms C7 -1001.4F
R8 - I ohm C8 -100µF
R9 - 100 k ohms C9 -47µF
ICI -TDA2020 C10 -0.1µF
IC2 -TDA2020 C11-68pF
loudspeakers -4 ohms C12 -0.1µF
57
incorporates short circuit protection for supply voltages up to
16 volts and also thermal protection. Input impedance is 45k
ohms.
The addition of capacitors C9 and C10 (shown dotted)
provides 'bootstrapping'. This provides increased output
power.
High Power Amplifiers

Most of the original IC audio amplifiers which appeared on
the market had a relatively limited power output and thus
.ve supply voltage

R7
C3
C1 C2 C9
V,n
04 C12
AL rt
R2 R3 R6
Ra R6 R8
els
C8 C10 C11
erC613c7
-ve supply voltage
4.13 Bridge amplifier circuit with split power supply ± 17 volts to ±22
volts.
Component values:
RI -100 kohms C1 -100µF
R2 - 33 kohms C2 -0.1 µF
R3 - 100 k ohms C3 - 68 pF
R4 - 4ohms C4 -0.1 µF
R5 -1 ohm C5 -4.7µF
R6 - 100 k ohms C6 - 100 1.4F
R7 - 100 k ohms C7 -0.1 µF
R8-100 kohms C8 -0.1 µF
C9 - 560 pF
ICI -TDA2020 C10 -0.1 µF
IC2 -TDA2020 C11 -0.1µF
loudspeaker -4 or 8 ohms C12 -0.11.4F
58
needed to he associated with a further stage or stages of
transistor amplification to give more than a few watts output.
Single IC amplifier chips are now readily available with output
12
C C7
C9
left 0_1
channel 14
CS
C2
16
IC
C3
1
C6
right
channel
T 11
I-
C4 C10 nr" C8
e
hum filter
4.14 Simple 2 x 6 watts stereo amplifier circuit using a minimum of

external components (Mullard).
Note the rectangular symbol used for the IC. This is often more con-
venient than a triangle or separate triangles when the integrated
circuit has a large number of pins.
Component values.
Resistors
RI -4.7 ohms
R2 -4.7ohms
Capacitors
Cl -100mF
C2 - 330 pF
C3 -330pF
C4 -100mF
C5 -100mF
C6 -100mF
C7 -100014F
C8 -1000µF
C9 -47µF
C10* -47µF
*bootstrap capacitors
hum filter -47µF
IC -TDA1009
59
powers from 1 to 5 watts and substantially higher outputs are
obtainable from later developments capable of handling even
higher voltages and currents with satisfactory thermal stability.
Bridge Amplifiers
Even higher outputs are obtainable from bridge amplifier
circuits. These can be used to increase power from output for a
given supply voltage, or maintain a high power output with a
reduced supply voltage. Bridge connection can give four times
the output power under a given load with the same supply
voltage; or twice the output power at a fixed peak current if the
load impedance is doubled (e.g. using 8 -ohm loudspeaker(s)
instead of 4 -ohm loudspeaker(s)).
An example of this type of circuitry, again using the
TDA2020 integrated circuit is shown in Fig. 4.14. It is capable
of delivering 30 watts power output in an 8 -ohm loudspeaker
with a supply voltage of -±- 17 volts.
60
Chapter Five
HEAT SINKS
WHERE INTEGRATED CIRCUITS handle moderate powers
and a heat sink is necessary to dissipate heat generated within
the IC itself, areas etched on the copper of a printed circuit
board can conveniently be used as heat sinks. ICs which are
suitable for heat sinks of this type are usually fitted with a tab or
tabs for soldering directly to the copper bands forming the heat
sink.
The area of copper needed for a heat sink can be calculated
quite simply, knowing the relevant circuit parameters. First it is
necessary to determine the maximum power to be dissipated,
using the formula:
Power (watts) = 0.4 + Vs . Id

8RL
where Vs is the maximum supply voltage

Id is the quiescent drain current in amps under
the most adverse conditions.
RL is the load resistance (e.g. the loudspeaker
resistance in the case of an audio amplifier
circuit).
Strictly speaking the value of Vs used should be the battery

voltage plus an additional 10 per cent, e.g. if the circuit is
powered by a 12 -volt battery, the value of Vs to use in the
formula is 12 + 1.2 = 13.2 volts. This allows for possible fluctu-
ations in power level, such as when using a new battery. If the
circuit has a stabilized power supply, then Vs can be taken as
this supply voltage.
The quiescent drain current (Id) is found from the IC par-
ameters as specified by the manufacturers and will be
dependent on supply voltage. Figures may be quoted for
'typical' and 'maximum'. In this case, use the maximum values.
Fig. 5.1 then gives the relationship between power to be dis-
61
sipated and copper area, based on a maximum ambient
temperature of 55°C (which is a safe limit for most IC devices).
Example: Supply voltage for a particular IC is 12 volts. Load
resistance is 4 ohms and the maximum quiescent current drain
quoted for the IC at this operating voltage is 20 milliamps. The
supply voltage is not stabilized, so the value to use for Vs is
12 + 1.2 = 13.2 volts
183.2'
Thus power= 0.4 x x 4 + (13.2 x 0.020)
= 2.178 + 0.264
= 2.422 watts (say 2.5 watts)
From Fig. 5.1, a suitable copper area is seen to be a 40mm

square.
length of square area - inches
4
0.5
111..1 I J I I
1.5
Jill 2
i i 1 5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
length of square area - millimetres

5.1 This graph can be used to determine the size of squares of copper
required for heat sinks on printed circuit boards. Size is given as
length of a square. Any other shape of the same area can be used (see
text ).
62
This heat sink area can be arranged in two squares (if the IC
has two tags); or a single square (if the IC has one tag) - Fig.
5.2. Of course, the area does not have to be a square. This is
simply the easiest shape to calculate. It can be rectangular,
regular or irregular in shape, provided there is sufficient area.
A point to be borne in mind, however, is that with any shape
the copper area nearest the tag will have greater efficiency as a
heat dissipator, so shapes which concentrate the area in this
region are better than those that do not. If such a shape cannot
square areas of copper
tab
H 1H tabs
b 1 Fm-
5.2 Copper area determined from Fig. 5.1 is for two equal squares (one at
each end of the IC). If a single square is used at one end of the IC, its
area needs to be slightly greater for the same heat dissipation.
be incorporated conveniently on the printed circuit layout a less

efficient shape has to be used, then it may be necessary to
increase the actual area of copper to compensate. Copper areas
given in Fig. 5.1 should be adequate since most ICs can be
worked at fairly ambient temperatures without trouble (e.g. up
to 70°C). Very approximately this higher temperature oper-
ation will be provided by a copper area of a little more than one
half that given by the graph, so there is a fair margin for error
available when using this graph.
The graph also shows that the area of copper necessary to
dissipate powers of 3 watts or more tends to become excessive,
compared with the area of printed circuit panel actually re-
quired for the circuit itself. Where higher powers have to be dissi-
pated, therefore, it is usually more convenient (and more
efficient) to dissipate heat by an external heat sink fitted to the
IC itsel. Some examples of external heat sinks are shown in
Figs. 4.8, 4.11 and 5.3.
63
good shape poor shape - needs more area
5.3 Good and poor shapes for heat sink areas on PCBs.
5.4 Examples of external heat sinks for fitting to power transistors and
integrated circuits (see also Figs. 4.8 and 4.11).
64
Chapter Six
COMPLETE RADIO CIRCUITS

THE DEVELOPMENT OF RADIO CIRCUITS around a single
IC with the same physical size (and shape) as a single transistor
is exemplified by the following. The IC is the Ferranti ZN414
which contains the equivalent of 10 transistors in a complete
TRF (tuned radio frequency) circuit providing three stages of
RF application, a detector and agc (automatic gain control).
The ZN414 has three leads, identified as input, output and
ground. It provides a complete radio circuit in itself to be
connected to an external tuned circuit, an output decoupling
capacitor, a feedback resistor and second decoupling
capacitor, and an AGC resistor. As with any high gain RF
device, certain requirements should be observed to ensure
stable and reliable operation. These are:
1. All leads connecting components to the ICs should be kept
as short as possible.
2. The output decoupling capacitor should be connected
with very short leads to the output and ground leads of the
ZN414.
3. The tuned circuit should be kept as far away as possible
from the battery and from the loudspeaker and leads
connecting these components to the circuit.
4. The 'earthy' side of the tuning capacitor (the moving part)
must be connected to the junction of the feedback resistor
and the second decoupling capacitor. A basic radio
circuit using a minimum of components is shown in Fig.
6.1.
A basic radio circuit using a minimum of components is
shown in Fig. 6.1. LI and Cl is a conventional tuned circuit,
e.g. a high -Q proprietary coil on a ferrite rod with a matching
value of tuning capacitor. Alternatively, Ll can be made by
winding approximately 80 turns of 0.3mm diameter (30 swg)
enamelled copper wire on a ferrite rod 4 cm (11in) to 7.5cm
(3in) long. In this case a matching value of Cl is 150 pF.
This circuit will provide sufficient output power for driving a
65
-0 +ye
crystal
earpiece
(low
impedance) 4ro
input output
ZN414 0
C3
ye
6.1 The ZN414 integrated circuit consists of a preamplifier followed by

three stages of rf amplification and finally a transistor detector. It is a
'complete' radio circuit requiring a minimum of external components
to work. These are:
LI and Cl - ferrite rod aerial coil and matching tuning capacitor
RI - 100 k ohms
C2 -0.01µF
C3 -0.1µF
Sensitive (low impedance) crystal earpiece (500 ohms) or less.
ZN414 lead identification
input output
ye
ground
R1
crystal
earpiece
L1
high impedance
C2 R6
T -ve
6.2 To deliver enough power to work a high impedance crystal earpiece

the ZN414 is used in conjunction with an additional stage of transistor
amplification. It delivers 600 mW peak output. This is the same
circuit as Fig. 1.4 (Chapter 1) with the addition of a volume control
(R6)
Component values:
R1 - 100 k ohms LI & CI as Fig. 6.1
R2- I k ohm C2 -0.011.4F
R3 - 100 k ohms C3 -0.1 IR
R4 - 10 k ohms C4- 0.1µF
R5 - 100 ohms
R6- 250ohms potentiometer
66
sensitive low impedance earpiece with an equivalent resistance
of approximately 500 ohms. To work a high impedance crystal
earpiece an additional stage of amplification is needed. This
modified circuit is shown in Fig. 6.2, requiring four more
resistors, a potentiometer, another capacitor and a ZTX300
transistor (or equivalent). The potentiometer R4 and resistor
R5 provide volume control (by adjustment of R4). This can be
omitted if the receiver is to be brought down to minimum size,
as the directional effects of the ferrite rod aerial will normally
provide all the volume control necessary. In that case, replace
R4 and R5 with a single 270 -ohm resistor.
Fig. 6.3 shows the circuit extended to give a performance
comparable to that of most domestic portable transistor
receivers, driving an 8 -ohm loudspeaker and formed by a 9 -volt
battery. This circuit does use six additional transistors and a
number of other components, but the component count (and
cost) is still substantially less than that of an all -transistor
receiver of comparable quality (it is the equivalent of a 16 tran-
sistor set).
AM/FM Radio
A design for a high performance AM/FM radio receiver is
shown in Figs. 6.4 and 6.5. These circuits are by Mullard and
are based on their TDA 1071 integrated circuit which
incorporates an AM oscillator, an AM mixer with agc, a four -
stage differential amplifier and limiter and a four -quadrant
multiplier. Both AM and FM functions are combined in the
multiplier, giving symmetrical demodulation on AM and
quadrative detection with squelch on FM.
Fig. 6.4 shows the AM circuit, working from a ferrite rod
aerial. Fig. 6.5 shows the circuit for the additional front-end
required for FM working, connected to an FM aerial. These
circuits will work on any battery voltage from 4.5 volts to 9
volts. For FM operation, the AM -FM switch (SW4) moved to
the FM position switches off the AM mixer and oscillator and
brings the FM front-end circuit into operation. The squelch
circuit is separately controlled by SWI the threshold of squelch
,
operation being set by the potentiometer RI1 in Fig. 6.4.

Component values are given on the two circuit diagrams. A
complete list is also given on pages 70 and 71.
67
9V
3-3kn
25)JF KSO 27/1 1kn
250?FT T 01).1F
56kn. t 47A
Note: The earthy side ZTX

300 ZTX
of VC1 (moving section) 500
must be connected BFS 60
56ka 68011
to Ci/R16.
4.7kn.
Ri6
100kn 5D0pF
47pF 220kn. ZS120
Lf N/C1=150pF LS1
iO
ZTX BFS 97
01 10k 109
to = to ZTX
ZN 414 .22?F 25 krt. art
--Cy)0-01 109 001).F
4F 1kn
10A
100kn 1kn.
Lf = approx.55t. on a15cm. ferrite rod.
6.3 A high quality receiver circuit based on the ZN414 integrated circuit.
This is a design by Ferranti. Component values are given on the
circuit diagram. A 9 -volt battery is used for the supply voltage.
Ji jo
Iti
0
c
1
t
HI
LL.
IF -0
L.L.
UO UN
--11-1
;;
00
51-1 I
LL
U- LL
-C=D-
11-E
r--
Y-1
LL
6.4 Circuit diagram of AM/FM receiver using the TDA1071 integrated

circuit (Mullard)
6.5 Front-end circuit for FM operation of the receiver given in Fig. 6.4
(Mullard)
69
11.1111111101111111,
RIO To f. m.
C15 I --block filter
T2 TR 3 1008
TR1 II 8F195
3.3nF
DF195
Aerial input CI
It ml 18pF
ettC9 R8 R9 R11 R12 .L CI6

18pF 7- 12pF 271(0 12k0 100 Tlkil 22nF
eI
R1 C2 R2 CI. R3
.2k0 3.3nF 12k0 T 3.3nF 27k0
/
C10
3.3nF
R7 R14
I OVs
390 1000 Ifa f m operation)
C1111
2.7pF 55
C3
/ E4
TR2
BFI95
LI
aC5 maiC6
7.12
PF
r 18
PF 1
C13 R5
27k11 T 3.3nF 12k0 F
riR,3
390
C7
3 3nF
A.F C
Components: AM/FM receiver circuit
Resistors Winding data
All resistors CR25 10%
unless stated T1 Primary: 12 turns, 0.071mm
RI 5601(52
enamelled copper
R2 2201d2 Secondary: 2 turns, tapped at 1
R3 2201(Q
turn, 0.071mm enamelled
R4 8.21d2 copper
R5 220162 Former: Toko 7P 0092
R6 151d2 T2 Primary: 12 turns, tapped at 1
R7 lkS2
turn, 0.071 mm enamelled
R8 151d2
copper
R9 4752 Secondary: 3 turns, 0.071mm
RIO 1001d2 enamelled copper
R11 221d2 Miniature carbon Former: Toko 7P 0092
preset potentiometer, T3 Primary: 3 turns, 0.071 mm
Philips 2322 410 03309 enamelled copper
R12 6852 Secondary: 120 turns, tapped at
R13 2.252 5 turns, wound over primary,
R14 331d2 0.071mm enamelled copper
Capacitors Former: Toko 7P 0089
C1 68pF T4 Primary: 9 turns, tapped at 5
C2 100nF turns, 0.071mm enamelled
C3 27pF copper
C4 68pF Secondary: 86 turns, wound
N5 68nF over primary, 0.071mm
C6 100nF enamelled copper
C7 68nF Former: Toko 0089
C8 270pF T5: M.W. -
C9 120pF Primary: 78 turns, wound in a
CIO 100nF single layer, 3 x 3 x 3 x
C11 560pF 0.063 mm litz
C12 22pF Secondary: 4 turns, wound over
C13 270pF* the earthy end of the primary
C14 130pF* 3 x 3 x 3 x 0.063mm litz
C15 22pF L.W. -
C16 22nF Primary: 210 turns, wave -
C17 100µF, 4V wound, 9 x 0.063mm litz
C18 68nF Secondary: 12 turns, wound
C19 100nF under the primary, 9 x
C20 68nF 0.063 mm litz
C21 10µF, 25V For T5 the coils are mounted
C22 3.3nF on a ferrite rod, 178mm in
C23 230nF length, diameter 9.5mm.
C24 22nF LI 8 turns, 0.071mm enamelled
C25 150pF copper. Former: Toko 7P 0092
C26 18pF Switch
C27 3.3pF SW1 to SW4 4 -pole 2 -way switch
*These components form part Integrated circuit
of the ganged tuning capacitor ICI TDA1071
71
Components: FM front-end circuit
Resistors Capacitors
All resistors CR25 10% Cl 18pF
RI 1.21(12 C2 3.3nF
R2 121(12 C3 4.7pF
R3 271(12 C4 3.3nF
R4 271(12 C5 12pF*
R5 121(12 C6 18pF
R6 11(12 C7 3.3nF
R7 392 C8 18pF
R8 271(12 C9 12pF*
R9 121(12 CIO 3.3nF
RIO 10012 C112.7pF
R11 1012 C12 5.6pF
R 1- C13 3.3nF
2 11(12 C14 56pF
R 1- C15 3.3nF
3 3912 C16 22nF
*These components form part
Winding data of the ganged tuning capacitor
T1 Primary: 2 turns, 0.031 mm
enamelled copper
Secondary: 2 turns, 0.031mm
enamelled copper
Former: Neosid 5mm with
ferrite core
T2 Primary: 4 turns, spaced one
diameter 0.71 mm enamelled
copper
Secondary: 1 turn, interwound
with the primary 0.71mm
enamelled copper
Former: Neosid 5mm with
ferrite core
Ll 3 turns, spaced one diameter Transistors
and tapped at 1 iturns, TR1, TR2, TR3 BF195
0.71mm enamelled copper
Former: Neosid 5mm with Diode
ferrite core DI BB110
Printed Circuit Layout
Fig. 6.6 shows a printed circuit layout for the complete
circuits of Figs. 6.4 and 6.5, using the components specified
above. Components with the subscript F are those in the front
end circuit (Fig. 6.5). One additional component is also
shown- a 300pF capacitor adjacent to the medium wave/long
wave AM aerial switch, which does not appear on the relevant
circuit diagram (Fig. 6.4).
72
L2""
6.6 Printed circuit layout and component positions for constructing the
circuits of Fig. 6.4 and 6.5. (Mullard)
Note also that this circuit is complete only up to the audio
output stage -i.e. it needs to be followed by an audio amplifier
and speaker(s)-see Chapter 4 for possible circuits to use.
73
Chapter Seven
MULTIVIBRATORS
THE SIMPLEST FORM of IC multivibrator merely uses an op -
amp in a basic oscillator circuit such as that shown in Fig. 7.1.
R3
V out
V.
7.1 Simple multivibrator (or square wave oscillator) circuit based on the
CK3401 op -amp. Component values may be chosen to give any
specific output frequency required, within limits. The following com-
ponent values give a 1 kHz square wave output.
RI - 10 M ohm
R2- 3 M ohm
R3 - 30 k ohms
R4 - 10 M ohm
C - 0.01 IR
Oscillation frequency will depend on the IC parameter and the

values of the external resistors. The components shown, the
output frequency will be 1 kHz and in the form of a square wave.
The addition of a diode to this circuit, as in Fig. 7.2, provides
a simple pulse generator circuit where the pulse width can be
adjusted by using different values for R2. The value of resistor
R3 governs the actual pulse duration.
An alternative form of multivibrator is to use two op -amps
connected as cross -coupled inverting amplifiers, as shown in
Fig. 7.3. Here the frequency is established by the time constants
of the RC combination R1 -C1 and R2 -C2. R1 and R2 should
be the same value, and can be anything from 1k ohm to 10k
75
R3
V,
R4
7.2 An almost identical circuit, with the addition of a diode, can be used
as a pulse generator. Here the value of R3 determines the pulse
duration and the value of R2 determines the 'off' period.
R2
7.3 Multivibrator circuit based on the 1.4L914 integrated circuit which is

basically two inverting op -amps. The frequency of oscillation is
determined by the time constants of RI, C2 and R2, C1. Suggested
component values for working as an audio tone generator are:
RI and R2 - I kohm to 10 kohm
Cl and C2 -0.02µF to 2,4F
C3 -0.011.4F
C4 -100µF/12 volts
ICI and IC2 -Fairchild p4L914 (pins 2 and 5 not used)
Supply voltage 3.6 to 6 volts.
ohms. Cl and C2 should also be similar values, and anything

from 0.01 to 10µF can be used. The basic rules governing
adjustment and oscillation frequency are that for any partic-
ular value of R1 and R2, increasing the value of Cl and C2 will
76
decrease the oscillation frequency, and vice versa. Similarly,
for any particular value of Cl and C2 decreasing the value of
RI and R2 will increase the frequency, and vice versa.
With the component values shown, i.e. RI = R2 = 8.2k ohms
and Cl = C2 = 0.2µF, the oscillation frequency will be 1 kHz.
Decreasing the value of RI and R2 to 1k ohm should result in
an oscillation frequency of 10 kHz.
A rather more versatile multivibrator circuit is shown in Fig.
7.4, which has independent controls of 'on' and 'off' periods.
0 +ve
R4
R1 Rz; imm C2
diodcs RG
__.f4=3.1;25
R7
output
IC
R2
C1 ,
R8 c 0 ve
7.4 Multivibrator circuit with adjustable 'on' and 'off periods.
Component values:
RI - 100 k ohms Cl -see text
R2 -100 k ohms C2 -0.01µF
R3 - 100 k ohms
R4 -1 M ohm potentiometer
R5 -1 M ohm potentiometer
R6 -2 k ohms
R7 -2 k ohms
R8 -2 k ohms potentiometer
IC -CA3130
Supply voltage 15 volts
The frequency range is adjustable by choice of capacitor Cl

which governs the duration of the square wave pulse generated,
viz:
Value of Cl pulse period frequency
1µF 4 min to 1 sec 250 -1 Hz
0.1g 0.4 min to 100 min 2 500 - 600 Hz
0.01µF 4 min to 10 min 1 500 -6 000 Hz
0.00µF 4 sec to 1 min 15000 kHz - 60 kHz
77
Adjustment of 'on' and 'off times of oscillation within these
ranges is governed by the potentiometers R4 and R5.
Another multivibrator circuit is shown in Fig. 7.5, which is
particularly notable for its stable performance. The frequency
of oscillation is maintained to within plus or minus 2 per cent
Rl
filament bulb
or LED with
ballast resistor
R2
7.5 Astable multivibrator with low frequency of duration to work a flash-

ing light. Component values given provide a flashing rate of about 1
per second working off a 6 to 15 volt battery.
R1- 3 M ohms C -0.45 µF
R2- 12 Mohms
R3- 18 M ohms
R4 -4.3 M ohms
R5 -1.2 M ohms
IC -CA3094
Filament bulb -6 or 12 volts, depending on battery voltage.
on any supply voltage from 6 to 15 volts and is independent of

the actual voltage. It uses a CA3094 op -amp IC with external
resistors and one capacitor. The circuit 'also includes a lamp
which flashes on and off at a rate of one flash per second with
the component values given.
Flashing rate can be adjusted by altering the values of R1
and R2 and/or C. To adjust values to give any required
flashing rate (frequency), the following formula applies:
1
freuency
q = 2RCI .(2R1 /R2 + 1)
RA RB
where R1= RA + RB
78
In a variation on this circuit shown in Fig. 7.6, the intro-
duction of a potentiometer R2 enables the pulse length to be
*ye
-ye
7.6 Adjustable multivibrator circuit, potentiometer R2 varying the pulse

width, or 'on' time of the LED indicator.
Flashing rate is approximately 1 per second. Supply voltage required
for this circuit is 22 to 30 volts.
Component values:
RI- 27kohms
R2 - 50 kohms potentiometer C- 560 pF
R3- 27kohms
R4- I00kohms
R5 -100 kohms
R6 - 300 kohms
R7- ballast resistor to suit LED used
IC -CA309A
LED-light emitting diode
varied whilst maintaining a constant frequency (pulse

repetition rate). Again this circuit can be used to flash a fila-
ment lamp, or a light emitting diode. In the latter case, a
ballast resistor is needed in series with the LED.
Another straightforward free -running multivibrator is shown
in Fig. 7.7, using a CA3094 integrated circuit. The frequency is
controlled by the value selected for R3, and so using a poten-
tiometer for this component enables the frequency to be
adjusted. The frequency is also dependent on the supply
voltage, which can be anything from 3 volts up to 12 volts.
Designing a multivibrator circuit to work at an audio
frequency, whilst retaining adjustment of frequency, forms the
79
basis of a metronome. The only additional circuitry required is
a simple low -power audio amplifier connecting to a loud-
speaker of the kind described in Chapter 4.
R3 R4
ye
- ye
7.7 Free running multivibrator (or pulse generator) circuit, the frequency
of which can be varied by adjustment of the potentiometer R4.
Component values:
RI -2.7 M ohms
R2 - 330 kohms
R3 -100 k ohms
R4 -5k or 10 k ohms potentiometer
C -0.01µF
diodes - any silicon diodes
IC -CA3094
80
Chapter Eight
VOLTAGE REGULATORS
WHERE A SEMICONDUCTOR CIRCUIT operating on low
voltage dc is powered from the mains supply via a step-down
transformer, voltage regulation is highly desirable in many
circuits in order to ensure constant dc supply voltage. This can
be provided by using Zener diodes in associated circuitry.
Exactly the same function can be performed by a single IC. A
particular advantage is that such an IC can also incorporate
internal overload and short-circuit protection which would call
for numerous extra components in a circuit using discrete
components.
A typical circuit is shown in Fig. 8.1, giving a rectified,
positive dc voltage output from the centre tapped secondary of
output voltage
ova
smoothing capacitors
transformer
8.1 Typ cal basic circuit for stepping down an ac voltage via a
transformer and rectifying it to produce a lower voltage de output. A
voltage regulating IC is also shown in this circuit. Note that a rectang-
ular symbol is used for the IC in this case, not a triangle.
the transformer. The same components can be used in mirror -

image configuration to give a negative output voltage from the
centre tap (in which case the polarity of the two electrolytic
capacitors must be reversed).
Performance characteristics of a family of ICs designed as
voltage regulators are given on p. 80. They are quite small
devices in a TO -39 metal case with three leads-input, output
and earth-see Fig. 8.2. The earth or ground lead is internally
connected to the case.
81
IC type no. input output Max. output
voltage voltage current
TBA 435 20 8.5 200 mA
TBA 625A 20 5 200 mA
TBA 625B 27 12 200 mA
TBA 625C 27 15 200 mA
output
0
9mm input
ground
k- 7mm 44 12. 5mm --v.'
8.2 TBA435 integrated circuit is enclosed in a TO -39 metal can shape

and looks like a transistor because it only has three leads. It is a
complete voltage regulator circuit with internal overload and short
circuit protection and can be used in the circuit of Fig. 8.1. The
drawing is approximately twice actual size.
There are numerous other simple voltage regulators which

can be built from integrated circuit arrays (see Chapter 2)
simply by 'tapping' the appropriate leads to connect the indivi-
dual components required into the complete circuit. An
example is shown in Fig. 8.4, which is a regulator to provide an
adjustable constant voltage dc output from an unregulated (and
thus possibly variable) 20 volt dc input. It uses the transistors,
diode and Zener diode contained in the CA 3097E chip with a
potentiometer and external resistor to complete the circuit.
The actual output voltage can be adjusted from 9.5 to 15 volts
by the setting of the potentiometer, with an output current
ranging up to 40 mA, depending on the value of the output
load.
Other simple voltage regulators can be based on op -amps. A
basic circuit is shown in Fig. 8.5. The reference voltage is set by
the Zener diode, the value of Ill being chosen to provide op-
timum Zener current for the input voltage concerned. The
(regulated) output voltage is determined by the reference
voltage (V ref) and the values of R2 and R3: -
V out = V ref 1 R2 + R3
k R3 /
82
ve
V.
V out
ve
8.3 Adjustable output voltage regulator circuit. The potential divider

formed by RI and R2 following the IC enables the output voltage to
be adjusted via R2; otherwise the circuit is the same as Fig. 8.1.
Alternatively this circuit can be applied to a dc input:
V out = VI (1 + -R2 )+ IGR2
RI
Component values for this circuit with an input voltage of 18 volts:
RI - 680 ohms
R2 -0-150 ohms potentiometer
C -10µF
IC -TBA435
Note. Other IC voltage regulators can be used and/or different input
voltages, in which case different values of RI and R2 may apply. As a
general rule R2 needs to be about one-third to one-half the value of
RI.
.ve ve
R1
R2
R3
20 volts output
dc input 9.5-15 volts
regulated
R4
-ve ye
8.4 Voltage regulator using the CA3097E integrated circuit array. This
provides 9.5 to 15 volts regulated output from a 20 volts dc input, the
actual output voltage being determined by the setting of R3.
Component values:
R1 -2kohms
R2 2 k ohms
R3 -2.5 k ohms potentiometer
R4 -1.5 k ohms
83
+ve ye
-ye ye
8.5 Simple voltage regulator circuit using an op -amp and a Zener diode
to set the regulated voltage. The values of resistors R2 and R3 deter-
mine the output voltage (see text).
A circuit which provides a small difference between volts in

and volts out is shown in Fig. 8.6. Using a PNP transistor it
needs only about 1 volt to saturate the transistor, whilst
adequate current is available for the regulating circuit using an
NPN transistor. The same circuit would need about 4 volts
difference between input and output to maintain regulation.
PNP transistor
+ve +ve
Vout
-ye
8.6 Voltage regulator circuit incorporating a PNP transistor which gives a

difference between V in and V out of about 1 volt (i.e. the voltage
necessary to saturate the transistor).
Component values:
RI - see text
C1 -2µF
R2 - C2 -0.01µF
R3 - 10 kohms
R4 -5 k ohms potentiometer
IC -CA3085
transistor -40362 (or equivalent)
DI, D2 -silicon diodes
84
With the circuit shown in Fig. 8.6,
volts out = 1.6 (R1 + R2)
R1
Another very useful circuit is shown in Fig. 8.7, which

provides a split supply from a single battery source. In other
words it halves the input voltage whilst also producing a good
degree of regulation of the two (plus and minus) voltage
outputs. None of the component values is critical but R1 and
R2 should be of close -tolerance type of equal value. Input
voltage can range from 6 to 36 volts, when one half of the input
voltage will appear between output + and 0, and the other
between 0 and output - .
*ve
*"0 0 ivout
VW) R1 TR1
._L
TR2 (*.1) C2
C1 R2
-ye
3vout
8.7 This circuit gives a regulated split supply from any input voltage from
5 to 36 volts.
Component values:
RI - 180 k ohms (close tolerance)
R2 -180 k ohms (close tolerance)
C 1 - 25µF
C2 - 25µF
TR I -ZNI711 (or equivalent)
TR2 -40362 (or equivalent)
IC -CA741
85
Chapter Nine
ELECTRIC MOTOR SPEED CONTROLLERS
A VARIETY OF ICS are designed as speed regulators for small
dc motors such as those used in portable cassette players, movie
cameras, models and toys. The object is to 'govern' the motor so
that it runs at a constant speed, independent of variations in
battery supply voltage and load on the motor. The TDA1151 is
selected for the following circuits, having a maximum rating of
20 volts (which covers most model and other small dc motors),
with an output current of up to 800 milliamps. It is a flat rec-
tangular plastic package with three leads emerging from one
end, and comprises 18 transistors, 4 diodes and 7 resistors in a
linear integrated circuit.
In its simplest application it is used with a potentiometer (Rs)
acting as a speed regulation resistance (and by which the actual
motor speed is adjusted); and a torque control resistor (Rt)
which provides automatic regulation against load on the
motor. Both these resistors are bridged by capacitors, although
C2 can be omitted-see Fig. 9.1. Component values shown are
suitable for a 6 to 12 volt supply.
...ye 0 -
supply
electric
motor
9.1 Use of the TDA1151 linear integrated circuit as a speed regulator for
a small dc electric motor.
Typical component values:
Rs -1 kohm
R, -280ohms
CI -10mF to 2µF
C2 (if used) -25µF
87
A slightly different circuit is shown in Fig. 9.2, using a
TCA600/900 or TCA610/910 integrated circuit. These have
maximum voltage ratings of 14 and 20 volts respectively; and
maximum current ratings of 400 milliamps for starting, but
only 140 milliamps for continuous running.
+ve
supply electric
volts motor
-ve
9.2 Application circuit for the TCA600/610 or TCA900/910 motor speed

regulators. R, is the speed regulation resistor (variable). R, is the
torque control resistor. A suitable value for Cl is 0.1F. A diode can be
added in line 3 to provide temperature compensation as well.
Devices of this type work on the principle of providing a

constant output voltage to the motor independent of variations
of supply voltage, the value of this voltage being set by
adjustment of Re. At the same time the device can generate
a negative output resistance to compensate speed fluctuations
due to variations in torque. This negative output resistance is
equal to RT/K, where K is a constant, depending on the
parameters of the device, viz:
IC K (typical) Vref IC)
TDA1151 20 1.2 1.7mA

TCA600/900 8.5 2.6 2.6mA
TCA610/910 8.5 2.6 2.6mA
The above also shows the reference voltage (Vref) and

quiescent current drain (I0) of the three ICs mentioned.
88
The following relationships then apply for calculating
suitable component values for these circuits:
Rc = K.RM
where RM is the typical motor resistance
Vref . RT
minimum value of Rs -
Eg --(Vref 10RT)
where Eg = back emf of motor at required or rated speed
lc, = quiescent current drain of the device
Actual voltage developed across the motor is given by:
Volts (at motor) = RM .Im + Eg
where IM is the current drain by the motor at
required or rated speed
«
6.4502 12.7'". !
cri
I on,
j23".
i
no
wiet
114,1_
11.L.47
9.3 Physical appearance of the TCA600/610 in TO -39 metal can and

TCA900/910 in flat plastic package (T0-126).
89
9.4 Although small devices, these integrated circuits for motor speed
regulation are based on quite complicated circuitry. This diagram
shows the internal circuits.
90
Chapter Ten
FILTERS
A BASIC FILTER CIRCUIT consists of a combination of a
resistor and a capacitor. This combination of R and C has a
time constant which defines the cut-off frequency of the filter;
but the actual mode of working also depends on the configur-
ation of the two components-see Fig. 10.1.
With R in series and C across the circuit, frequencies lower
frequency frequency

10.1 Basic filters are provided by a combination of resistor (R) and
capacitor (C). A low pass filter attenuates frequencies above the
critical frequency (fd. A high pass filter attenuates frequencies below
f.
than the cut-off frequency are passed without attenuation.
Frequencies at above the cut-off frequency are then sharply
attenuated. This is called a low-pass filter.
With C in series and R across the circuit, frequencies above.
the cut-off frequency are passed without attenuations.
Frequencies below the cut-off frequency are then sharply atten-
uated. This is called a high-pass filter. Practical circuits for
Practical circuits for these two types of filter are shown in Fig.
10.2.
The amount of attentuation provided by a filter is expressed
by the ratio volts out/volts in, or voltage ratio. This is quoted in
decibels (dB) -a 3dB drop being equivalent to a voltage ratio
drop from 1.0 to 0.707, or a power loss of 50 per cent.
91
R1 R2 CA301
C2T

10.2 Basic low-pass and high-pass filter circuits incorporating an op -amp
for better performance.
Op -amps can be used as practical filters associated with an

external capacitor, with the advantage that the more sophisti-
cated circuitry involved can provide superior performance to
straightforward RC combinations.
Two filter circuits based on the CA301 op -amp are shown in
Fig. 10.2. In the case of the low-pass filter component values
are calculated from the formula:
RI + R2
C1= 1.414 RI R2 fc
1.414
C2 =
(RI +R2) f
where fc is the effective cut-off point
In the case of the high-pass filter circuit:
RI + R2
C1= 1.732 R1 R2 fc
1.732
C2 =
(RI + R2) fc
Bandpass filters or bandwith filters can be produced by com-
bining a low-pass filter in series with a high-pass filter. If the
band width is from fL to fH, then the cut-off frequency for the
low-pass filter is made fH and that of the high-pass filter
fL- Fig. 10.3 (left). This filter combination will pass
frequencies from fL to fH, i.e. in the desired band.
To produce a band -reject filter, a low-pass filter is used in
parallel with ahigh-pass filter, as in the second diagram. This
combination will reject all frequencies within the band fL to fx
92
fH fL
low high
DINEMNI
pass pass
bandwidth filter band -reject filter
10.3 A low-pass filter in series with a high-pass filter passes frequencies only
within the bandwidth -fH. A low pass filter in parallel with a high-
pass filter rejects all frequencies with the band width ft -fH
Some other practical filter circuits using op -amps are given

in Figs. 10.4, and 10.5.
output
() «ye
9 volts
ve
10.4 A notch filter rejects input signals at a specific centre frequency but
passes all other frequencies, This is a working circuit, the centre
frequency being determined by the value of components in the two
networks R3 -R4 -R5 -R6; and C2 -C3 -C4. The actual 'sharpness' of
rejection or notch width is adjustable via potentiometer R6.
Component values for a 1 kHz centre frequency are:
R1-18 kohms C1 -10µF
R2 -18 k ohms C2 -0.001µF
R3-150 kohms C3 -0.001µF
R4 -150 k ohms C4 -0.00IµF
R5 - 56 k ohms C5 -10µF
R6 - 50 k ohms potentiometer
IC -CA3035
93
30pF
10.5 Simple circuit for a high Q notch filter. Capacitor Cl and C2 are
equal in value. Capacitor C3 = C1/2. Resistor RI is twice the value of
R2. The centre frequency is
I
fc - 2n R1 Cl
94
Chapter Eleven
INTRODUCING DIGITAL CIRCUITS
THE DIGITAL SYSTEM (also known as the binary system) is
based on counting in l's. Thus it has only two digits (known as
`bits') - 0 (zero) and 1(one) - which are very easy to manip-
ulate electronically. It only needs a simple on -off switch, for
example, to count in this manner. The switch is either 'off
(showing zero as far as the circuit is concerned) or 'on' (repre-
senting a count of 1). It can continue to count in 1's, or even
multiply, divide, etc, in association with other simple types of
switches. The fast -as -light speed at which electronic devices can
count makes the digital system very suitable for building
computer circuits, particularly as only a few basic operations
have to be performed. The fact that these operations, using
simple logic circuits or gates in suitable combinations, may
have to be repeated very many times is no problem either.
The decimal a number in powers of 10. In
other words individual digits, depending on their order
represent the digit value x 10° , digit value x 101, digit value x
102, etc, reading from right to left. Putting this the correct way
round, and taking an actual number -say 124:
124= 1 x 102 +2x 101+4 x10°
= 100+20+4
The binary system expresses a number in powers of 2 using
only the two digits 1 and 0.
Thus 1011 = 1 x 23+0 x 22 +0x 2' +1 x 2°
=8 +0 +2 + 1
= 11
Thus a binary number is longer, written down, than its corres-
ponding decimal number, and can get very long indeed with
large decimal numbers (e.g. 10,000 = 1010100010000) but this
does not matter at all as far as electronics 'counting' is
concerned. It only makes it difficult for people to convert
decimal numbers to binary numbers, and vice versa. Here are
two basic rules.
95
Converting decimal to binary
Write the decimal number on the right-hand side, divide by
two and write down the result, placing the remainder (0 or 1)
underneath this number. Divide the number obtained in the
top line by 2 and carry the remainder (0 or 1) down to make a
next step to the left. Repeat this operation, progressing further
to the left each time, until you are left with an 0 in the top line.
Example
0 1 2 4 9 19 decimal
this is the binary number 1 0 0 1 1 remainder
Converting binary to decimal

Write down progressively from right to left as many powers
of 2 as there are digits in the binary number*. Write the binary
number underneath. Determine the powers of 2 in each
column where a 1 appears under the heading and then add all
these up.
Example
Binary number 10101, which has 5 digits, so write down five
stages of powers of 2 starting with 2° and reading from right to
left.
24 23 22 2' 2°
Write down binary number 1 0 1 0 1
Convert to decimal 16 0 4 0 1
Add 16+4+1=21
Logic
Logic systems also work on the binary number process, com-
monly based on the difference between two dc voltage levels. If
the more positive voltage signifies 1, then the system employs
positive logic. If the more negative voltage signifies 1, then the
system employs negative logic?It should be noted that in both
cases, although the lower or higher voltage respectively signifies
0, this is not necessarily a zero voltage level, so the actual
voltage values have no real significance.
There is another system, known as pulse -logic, where a 'bit' is
(*A group of binary digits or 'bits' which has a certain significance, i.e.
represents a binary number in this case, is often called a 'bite' or 'word'.
96
recognized by the presence or absence of a pulse (positive pulse
in the case of a positive -logic system and negative pulse in the
case of a negative -logic system).
Gates
Logic functions are performed by logic gates. The three
basic logic functions are OR, AND and NOT. All are designed
to accept two or more input signals and have a single output
lead. The presence of a signal is signalled by 1 and the absence
of a signal by O.
The four possible states of an OR gate with two inputs (A and
B) are shown in Fig. 11.1. There is an output signal whenever
11.1 The three states of an OR gate. A and B are inputs and Y is the
output. Note the general symbol used to illustrate a gate. For com-
pactness a semicircle may be used instead of the symbol shown here
(e.g. see Fig. 12.1).
there is an input signal applied to input A OR input B (and also

with input at A and B simultaneously). This applies regardless of
the actual number of inputs the gate is designed to accept. The
behaviour of an OR gate (again written for only two inputs) is
expressed by the following truth table:
A B output (Y)
o o 0
o 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
It can also be expressed in terms of Boolean algebra, calling the

output Y
Y=A+B+ +N
where N is the number of gates
The important thing to remember is that in Boolean algebra
the sign + does not mean 'plus' but OR.
97
The AND gate again has two or more inputs and one output,
but this time the output is 1 only if all the inputs are also 1. The
A A B Y
Y 0 0 0
inputs AND) 0 1 0 0
0 output
0 1 0
B 1 1 1
TRUTH TABLE
11.2 An AND gate and corresponding truth table.
truth table in this case is quite different -Fig. 11.2. The corres-
ponding equation of an AND gate is:
Y=A B
or Y=AxB xN
This time the or x sign does not mean 'multiplied by' as in
conventional arithmetic, but AND.
The NOT gate has a single input and a single output - Fig.
11.3, with output always opposite to the input, i.e. if A =1, Y =
A Y
0 1
1 0
TRUTH TABLE
11.3 A NOT gate and corresponding truth table. Note the symbol used in
this case is the same as that for an op -amp or amplifier, and the
following small circle designates an inverted output.
0 and if A = 0, Y = 1. In other words it inverts the sense of the
output with respect to the input and is thus commonly called an
inverter.
Its Boolean equation is:
Y=A
(Y equals NOT A)
Combinations of a NOT gate with an OR gate or AND gate

produce a NOR and NAND gate, respectively, working in the
inverse sense to OR and AND.
Diode -logic (DL) circuits for an OR gate and an AND gate
are shown in Fig. 11.4. Both are shown for negative logic and
are identical except for the polarity of the diodes. In fact a
positive -logic DL or OR gate becomes a negative -logic AND
gate; and a positive -logic AND gate a negative -logic OR gate.
98
11.4 A Diode Logic (DL) negative logic OR circuit (left) and a DL negative
logic AND gate (right).
The simple NOT gate or inverter shown in Fig. 11.5 is based

on a transistor logic - an NPN transistor for positive -logic and
a PNP transistor for negative -logic. The capacitor across the
input resistance is added to improve the transient response.
Practical Gates
Most logic gates are produced in the form of integrated
circuits, from which various 'family' names are derived. NAND
NPN PNP
transistor transistor
11.5 Transistor Logic (TL) positive logic inverter circuit (left) and a TL
negative logic NOT circuit (right).
and NOR gates, for example, are a combination of AND or OR

gates, respectively, with a NOT gate inverter. From the basic
circuits just described, such functions can be performed by
diode -transistor logic or DTL gates.
Faster and rather better performance can be realized with
transistor -transistor -logic gates (TTL). During the early 1970's
DTL and TTL represented the bulk of the IC digital
99
productions, but since then various other IC families have
appeared, each offering specific advantages and more
functions for particular applications. These are:
RTL (resistor -transistor logic) which can be made very
small -even by microelectronic standards-and is capable of
performing a large number of functions.
DCTL (direct -coupled -transistor logic), which employs the
same type of circuit as RTL but with the base resistors omitted.
This gate, which can perform NOR or NAND functions, has
the advantage of needing only one low voltage supply and has
low -power classification.
HTL (high threshold logic) is based on diode -transistor logic
similar to DTL but also incorporates a Zener diode to stabilize
the circuit and provide high immunity to 'noise'. It is usually
chosen for applications where this feature is important.
MOS (metal oxide semiconductor logic), based entirely on field
effect transistors (FETs) to the complete exclusion of diodes,
resistors and capacitors, yielding NAND and NOR gates.
CMOS (complementary metal -oxide -semiconductor logic)
using complementary enhancement devices on the same IC
chip, reducing the power dissipation to very low levels. The
basic CMOS circuit is a NOT gate (inverter), but more
complicated NAND and NOR gates and also flip-flops can be
formed from combinations of smaller circuits (again in a single
chip).
ECL (emitter -coupled logic) also known as CML (current -
mode logic). This family is based on a differential amplifier
which is basically an anolog device. Nevertheless it has
important application in digital logic and is the faster
operating of all the logic families with delay times as low as
1 nanosecond per gate.
Flip -Flops
A flip-flop is a bistable circuit and another important
element in digital logic. Since it is capable of storing one bit of
information it is functionally a 1 -bit memory unit. Because this
information is locked or 'latched' in place, a flip-flop is also
known as a latch. A combination of n flip-flops can thus store
an n -bit word, such a unit being referred to as a register.
A basic flip-flop circuit is formed by cross -coupling two
single -input NOT gates, the output of each gate being
100
Al Y
A2 Y
11.6 1 -bit memory or latch circuit obtained by cross -coupling two NOT
gates (or two single -input NAND gates). The output has two states
Y=1, Y=0; or Y=0, Y=1. For flip-flops the symbols Q and Q are
often used for the outputs instead of Y and Y respectively.
connected back to the input of the other gate -Fig. 11.6. How-
ever, to be able to preset or clear the state of the flip-flop, two
two -input NOT gates cross -coupled are necessary, each
preceded by single -input NOT gates as shown in Fig. 11.7.
11.7 Flip-flop circuit with preset using four NOT gates. S is the set or
preset input. R is the reset or clear input.
When the flip-flop is used in a pulsed or clocked system the

preceding gates are known as the steering gates with the cross -
coupled two -input gates forming the latch. This particular
configuration is also known as a S -R or R -S flip-flop.
----7
Freset (Pr)
J Pr
Clock (Ck)
Ck
K Cr
K
--Clear (Cr)
11.8 J -K flip-flop circuit (left) with corresponding symbol (right).
101
Two other variations of the flip-flop are also produced as
integrated circuits:
f -K flip-flop -which is an S -R flip-flop preceded by two AND
gates. This configuration removes any ambiguity in the truth
table. It can be used as a T -type flip-flop by connecting the J
and K inputs together (see Fig. 11.8 for connections).
D -type flip:flop -which is a J -K flip-flop modified by the
addition of an inverter (see Fig. 11.9). It functions as a 1 -bit
delay device.
Cr 5
11.9 A D -type flip-flop circuit (left) is provided by a J -K flip-flop allied to

an inverter. The symbol for a D -type flip-flop is shown on the right.
Fan -in and Fan -out

The terms fan -in and fan -out are used with IC logic devices.
Fan -in refers to the number of separate inputs to a logic gate.
Fan -out is the number of circuit loads the output can
accommodate, or in other words the number of separate
outputs provided. Fan -out is commonly 10, meaning that the
output of the gate can be connected to 10 standard inputs on
matching gates. Each separate input represents a load, the
higher the number of separate loads the higher the current
output of the device providing fan -out needs to be in order to
provide the standard load on each input, i.e. passing enough
current to drop each input voltage to the design figure.
It is possible to increase fan -out by replacing diode(s) with
transistor(s) in the device concerned, so 10 is by no means a
maximum number.
ROM
ROM stands for read-only memory, a system capable of
converting one code into another. The best known application
is to convert the reading of a digital instrument such as an
electronic calculator into a numerical read-out via an LED
102
(light emitting diode) display. The advantage of a ROM is that
it is programmable and thus adaptable to different read-out
systems. It does not follow, however, that it uses the minimum
number of components to match a particular application.
Special IC chips designed for a specific application may be
more economic in this respect, but not necessarily in cost,
unless there is a very large demand for that particular IC. The
calculator market is a case in point where a special chip can
offer advantages over a ROM.
RAM
RAM stands for random-access memory and is basically a
collection of flip-flops or similar devices capable of memorizing
information in binary form. Information can be written -in or
read out in a random manner.
The Shape of Digital ICs
In physical appearance, most digital ICs look like any other
dual in -line (or sometimes quad in -line) IC package, or
ceramic flat packages. They are not readily indentified as
digital ICs, therefore, (except by type number) although their
function is quite specific. The more complicated digital ICs
may, however, have considerably more pins than usual. It is
also common practice to give pin diagrams which not only
define the pin positionsbut also theirspeci ficfunction (Fig. 11 1 0). .
CONNECTION DIAGRAM LOGIC DIAGRAM

Vt113 1 22 'SS A0
ADDRESS INPUT (61) 2 21 (Al) ADDRESS INPUT AI
A2
ADDRESS INPUT (A10) 20 l(A7) ADDRESS INPUT
2
3 0
ADDRESS INPUT (A 11) 4 is (AG) ADDRESS INPUT 4
AS
CHIP SELECT (CS) S TDD
AS
DATA INPUT (DT) 6 17 (C E) CHIP ENAMLE 7
DATA OUTPUT (Do) 7 161 NC AN
DO
Al
ADDRESS INPUT (AO) 6 IS 1(AS) ADDRESS INPUT
410
ADDRESS INPUT (A I) 11 14 1(AA) ADDRESS INPUT All
ADDRESS INPUT (A2) 10 111(A 3) ADDRESS INPUT

CS CE WE
vct 11 111(Wr) WRITE !RAKE

4- IS*
*REFRESH ADDRESS AD -AS
11.10 Example of a Random Access Memory integrated circuit with

connection diagram (Mullard M340 with a capacity of 4096 'bits').
This is in the physical form of a 22 lead dual -in -line package.
103
Chapter Twelve
ELECTRONIC ORGANS
ONE OF THE MAJOR PROBLEMS in the design of electronic
organs is the large number of mechanical contacts called for
using conventional (discrete component) circuitry. With two
manuals of four octaves each, for example, 98 mechanical
contacts are needed. This not only complicates construction
but could also be a source of trouble in operation. There is
often the limitation that each key is only able to play one note.It
is desirable for electronic organs to be able to play more than
one octave -related note per key, increasing the number of
mechanical contacts required by that factor, e.g. 5 x 98 = 490
contacts for the example quoted to be able to play five octave -
related notes per key.
A number of integrated circuits have been developed,
usually based on digital logic, to overcome such limitations.
Many also provide additional features which may be desirable.
An example is the (Mullard) TDA1008 which consists of a
matrix of gate circuits with eight divide -by -two gates in each
circuit. It is a 16 -lead dual -in -line plastic package (SOT -38).
One drive input only is required for delivering nine octave -
related notes and, by actuating a key input, five successive
signals out of the nine can be selected and transferred to the
output. Five key inputs are available, each selecting a different
combination. Other features which are available are 'sustain'
and 'percussion' of the output signals; and also 'decay' of
modulations.
Further simplification of an electronic organ circuit can also
be provided by using a top octave synthesizer (TOS) instead of a
series of master oscillators to derive the twelve top octave
frequencies required for a 'full' organ. A TOS must be
associated with a master oscillator capable of generating a
suitable 'least common multiple' frequency, with the TOS
following it, then providing the twelve highest notes. Used with
a suitable gating matrix, further sub -multiples of these notes
are obtained, e.g. in the case of the TDA1008 the following
105
output frequencies are available from the five keys, where f is
the actual input frequency:
key 1 key 2 key 3 key 4 key 5
output 1 f f/2 f/4 f/8 f/16
output 2 f/2 f/4 f/8 f/16 f/32
output 3 f/4 f/8 f/16 f/32 f/64
output 4 f/8 f/16 f/32 f/64 f/128
output 5 f/16 f/32 f/64 f/128 f/256
This, in effect gives nine different notes available from each
of twelve available input frequencies from the TOS, or 96
different notes. Further, operating two or more keys
simultaneously will give the sum signal of these frequencies.
Master Oscillator
A suitable frequency for the master oscillator is about
4.5 MHz. A variety of circuits can be used providing they have
suitable stability and the necessary amplitude and slew rate for
driving the TOS properly. If the master oscillator is a sine wave
generator, then it will be necessary to follow this with a Schmitt
trigger to obtain the required slew rate. This is not necessary
with a square -wave generator and a very simple circuit of this
latter type based on the NAND gates contained in the HEF4011
integrated circuit is shown in Fig. 12.1. This requires a
integrated circuit
1 8 12
TOS
I 1111 (L46 )5 013

5
Rl R2
T
12.1 Master (square -wave) oscillator circuit to feed top octave Synthesizer.
Components:
RI -3kohms
R2 - 1 kohm
C -27pF
IC -HER4011
TUS - AYE0214
106
stabilized 12 -volt supply, as does the TDA1008, so the same
supply can be used for both the master oscillator and
TDA1008.
The master oscillator output connects to the Top Octave
Synthesizer, the tone outputs of which form the input to the
TDA1008. They can be directly connected since the input
signal pin of the TDA1008 has an impedance of at least
28 kohms.
Gate Matrix
Connections to the TDA1008 integrated circuit are shown in
Fig. 12.2. The different levels of supply voltage required are 6
keys
0
6 volts
0 OHO
16 15 14 13 12 11 10
=2'
TDA1008
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
.12 volts
R1
0-
to pin 13
.9 volts
R2
O
outputs 01 02 09 04 05
12.2 Basic electronic organ circuit using five keys. Resistors RI are all
1 kohm. Resistors R2 are all 100kohms. Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 and Q5 are
the tone outputs to feed an audio amplifier circuit with loudspeaker.
volts, 9 volts and 12 volts, as shown. The five keys can be
directly connected, although current -limiting resistors can be
used in each key line if necessary.
Five different output frequencies are available at each
output Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5, depending on which key is
activated (see table above). To avoid sub -harmonics being
generated it is advisable to connect any not -required Q outputs
to the + 6 volt supply line.
107
Sustain
To actuate sustain and percussion effects, a time -delay
circuit can be added associated with each key, as shown in Fig.
12.2. This circuit will sustain the tone(s) for a period after
Pt
Rs
- -1 a/o__
1.7=3 Quo--
1 1 1
16 15 1A 13 12 11 10 9
TDA1008
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rs
V
to pin 13
12.3 'Sustain' added to the circuit of Fig. 12.2. Other components are con-
nected as before
Component values:
Resistors -2.2 M ohms
Capacitors -0.5µF
Rs -Series resistors, if required
release of the key, but with the resistor also providing a certain
delay time. The addition of a series resistor (RS) will delay the
build-up of notes, depending on the RC time constant of this
resistor and the associated capacitor in the circuit. Component
values given are selected for good tonal response, but this is also
a matter of personal preference and so some adjustment of
values may be preferred. It is also possible to shorten the decay
time of the sustain by adjusting the voltage applied to pin 7. A
circuit for doing this is shown in Fig. 12.4.
Percussion
If percussion is required this can be arranged by connecting
a capacitor to pin 8 to discharge during keying, associated with
a series resistor to give a suitable time constant. Using a 0.47F
108
capacitor, a suitable series resistor value can be found by
experiment. The decay time is also adjustable via the circuit
shown in Fig. 12.4.
to .6 volts
R2
diode 1
diode 2
12.4 Adjustable voltage to pin 7 for decay control.

Component values -
R1 - 100 ohms potentiometer
R2 - 100ohms
diode 1 - BZX75 C2V1
diode 2 - BOW62
To retain sustain as well, the circuit shown in Fig. 12.5
should be used. If sustain is wanted, switch S1 is closed and
12.5 Percussion circuit with sustain, connecting to pin 8.

Component values:
Resistors
RI -10kohms
R2 -2 M ohms
Capacitors
CI -0.47µF
C2 -0.47µF
109
switch S2 opened. Cl then remains charged to sustain the note
as long as a key is held down. Once the key is released the note
will decay at the rate established by the decay circuit connected
to pin 7. To operate percussion, switch Si is open and switch S2
closed.
110
Chapter Thirteen
MISCELLANEOUS CIRCUITS
HI-FI TONE CONTROLS
Tone controls fitted to domestic radios and equivalent
circuits are seldom of high quality. This does not usually mat-
ter for AM reception (which can never be Hi-Fi); but can
degrade the performance on FM reception. Similar remarks
apply to the tone controls fitted to lower priced record players
and tape recorders.
High quality tone controls generally demand quite complex
circuits. ICs enable the number of discrete components
required to be substantially reduced and, at the same time,
offer other advantages such as a high input impedance which
matches a typical high impedance source. Tone control can
also be combined with audio amplification in IC circuits.
Fig. 13.1 shows a complete circuit based around a TCA8305
integrated circuit incorporating a feedback network which
attenuates the low frequencies and boosts the high frequencies.
At the same time high frequencies can be attenuated by the
treble control potentiometer at the input. The volume control,
also on the input side, provides 'loudness control' at both high
and low frequencies to compensate for the loss of sensitivity of
the human ear to such frequencies (i.e. both high and low
frequencies tend to sound 'less loud' to the ear).
A simpler circuit, using the same IC, is shown in Fig. 13.2.
This has a single tone control potentiometer. The circuit
provides flat response at middle frequencies (i.e. around
1 kHz), with marked boost and cut of up to ± 10 decibels at
110Hz and 10 kHz respectively in the extreme position of the
potentiometer.
A (Baxandall) Hi-Fi tone control circuit associated with
another type of op -amp is shown in Fig. 13.3. The IC in this
case is the CA3140 BiMOS op -amp. The tone control circuit is
conventional and only few additional discrete components are
required to complete the amplifier circuit around the IC. This
circuit is capable of ± 15 decibels bass and treble boost and cut
111
*ye supply voltage R5
0
Vin =."?.
C4
C7
°---1
R1 ,*-1 1°602
R2 I
R4
R3 C9 R10
1
13.1 Hi-Fi tone control circuit suitable for receivers, record players and
tape recorders and charaterized by a high input impedance. Potentio-
meter R1 is the treble control. Potentiometer R9 is the bass control.
Potentiometer R4 is the volume control.
Component values:
RI - 47 k ohms log pot Cl - 47 nF
R2 - 10 kohms C2 - 820 pF
R3 -1.8 k ohms CS- 100uF
R4 - 100 k ohms log pot C4- 0.1µF
R5 - 100 ohms C5- 100uF
R6 -15 ohms C6- 250µF
R7 -470 ohms. C7- 100µF
R8 -470 ohms CS- 100 pF
R9 - 25 kohms log pot C9- 0.33µF
R10 -1 ohm C10- 0.22µF
C11- 0.1
IC -TCA8305 C12- 1000µF
at 100 Hz and 10 kHz respectively.

An alternative circuit using the same IC and giving a similar
performance is shown in Fig. 13.4. Both of these circuits
require a supply voltage of 30-32 volts. Fig. 13.5 shows the same
two circuits modified for dual supplies.
LED DISPLAY BRIGHTNESS CONTROL (Fig. 13.6, page 113)

How well an LED shows up is dependent on the ambient light
falling on it. In dim light the display is usually quite bright. In
112
«ye supply voltage
0
cra
02
Cl R2
C5
V C6
4
5
12
IC
C7 C11
R1
10
C 08.1= R9
R8
R4 R10
C3
R
R11
c6
R3 -4.C10 C12
R5
13.2 Alternative Hi-Fi tone control circuit with separate high and low
frequency feedback. Potentiometer RI is the volume control. Potent-
iometer R7 is the treble control and potentiometer R10 the bass
control.
Component values.
RI - 100 k ohms log pot C1- 0.1µF
R2 -100ohms C2- 100µF
R3 - 18 ohms C3- 100µF
R4 -180ohms C4- 5001.4F
R5 - 27 ohms C5- 100µF
R6-1 ohm C6- 82 pF
R7 -10 k ohms log pot C7- 1000µF
R8 - 150 ohms C8- 0.1µF
R9-330 ohms C9- 0.15µF
RIO - 10 kohms log pot C10- 2µF
RI I - 15 ohms C11 -1µF
IC -TCA8305 C12- 2.2µF
direct sunlight it may be difficult to see at all. The circuit shown

in Fig. 13.6 provides an automatic brightness control of a
(single) LED by using a silicon photodiode to sense the amount
of ambient light and feed a proportional signal to the TCA315
op -amp integrated circuit. As the intensity of light increases the
output current from the op -amp increases in proportion, and
vice versa, thus automatically compensating the brightness of
the LED for artifical light in an inverse manner. The brighter
the ambient light the brighter the LED glows, and vice versa.
113
R8
in
P R2 R3
*ve
0-11 IMMO NMI II=

ci C2
C4
R9
R7
Tr IC
7
IP
output
C3
R4 R6
C5
R5
tone control network
13.3 Simple Hi-Fi tone control circuit. Component values are determined
for a supply voltage of 32 volts. Potentiometer R2 is the bass control.
Potentiometer R5 is the treble control. Components within the dashed
outline comprise the tone control network.
Component values:
RI - 240 kohms Cl - 750 pF
R2 -5 M ohm log pot C2 -750 pF
R3- 240 k ohms C3- 20 pF
R4 -51 k ohms C4 -0.1µF
R5 -5 M ohm linear pot C5 -0.1 /IF
R6-51 kohms Coupling Capacitor
R7 -2.2 M ohm (C8) -0.047 µF
R8 -2.2 M ohms
R9 - 2.2 M ohms
IC -CA3140
The potentiometer (R6) is used for setting up the circuit

initially. With a 2.5 volt supply, and with the photodiode in
complete darkness, R6 should be adjusted to give a current
reading of about 100µA (0.1 milliamps), using a meter in one
battery lead to check. With this adjustment, and the type of
photodiode specified, the LED will then receive an impressed
current of 5 mA per 1000 lux illumination of the photodiode.
Components:
Integrated circuit TCA315 op -amp
Photodiode BPW32
114
+ye supply
VIn
7
output
IC Ifx
I.
R1
C2 R4 C5
R2 C1 C3 C4
R3
CB
C6 _. 1. C7
R5 R6 R7
13.4 Another Hi-Fi tone control circuit. Potentiometer R4 is the treble

control. Potentiometer R6 is the bass control. Supply voltage is 30
volts.
Component values:
R1- 5.1 M ohms C1- 0.1).4F
R2 - 2.2 M ohms C2 - 0.011.4F
R3 - 18 kohms C3- 100 pF
R4- 200 k ohms linear pot C4- 100 pF
R5- 10 kohms C5 -0.001 i.AF
R6-1 M ohm log pot C6- 21..4F
R7 - 100 k ohms C7 - 0.0021.4F
IC -CA3140 C8 - 0.005/.4F
IC -CA3140
LED LD30 (or equivalent)

Resistors: R1 47 k ohm
R2 47 k ohm
R3 220 ohm
R4 47 ohm
R5 10 M ohm
R6 250 k ohm potentiometer
LED RADIO TUNING SCALE (Fig. 13.7, page 114)

This simple circuit displays the tuned frequency of a radio in
terms of spots of light instead of (or in addition to) the usual
pointer moving over a scale. An array of 16 LEDs should be
sufficient to indicate station positions with suitable accuracy
115
supply
Q .ve
Vin ci
0-1 I tone
control
network IC
O
lC3
C2
13.5 Tone control for dual supplies. The tone control network is the same
as that in the dotted outline of Fig. 13.3. Supply voltage is 15 volts.
Component values:
Cl -0.04714F
C2 -0.1µF
C3 -0.1µF
IC- CA3140
over a typical medium frequency waveband (i.e. 520kHz to

1600kHz). The display is driven by a Siemens UAA170
integrated circuit. A phototransistor is also used to match the
brightness of the display automatically to ambient light
intensity, i.e. dimming the display in dull light and brightening
the display to make it clearly visible in sunlight.
The complete circuit is shown in Fig. 13.7. The UAA170 is
controlled via the voltage divider formed by R1 and R2
supplying the tuning voltage for the AM tuning diode incorp-
orated in the IC. Since this diode has non-linear
characteristics, stations on the left (lower frequency) end of the
tuning scale will be more closely concentrated, consistent with
station spacing on this broadcast band.
The circuit will work on most normal transistor radio supply
voltages (i.e. Vs = 10 to 18 volts), and with an input voltage for
frequency indication of Vs = 1.2 to 27 volts using two(Siemens)
LD468 LED -arrays. Voltage at the divider point between RI
and R2 should be between 0.06 and 1.16 volts and can be
adjusted by RI if necessary. The actual brightness of the
116
13.6 Circuit for automatic control of brightness of an LED using a photo -
diode to sense the level of illumination.
display is automatically controlled by the phototransistor

BP101/1 , and is also adjustable via the 1 kohm potentiometer.
CAR THIEF ALARM (Fig. 13.8, page 115)

This is another circuit originated by Siemens and based
around their TDB0556A dual timer IC. The first timing circuit
of this device is used as a bistable multivibrator with the circuit
activated by switch S1. Output level remains at zero, set by the
voltage applied to the threshold input pin 2 until one of the
alarm contact switches is closed causing Cl to discharge.
`Press -for -off alarm switches can be fitted to the doors, bon-
net and boot lid, so arranged that opening of a door or lid
completes that switch contact. This will produce an output
signal held for about 8 seconds, pulling in the relay after an
initial delay of about 4 seconds. The horn circuit is completed
by the relay contacts so the horn will sound for 8 seconds. After
this the relay will drop out (shutting off the horn) until capac-
itor Cl charges up again. This will take about 3 seconds, when
the relay will pull in once more and the horn will sound again.
This varying signal of 8 seconds horn on, 3 seconds horn off,
will be repeated until switch S1 is turned off (or the battery is
flattened). This type of alarm signal commands more attention
than a continuous sounding alarm such as can be given by
straightforward on -off electrical switching.
117
Vin R5 R6
V AA 170
10 9
R4
8
-11
R3 7
419- 12
R2 13 TYYTi y Ti!
14 5 -40-0--
R1 4
15
(:;;I R8 3
1
16
pnototransistor two LD468 displays
R7
11
I
13.7 Sixteen LED display to replace or augment the usual pointer and scale
indication of tuned frequency on an AM radio receiver.
Component values:
RI -330kohms
R2 - 1 kohm potentiometer
R3- 6.8kohms
R4 -2.7 k ohms
R5-10 kohms potentiometer
R6 -470 ohms
ICA -UAA170
phototransistor - BPI 01/1
LED -two LD468 displays
The complete circuit is shown in Fig. 13.8 with suitable com-

ponent values, wired in to appropriate points on a car electrical
system.
INTERCOM
The TCA830S is a powerful, inexpensive op -amp IC which
makes it a particularly attractive choice for intercoms since the
circuit can be built with a minimum number of components.
Many other op -amps do not produce the power required for
loudspeaker operation without the addition of a further stage
of transistor amplification. The basic circuit is contained at the
`main' station when the 'distant' station merely comprises a
118
8.5 15V
0. Vs
39
t I
Si
TDB horn
0556 A 25 40 W
100 100 k 55k
82k
22 n Rel
14 8852
bonnet or
\\ trunk lid 13
1N E
12
contacts BAY 61
BAY 61 4001
3 11
270k
100k- 4 10
P2
lamp of
5 9
bonnet or
interior
trunk lid
x 5W light
BAY 61 \ push button for the hom
BAY 61
10 u 100 k
1p 47 p CI 210 pF `1 F It
on 0 off
door contacts
0
swit hing elay, type K. V 23033 - C 1001 - A 402
13.8 Circuit design by Siemens for a car thief alarm. The IC is a TDB -
CD 0556A. All component values are shown on the diagram.
loudspeaker and a 'calling' switch. The two stations are con-
nected by a 3 -wire flex.
The circuit is shown Fig. 13.9. The TCA830S requires a heat
sink and is fitted with tabs. A printed circuit is recommended,
7
II
i S1 I S2
k 8
4
12
IC
6
C1 C2
R1
.1°
Le
main station
13.9 Intercom circuit using the TCA830S integrated circuit. This IC is

powerful enough to operate fairly large loudspeakers. Component
values are given in the text.
incorporating two 1 in. (25 mm) squares of copper to which the

IC tabs can be soldered for the heat sink. Component
positioning is not critical since the circuit handles only audio
frequencies.
The transformer (T) has a 50:1 turns ratio and is used as a
step-down transformer between the IC and speaker(s) - also
working as a step-up transformer between speaker(s) and IC for
working in the reverse mode. In other words the transformer
coil with the larger number of turns is connected to pin 8 on the
IC. Instead of purchasing this transformer ready-made it can
be wound on a stack of standard transformer core laminates
0.35mm thick, giving a core cross-section of 22.5 mm 2 .
Windings are 600 turns of 0.2mm (36 s.w.g.) and 300 turns of
0.06mm (46 s.w.g.) enamelled copper wire.
The purpose of the transformer is to enable standard 4 to 16 -
ohm loudspeakers to be used both as microphones and
speakers. These speakers can be of any size, bearing in mind
120
that the maximum power output of the circuit is of the order of
2 watts on a 12 -volt supply. The intercom circuit will work on
any battery voltage down to 6 volts, 9 or 12 volts being recom-
mended for general operation.
Components:
(SGS - ATES) TCA8305 integrated circuit
Resistors R1 20 kohms
R2 29 ohms
Capacitors C1 -100g electrolytic 3V
C2 0 .1 I.4F
C3 10001.4F electrolytic 12V
Transformer (T) 50:1 turns ratio, power rating 5W.
Loudspeaker 4 ohms (preferred)
Switch Si: press break/make
S2: press make/break
ICE WARNING INDICATOR

This very simple circuit uses a thermistor as a temperature
sensor together with three CA3401E op -amps and a minimum
of external components. The operating point of the circuit is
set by the potentiometer (R2) so that, at an ambient air temp-
erature approaching freezing point, the light emitting diode
(LED) starts to flash. As the temperature falls the rate of
flashing increases until the LED glows continuously once
freezing point is reached. Accurate calibration can be carried
out in the freezer compartment of a domestic refrigerator with
the door open, in conjunction with a thermometer.
The complete circuit is shown in Fig. 13.10. IC1, IC2 and
IC3 are separate op -amp circuits contained in the IC. Thus
pins 1 and 6 are the input to IC1 and pin 5 the output of IC1;
pins 11 and 12 the input to IC2 and pin 10 the output of IC2;
and pins 2 and 3 the input to IC3 and pin 4 the output of IC3.
Pins 8, 9 and 13 are ignored. Pin 7 connects to the earth side of
the circuit; and pin 14 to battery plus side.
Layout of this circuit is not critical but all component leads
should be kept as short as possible and the LED located some
distance away from the integrated circuit. This circuit is
powered by a 12 volt battery.
121
0 .ve 12 volts
thermistor R3
R
R4 14
fR2
IC1
IC3
R5
3
R6 R10
111111--1
R7 10
R8 IC2 LED
12
R9
F-
13.10 Circuit for an ice -warning indicator. Adjustment of potentiometer R2

can set the circuit to flash the LED as air temperature approaches
freezing point, with LED staying permanently alight once freezing
temperature is reached.
Component values:
RI - 33 kohms IC1, 1C2, IC3 - CA340I E
R2 - 20 kohm LED light emitting diode
potentiometer Thermistor - Mullard
R3 -150 kohms V A1066S (or equivalent)
R4 -3 M ohms
R5-3 M ohms
R6 - 30 kohms
R7 -3 M ohms
R8 -10 Mohms
R9 -10 Mohms
DIGITAL VOLTMETER
A digital voltmeter (known as a DVM) has several advantages
over a conventional pointer -and -needle meter, for example:
L Easier reading with direct presentation of reading in digits.
2. Greater accuracy and high speed of reading.
3. Higher sensitivity.
4. Greater resolution.
Unfortunately the circuitry required for a DVM is quite com-
plicated, making it much more expensive than its simple
122
analog counterpart in the form of moving coil instrument.
However, by using ICs the necessary circuitry for a DVM can be
simplified and miniaturized and is within the scope of the
amateur to build. The following design by Siemens avoids the
use of expensive components and its performance is
comparable with that of ready-made DVMs in the medium -
price range (well over £100!). It has a basic range of up to 9.9
volts with an accuracy of better than 99 per cent.
The complete circuit is shown in Fig. 13.11. The input
voltage is converted to a proportional frequency by the op -amp
TBA221 connected as an integrating amplifier and the
following monostable multivibrator TDB556A (IC2). The
resulting output pulse (at pin 5 of IC2) is determined by the
time constant of R4 and C4 and is of the order of 1.5µs. This
pulse turns transistor T1 'on' and 'off, the multivibrator thus
supplying pulses to the clock input of the counter SAJ341 with a
repetition frequency proportional to the input voltage.
These pulses are counted during a measuring interval
defined by the other half of the astable multivibrator
TDB556A (ICI) with a duty cycle of <0.5. Its output directly
controls the blocking input of the counter (SAJ341). At the
beginning of each measuring interval, 5AJ341 is reset to QA,
Q0, Qc, Qp = L (corresponding to decimal 0) by a short L -
pulse applied to the reset input IR. This reset pulse is produced
by the measuring -interval generator, the inverting transistor
T2 and the following differentiation circuit.
The display, which can be extended to four digits, operates
on a time -multiplex basis using a level converter (TCA671),
decoder (FLL121V) and display driving transistors BC307 and
BC327.
The circuit is set up using a known input voltage (preferably
between 2 and 3 volts). Potentiometer R1 is then adjusted to
show the correct reading on the display. If this is not possible
then the value of resistor R2 should be changed for the next
nearest value up or down, i.e. 270 or 180 kilohms as found
appropriate (one value will make matters worse, the other
better).
The circuit needs two separate power supplies of +5 volts at
300 milliamps and -12 volts at 200 milliamps. For accurate
working of the meter both supply voltages should be regulated.
123
+5 Vo
100 k 4x1111. zii
11 5 1 21 3 41 33 k 4 x 10k
CA IB ID 4x47 k 2 -. 7
display HA 1101
1. Imo\ 21 7 x 68
Ocomp FT 1
150k 1.2 k 1,2k 47p QA
12
Is ac 2
D" I -I An
10 14 9 3.3k SA) 341
1375k
.-4 ,__ cI I
IR 0,4 20
V? TDB BA to
- 1
2127d BC 237 13
556 A 82 3,9k 1TVss P3 P2IPilp vouS_1
IC 1
12
BC 237 6 8 9 10 14 16
7
57
R1
56k
T3 1 BC 307
T
82ka d
T r47p. 51k 47 k
+12V
iI 14
470
C2
2,7 k
3,3k R4
BC 327_
220k 2
4.7n 6 4
7
Vm/c-i 6 5 1
TBA
R2 3 221 2
o 1/2TDB
1
BCY59k
1 A
1556
C2
03
47
65,C4 o 12V
13.11 Digital voltmeter circuit (Siemens). All component values are marked
on the drawing.
Components:
IC1 & IC2 - Siemens TDB0556A
Siemens TBA221 integrating op -amp
Siemens SAJ341 universal converter
Siemens TCA671 level converter
Siemens FLL121V decoder
Note: all the above are integrated circuits.
HA1101 seven -sequence LED display
Capacitor and resistor values are shown on the circuit diagram.
Diode and transistor type numbers are shown on the circuit
diagram .
INFRA -RED TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

There are three practical possibilities for remote control sig-
nalling: radio (as in model radio control systems); ultrasonics;
and light transmission. The latter is the simplest in terms of
components and circuitry, especially where simple on/off com-
mand only is required. It can be extended to more channels,
but at the expense of more complicated circuitry.
Using infra -red light transmission it is possible to achieve a
range of 100 feet (30 metres) or more quite readily in normal
ambient light. Even greater range is possible if the transmitter
light beam is focused by a simple lens system. Such infra -red
remote control systems have become highly practical with the
appearance of high -efficiency LEDs with a high infra -red
transmission and suitable photodiodes which can be used as
detectors in receivers. As with other remote control systems the
basic units involved are a transmitter and receiver.
Single -channel infra -red transmitter

This circuit uses the Siemens GoAs improved light -emitting
diode LD241 in a pulse modulated transmitter circuit involving
the use of two oscillators, a sub -carrier frequency of 50 kHz
modulated by a frequency of 10Hz, the second oscillator
having a duty cycle of 250:1. These circuits are based around
four CMOS NAND -gates (available in a single IC). The LED is
square -wave modulated by a Darlington pair of NPN
transistors.
The complete transmitter circuit is shown in Fig. 13.12 and
is quite straightforward. Despite drawing a peak current of 1
125
Ompui v4i41
-
ICC in,
13.12 Design for an infra -red transmitter (Siemens). Component values are
shown on the diagram, but a complete specification for the active
components is:
ICI, IC2, IC3, IC4 - 4 x CMON NAND -gates type (Siemens)
HEF4011P
Transistors- BC238/25 (or equivalent)
LED-Siemens LD27
diode- BAY61
amp the average current drain is only 2mA with a 6 -volt

battery supply, the peak current actually being supplied from
the 470µF capacitor. This is possible since the 5 kHz output
pulse train has a duration of only 400ps in a repetition period of
100 ms.
Single -channel Infra -red Receiver.

By comparison the receiver circuit is more complex since it
employs six discrete transistor plus a Darlington pair in
addition to three NAND-gates-Fig. 13.13. The detector is a
BPW34 photodiode matched to an input impedance of
80k ohms at 50 kHz. Signals are received in the form of an
infra -red pulse train from the transmitter. The receiver circuit
following the photodiode amplifies, clips and rectifies the pulse
train signal and applies it to a monostable multivibrator which
covers the space between two pulse trains. This means that a dc
voltage is available at the output of the receiver as long as the
transmitter signal is held on. This receiver output can be used
to operate a relay, simple escapement or a signalling light (e.g.
a filament bulb or LED).
126
0.94
4,7 3k
J 7-1
I 22ni I
14 1.-:34220 p
47 k 4.7 k 1220 k 6,131( 10k 560k
T I
z BC 308 120
BPW 34 BC 238
BC 23B 0.14
BC 238 Or
*-11 ZZ n
73 relay
BC 238 LO 41
11 mH
BAY 61
1M 56
680 p
210
BC 238
ODD-
HEF 4011 (414
2x
100 se k BAY 61
[120 k
BC 238
Z5 k
p 220 1.5 n-'- 47 k 1p 56k
I I
4.7k
1 1,7k
13.13 Design for a matching infra -red receiver (Siemens). Component

values are given on the diagrams. A complete specification for the
active components is:
IC -HEF4011P
photodiode- BPW39
transistors -7 x BC238 (or equivalent)
1 x BC308 (or equivalent)
LED -LD41/A
diodes- BAY61
inductance -11 mH
Since ambient light will introduce a 'noise' voltage in the
diode or interference, the circuit is intended for narrow band
working which operates by placing an infra -red filter in front of
the photodiode. This can be an infra -red photographic filter,
or a section of unexposed but developed colour film (e.g. Agfa
CT18). The transmitter -receiver combination should then
work satisfactorily in ambient light intensities up to 10000 lux
with fluorescent light, 4000 in sunlight, or 500 lux maximum
in the case of filament lighting.
A simpler receiver circuit is shown in Fig. 13.14 but will only
be suitable for working in dull ambient light (less than 500 lux).
ELECTRONIC REV COUNTER

The (Mullard) SAK140 is an integrated circuit designed as a
revolution counter for car engines, etc. Connected to the
contact breaker it is fed by input pulses at 'engine speed' rate
and converts these pulses into output current pulses of constant
duration and amplitude. The output pulse duration is
determined by an external Resistor-Capacitor network. By
suitable choice of R and C, the pulse 'count' can be indicated
on any milliameter. The circuit will also work on any supply
voltage between 10 and 18 volts (e.g. from a car's 12 -volt bat-
tery) and performance is independent of actual supply voltage
(or variation in supply voltage).
The complete circuit is shown in Fig. 13.15. Resistor R1 is
selected so that the input current does not exceed 10 mA (a
suitable value for 12 -volts supply is 15 k ohms, when typical
input current will be 5mA). The diode acts as a voltage
regulator to prevent overloading by large input pulses.
The peak output current is determined by the value of R2
plus R3. This should be at least 50 ohms, the actual value being
chosen to suit the range of the milliameter used. If R2 is made
50 ohms, then R3 can be made 1 kohm, say, and adjusted to
suit the range of the milliameter.
The output pulse duration is determined by the combination
of R4 and C2. Suitable values can be found by experiment, the
suggested starting point being:
R4 - 270 k ohms
C2 -10nF
128
4.7 k 1k
0 9V
k
7 02° k
U" k
BPW 34
tai
imm
BC 238 2,1
[110 k
25k P. 4.7
01p
13.14 Simpler broadband infra -red receiver circuit (Siemens). Component

values are given on the diagrams. A specification for the active com-
ponents is:
Transistors -4 x BC238 (or equivalent)
photodiode- BPW34
diode R2
to contact breaker
1 1--
Al R3
2 3 4 5 6 7
R4
S AK 140
C1 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
.1. -milli ammeter

C3
R5
-ye
supply voltage
0 +ve
13.15 Electronic rev counter circuit using the SAK140 IC.
Component values
Resistors Capacitors
R1 -15 kohms CI -220 nF
R2 - 50 ohms C2-*
R3 - 1 k ohms C3 - 100 nF
R4-*
R5-27 ohms
IC -SAK140 *see text
QUARTZ CRYSTAL CLOCK

The (Mullard) SAA1114 is a C-MOS integrated circuit
designed to work as the 'heart' of a crystal controlled clock
powered by a single battery. It comprises a master 4 MHz oscil-
lator, a 22 -stage frequency divider and a driver for a unipolar
stepper motor. With a crystal frequency of 4,1943 MHz, the
output is in the form of a 1 Hz (1 second) pulse of 31.25 milli-
seconds duration.
A complete clock circuit is shown in 13.16 and requires only
a few external components. The quartz crystal is a critical com-
ponent and is associated with a trimmer capacitor Cl for time
adjustment. Maximum supply voltage is 3 volts, the circuit
drawing a current of about 50A and supplying a motor output
current of about 50mA.
Another version of this particular IC is also available which
incorporates an alarm circuit triggered by an alarm switch
operated by the clock hand movement. Output of this alarm
130
C2
stepping motor driving
clock hands",..... II
C1
- xt8 1 C3
+ve
T-1
1
1.5 or 3 volt SAA1114

battery
5 8 7 8
-ve 0
=.-
13.16 Crystal controlled clock circuit.
Component values:
CI -22 pF trimmer capacitor (type 2222 808 32409)
C2 - 22 pF
C3 - 22 pF
Xtal -4, 1943 MHz (type no. 4322 143 03111)
IC -SAA1114
13.17 Additional alarm facility provided in IC SAA I114:Z via pins 5 and 6.
from pins 5 to 6 is a 250 Hz tone signal operating for 4 seconds

when the alarm is triggered. External connections for this
alarm circuit are shown in Fig. 13.17, the clock motor circuit
being as in Fig. 13.16.
131
INDEX
INDEX
A Car thief alarm 117

Adders 32 Cascade 46
AGC 65 Chip 13,45,59
Alarm cicult 131 Circuits, see separate list,
Amplifier 33, 45 et seq. pages 7 to 9
AM Radio 67, 111 CMOS 100
Anti -log amplifier 37 Common -mode rejection ratio 43
Arrays 23 et seq Component density 14
Area, heat sink 62, 63 Constant current sourse 29
Astable multivibrator 28, 78, 79, Constant voltage source 30
123 Converters 38
Attenuation 91 Copper area 62
Crystal earpiece 18, 66
B Current source 39
Band-pass filters 92 Current -to -voltage converter 38
Band -reject filters 92
Bandwidth filters 93
Baxandail tone control 111 Darlington pair 125, 126
Bias current 44 DCTL 100
Binary system 95 Decay 108
Binary to decimal 96 Decimal to binary 96
Bit 100 Decoupling capacitor 65
Boolean algebra 97 Differential amplifier 36
Bridge amplifiers 60 Differentiator 35
Buffer 33 Digital circuits 95 et seq.
Digital system 95
C Digital volt meter 122
Capacitance booster 42 Diode -logic 98
Capacitors 17 Diodes 15, 24, 27, 82
135
DTL 99
D -type flip-flop 102 J -K flip-flop 102
Dual -in -line 20, 44
L
E Large scale integration (LSI) 14

ECL 100 Latch 100, 101
Electric motor speed LED 112, 113, 115 et seq.,
controllers 85 et seq. 118, 121
Electronic organs 105 et seq. Linear integrated circuits 31
Electronic rev counter 128 Log amplifier 36

Logic 96 et seq.
F Logic gates 97
Fan -in 102 Log multiplier 37
Fan -out 99, 102 Loudspeaker 50, 67, 80,
Filters 42, 91 et seq. 120, 121
Flat packages 20 Low pass filter 42, 43, 91
Flip-flops 100 et seq.
FM radio 67, 111 M
Free -running multivibrator 79, 80 Master oscillator 105, 106
Medium scale integration (MSI)14
G Metronome 80
Gain 46 et seq. Micro electronic technology 13
Gate matrix 105, 107 Monolithic IC's 15

Gates 97 MOS 17, 100
MOS capacitor 17
H Multiplier 33
Heat sink 17, 45, 51, 55, Multivibrator 39, 75 et seq.
56, 61 et seq.
Hi-Fi amplifiers 55 et seq. N
Hi-Fi tone controls 111 et seq. Negative logic 96

High pass filter 42, 43, 91 Non -inverting terminal 31
High power amplifier 58 Non -polarized capacitors 17
High -Q notch filter 94 Notch filter 93

HTL 100
Hybrid IC's 15 0
Hysteresis 41 Offset current 44
Offset voltage 44
OP -amps 31 et seq.
Ice warning indicator 121 Open -loop gain 43
IC holders 21 Oscillation 76
Inductors 17
Infra -red receiver 125, 126 P
Infra -red transmitter 125 Package shapes, IC's 20

Integrated circuit outlines 19 Percussion 108
Integrator 34 Phase inverter 33
Intercom 118 Photo etching 13
Inverting terminal 31 Photo diode 114
136
Photo transistor 116 Stereo amplifiers 55 et seq.
Polarized capacitors 17 Stripe resistors 16
Positive logic 96 Sub -harmonics 107
Power 61 Subtractor 34
Power supply rejection ratio 43 Super -alpha pair 28
Pre -amplifier 66 Sustain 108
Printed circuit 17,61,72,73
Pulse generator 74
Pulse -logic 96 Temperature coefficient 17
Thermal shutdown 54
Thin-film resistors 16
Quad in -line 20, 45, 50, 55 Tone controls 111 et seq.
Quartz crystal clock 130 Top octave synthesizer 105
Quiescent current drain 61, 88 Transformers 17, 120
Transistor outlines 20
R Transistors 13, 15, 24, 25,
Radio circuit 65 et seq. 27, 36, 80
Radio receiver 49 Transmitter, infra -red 125
RAM 103 Triggering 41
Receiver, infra -red 125, 126 Trip voltage 40
Regenerative comparator 40 Truth table 97, 98
Register 100 TTL 99, 100
Regulation 87 Tuned circuits 65
Resistors 16
Rev ccunter 128 V
ROM 102 Veroboard 20
RTL 100 Voltage follower 37
Voltage regulator 81 et seq.
S Voltage -to -current converter 38
Schmitt trigger 40
Short circuit protection 52 w
Slew rate 44 Wafer 13, 14
Small scale integration (SSI) 14 Working circuits,
Smoothing capacitors 81 see separate lists pages, 7 to
Speed controllers 87 et seq. 9
Square wave generator 106
S -R flip-flop 102 z
Steering gates 101 Zener diode 23, 30, 81, 82
137
e

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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What topics are covered in the book?

What topics are covered in the book?

'.!\, 1.-.( ...d I i.!,..i.. i.,-,.

' IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 1112

TAB TAB BOOKS Inc.

Copyright C 1979 by R.H. Warring

Printed in the United States of America

Integrated Circuits How To Make Them was originally published in 1979.

Reproduction or publication of the content in any manner, without express

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Warring, Ronald Horace.

List of Working Circuits to Build 7

1 Introduction to Integrated Circuits 13

2 General Purpose ICs (Arrays) 23

6 Complete Radio Circuits 65

9 Electric Motor Speed Controllers 87

11 Introducing Digital Circuits 95

12 Electronic Organs 105

13 Miscellaneous Circuits 111

4.10 10 -watt Amplifier 54

4.12 Stereo Amplifier 57

6.4 AM/FM Receiver 69

7.5 Flashing Light Circuit 78

10.5 High -Q Notch Filter 94

12.4 Decay Control for Organ 109

a flat 'package' encapsulated in plastic. The drawing is approx-

H.09 010'6 F..

physical separation of the individual components and the

Monolithic and Hybrid ICs

1.4 Complete radio circuit using a ZN414 integrated circuit connected to

power a crystal earpiece; high value decoupling capacitors; and a

pi tchtEll_.1 02710025 0305)178N.C

F723 -2-I4 EF 722-2-8

1.6 Examples of integrated circuit holders (Electrovalue).

2.3 Completed voltage regulator circuit showing wiring connections made

TR1 TR2 TR3 v TR4 TR5 integrated

Constant Current Circuit

2.7 Constant current circuit using components found in CA3018 array.

2.8 Circuit giving a constant 6 volts output from a 9 to 18 volts supply

The basic op -amp is a three -terminal device with two inputs

through resistors R1, R2 . R. The output signal is then a

combination of these signals, i.e. giving the sum of the inputs.

practical circuit may need a resistor here

3.2 Adder circuit based on an op -amp. This inverts the output.

The specific performance of the op -amp as an adder can be

practical circuit may need a

voltage gain is -1, meaning that the circuit works as a phase

3.5 Noninverting amplifier circuit where the gain is equal to 1 + R2/R1.

3.6 Adder/subtractor circuit. See text for calculation of component

In other words, inputs to V3 and V4 give a summed output

3.7 Op amp integrator circuit.

The value of R2 should be chosen to match the op -amp char-

3.8 Practical circuit for an op -amp differentiator.

The performance of this circuit is given by:

3.9 Basic differential amplifier circuit.

The right hand diagram shows the 'inverted' circuit, this

3.10 Basic log amplifier circuit using a transistor in conjunction with an