Name: 18/0697

Matric number: 18/0697

Course title: Primary Health care in Nursing 2.

Questions:

1. Discuss aged and aging process

2. Aging theories

3. Problems of aged and how to resolve them.

Aging is a gradual, continuous process of natural change that begins in early adulthood. During early
middle age, many bodily functions begin to gradually decline. Age 65 has been designated as the
beginning of old age, as this is usually the age of retirement.

Aging is associated with changes in dynamic biological, physiological, environmental, psychological,

behavioral, and social processes. Some age-related changes are benign, such as graying hair. Others
result in declines in function of the senses and activities of daily life and increased susceptibility to and
frequency of disease, frailty, or disability

When a person becomes old are viewed from the following;

1. Chronologic age: it is based solely on the passage of time. It is a person’s age in years. Chronologic
age has limited significance in terms of health.It indicates the likelihood of developing a health problem
as people increase in age, and related health problems.

2. Biologic age refers to changes in the body that commonly occur as people age. Because these changes
affect some people sooner than others, some people are biologically old at 65, and others not until a
decade or more later. However, most noticeable differences in apparent age among people of similar
chronologic age are caused by lifestyle, habit, and subtle effects of disease rather than by differences in
actual aging.

3. Psychologic age is based on how people act and feel. It is greatly influenced as the individual
increases in age. Most healthy and active people do not need the expertise of a geriatrician until they
are 70, 75, or even 80 years old. However, some people need to see a geriatrician at a younger
chronologic age because of their medical conditions.

AGING PROCESS

Several changes occur in the system of this elder and they include;

1. Changes in nervous system

Ageing is associated with many neurological disorders, as the capacity of the brain to transmit signals
and communicate reduces. Loss of brain function is the biggest fear among elderly which includes loss of
the very persona from dementia (usually Alzheimer’s disease). Multiple other neurodegenerative
conditions like Parkinson’s disease or the sudden devastation of a stroke are also increasingly common
with age [8].Stroke is another common cause of mortality worldwide .

2. Cognitive function declines and impairments are frequently observed among the elderly. Normally,
these changes occur as outcomes of distal or proximal life events, where distal events are early life
experiences such as cultural, physical and social conditions that influence functioning and cognitive
development. Cognition decline results from proximal factors (multiple serial cognitive processes)
including processing speed, size of working memory, inhibition of extraneous environmental stimuli and
sensory losses. This is a threat to the quality of life of those affected individuals and their caregivers

Impaired cognition among elderly is associated with an increased risk of injuries to self or others, the
decline in functional activities of daily living and an increased risk of mortality.

3. Memory, learning and intelligence

The brain’s volume peaks at the early 20s and it declines gradually for rest of the life. In the 40s, the
cortex starts to shrink and people start noticing the subtle changes in their ability to remember or to do
more than one task at a time.

4. Changes in musculoskeletal system

Normal ageing is characterised by a decrease in bone and muscle mass and an increase in adiposity. A
decline in muscle mass and a reduction in muscle strength lead to risk of fractures, frailty, reduction in
the quality of life and loss of independence. These changes in musculoskeletal system reflect the ageing
process as well as consequences of a reduced physical activity

AGING THEORIES

1. The Programmed Theories

a Programmed Longevity, which considers ageing to be the result of a sequential switching on and off
of certain genes, with senescence being defined as the time when age-associated deficits are
manifested.

b. Endocrine Theory, where biological clocks act through hormones to control the pace of ageing.

Immunological Theory, which states that the immune system is programmed to decline over time,
leading to an increased vulnerability to infectious disease and thus ageing and death.
c. Damage or Error Theories

According to this theory it is the age-related changes of the cell's ability to transfer chemicals, heat and
electrical processes that impair it. As we grow older the cell membrane becomes less lipid (less watery
and more solid). This impedes its efficiency to conduct normal function and in particular there is a toxic
accumulation

d. The Decline Theory: The mitochondria are the power producing organelles found in every cell of
every organ. Their primary job is to create Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) and they do so in the various
energy cycles that involve nutrients such as Acetyl-L-Carnitine, CoQ10 (Idebenone), NADH and some B
vitamins etc.[4] Enhancement and protection of the mitochondria is an essential part of preventing and
slowing aging. Enhancement can be achieved with the above mention nutrients, as well as ATP
supplements themselves.

EMERGING THEORIES

a. Neuroendocrine Control or Pacemaker Theory: The neuroendocrine system controls many crucial
activities concerning growth and development. Researchers are looking into the roles that the
hypothalamus and the hormones DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) and melatonin play in the ageing
process. DHEA, secreted by the adrenal glands, reduces over the lifetime of an individual.

b. Metabolic Theory of Aging/Caloric Restriction: This theory proposes that all organisms have a limited
metabolic lifetime and that organisms with a higher metabolic rate have a shorter life span. Research
showing that certain fish, when the water temperature is lowered, live longer than their warm water
counterparts is used to validate this.

c. DNA-Related Research: Two developments are occurring at this time in relationship to DNA and the
ageing process: One, as scientists continue to map the human genome, they are identifying certain
genes that play a role in the aging process: Two, the discovery of telomeres, located at the ends of
chromosomes, which may function as the cells’ biologic clocks (Hayflick, 1996

SPIRITUAL THEORIES

Examine how an individual seeks to explain and validate his or her existence. The research on religiosity
or spirituality and health is controversial. Some consider it to to be unscientific to study religiosity
among other health determinants. Despite this it seems an intensification of spiritual affectations occurs
with ageing, and the scientific community need to explore the connection between religiosity,
spirituality and health in order to more fully understand spiritualities effect on ageing.

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
It addresses how a person responds to the tasks of his or her age. The earliest known theories on ageing
were known to be psychological theories. They include:

1. Human Needs Theory: focuses on the fact that human behavior is motivated by their needs with age.
Namely; physiological, safety and security, love and belongingness, self-esteem, and actualization.

2. Life-Course (Lifespan development) Theory: Came into existence in 1980s by behavioral psychologists
who decided to shift from personality development as the basis of understanding aging to the concept
of ‘life course’. This theory divides life course into predictable pattern of stages that are formed
according to goals, relationships and internal values. This theory focuses on the interconnectedness of
individual and society.

3. Disengagement Theory: Refers to an inevitable process in which many of the relationships between a
person and other members of society are severed & those remaining are altered in quality. Withdrawal
may be initiated by the ageing person or by society, and may be partial or total. It was observed that
older people are less involved with life than they were as younger adults. As people age they experience
greater distance from society & they develop new types of relationships with society.

4. Activity Theory: describes the psychosocial ageing process. emphasises the importance of ongoing
social activity. Suggests that a person's self-concept is related to the roles held by that person i.e.
retiring may not be so harmful if the person actively maintains other roles, such as familial roles,
recreational roles, volunteer & community roles. To maintain a positive sense of self the person must
substitute new roles for those that are lost because of age. And studies show that the type of activity
does matter, just as it does with younger people.

3. PROBLEMS OF AGED AND HOW TO RESOLVE THEM.

common health problems the elderly face include:

1. Arthritis

2. Heart Disease

3. Cancer

4. Alzheimer’s Disease

5. Osteoporosis

6. Diabetes

7. Falls
8. Obesity

9. Depression

10. Financial insecurity and many more.

SOLUTIONS

1. Promoting an Easier Daily Life:

Put things on the floor away after use to prevent falls in the elderly. 'Using built-up handles or universal
cuffs on eating utensils can help those with grip difficulty feed themselves. Items such as the long-
handled sponge, buttoner and shoehorn can be used in showering and dressing. These equipment allow
seniors with trunk or upper limb stiffness to perform daily tasks in a seated position.

2. Enhancing Vision:

For elderly y people with reduced vision, it is essential that larger fonts are used to help our seniors read
better.

Also, re-labelling and enlarging the expiry dates on food items and medication, as well as using phones
or light switches with enlarged numbers or buttons. The use of magnifiers can help them with reading
newspapers and other labels.

3. Creating a Safe Home:

Railings in the toilet can help prevent falls in the elderly. Falls may threaten the health and
independence of seniors. Hence, creating a safe living environment can enhance their ability to remain
independent. To reduce accidental falls, we can remove clutter around the house, as well as rearrange
furniture to widen walkways. Loose wires and cables should be tied or taped to the wall or floor.5
Developing a Positive Social Well-being. Encourage them to learn a new skill or pick up a new leisure
activity such as granny ballet, folk dance, calligraphy or even tea appreciation.

4. Promoting and rewarding volunteering, care, and artistic work among the elderly.

In conclusion, physical limitations in old age may be inevitable. However, creating successful
participation in daily life can enhance their experience of old age and self- confidence.
REFERENCES

1. Physio-pedia. Theories of aging.

https://www.physio-pedia.com/Theories_of_Ageing

2. Healthhib. 5 ways of preventing common health problems in the elderly.

3. Shilp Amarya, Kalyeni Singh, Manisha Sabharwal. Aging process and physiological changes. Reviewed
march 6th, 2018, published : July 4th, 2018. Doi: 10:5772/ Introchopen. 76249