Action Potential

Excitable tissues - neuron (nerve tissue)

- muscle fiber (muscle tissue)
Neuron - primary structural and functional unit of nerve tissue
(brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory cells)
- 4 – 130 μm

dendrite
axon terminal

node of
soma Ranvier

axon hillock Schwann cell

initial segment
myelin sheath
nucleus
Propagation of neuronal excitation from dendrites to the axon

dendrites
soma
axon with an
axon collateral
Cell Membranes
• Two conditions must be met for diffusion
of a species across a semipermeable
membrane
• Membrane permeable
• Concentration gradient

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“Sidedness” of the membrane and some reasons

Different permeability inside outside

Pumps (in mM) (in mM)
Protein channels
Na+ 14 142
K+ 140 4
Mg2+ 0.5 1-2
Ca2+ 10-4 1-2
H+ (pH 7.2) (pH 7.4)
HCO3- 10 28
Cl- 5-15 110
SO42- 2 1
PO3- 75 4

protein 40 5 5
Sidedness
• “Sidedness” of the membrane
• Sidedness means that the electrical charges on one side of the
membrane (positive or negative) are different than on the other
side.
•
• Why does sidedness exist?
• Different permeability
• Pumps
• Protein channels

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• Negative is the inside of the cell
• -70 mV, depends on the cell. Heart cells are -90, some are minus 50-
60.
• We have chemical and electrical sidedness on a cell membrane.
• The membrane has membrane potential (separation of charges).

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• Myelinated neurons carry current faster (the current skips over the
Nodes of Ranvier and just has to travel down the bare portions of the
axon).
• Another thing that affects speed of electrical transmission is the size
of neuron: bigger neurons carry current faster

• Conductivity means the permeability. If conductivity increases, it

means that permeability increased.
• Ions diffuse at a faster rate when there is less resistance.

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Membrane Potential (Vm):
- charge difference across the membrane -

inside outside Potassium leaks out of the cell,

taking its positive charge with it,
leaving the inside of the cell
more negative.

K+ K+

Na+ Na+

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Simplest Case Scenario:
inside outside

If a membrane were permeable

to only K+ then…

K + K+

K+ would diffuse down its

concentration gradient until the
electrical potential across the
membrane countered diffusion.

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 Simplest Case Scenario:
inside outside
If a membrane were permeable
to only K+ then…

K + K+

The electrical potential that

counters net diffusion of K+ is
called the K+ equilibrium potential
(EK).

So, if the membrane were permeable only

to K+, Vm would be -94 mV
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 Simplest Case Scenario:
inside outside
If a membrane were permeable
to only Na+ then…

Na+ would diffuse down its Na+ Na+

concentration gradient until potential
across the membrane countered
diffusion.
The electrical potential that counters
net diffusion of Na+ is called the Na+
equilibrium potential (ENa).

So, if the membrane were permeable only

to Na+, Vm would be +61 mV 12
Electrical Current and the Body
• Potential energy generated by separated charges is called voltage.
• Reflects the flow of ions rather than electrons
• There is a potential on either side of membranes when the number of
ions is different across the membrane
Role of Ion Channels
• Types of plasma membrane ion channels:
• Passive, or leakage, channels – always open
• Chemically gated channels – open with binding of a specific
neurotransmitter
• Voltage-gated channels – open and close in response to
membrane potential (change in charge)
• Mechanically gated channels – open and close in response to
physical deformation of receptors
Operation of chemical Gated Channel

Figure 11.6a
Operation of a Voltage-Gated Channel

Figure 11.6b
Gated Channels
• When gated channels are open:
• Ions move along chemical gradients, diffusion from high concentration to low
concentration.
• Ions move along electrical gradients, towards the opposite charge.

Together they are called the Electrochemical Gradient

• An electrical current and Voltage changes are created across the membrane

• The EG is the foundation of all electrical phenomena in neurons.

• It is also what starts the Action Potential.
Resting Membrane Potential (Vr)
• The potential difference (–70 mV) across the membrane
of a resting neuron
• It is generated by different concentrations of Na+, K+, Cl,
and protein anions (A)
• The cytoplam inside a cell is negative and the outside of
the cell is positive. (Polarized)
Membrane Potentials: Signals
• Used to integrate, send, and receive information
• Membrane potential changes are produced by:
• Changes in membrane permeability to ions
• Alterations of ion concentrations across the membrane
• Types of signals – graded potentials and action potentials
• Changes are caused by three events
• Depolarization – the inside of the membrane becomes less negative
• Repolarization – the membrane returns to its resting membrane potential
• Hyperpolarization – the inside of the membrane becomes more negative than
the resting potential
Graded Potentials
• Short-lived, local changes in membrane potential
• Decrease in intensity with distance
• Their magnitude varies directly with the strength of the stimulus
• Sufficiently strong graded potentials can initiate action potentials
Graded Potentials
• A stimuli from sensory input causes the gated ion
channels to open for a short period of time.
• Positive Cations flow into the cell and move towards
negative locations around the stimuli.
• Alternately the now negative area on the outside of the
cell will flow towards the positive areas.
• However, this spread of depolarization is short lived
because the lipid membrane is not a good conductor
and is very leaky, so charges quickly balance out.
Graded Potentials

Figure 11.10
 All-or-None Principle

• If a stimulus is strong enough to

generate an action potential (reaches
threshold), the impulse is conducted
along the entire length of the neuron at
the same strength.
Continuous conduction

• Occurs in unmyelinated neurons.

• It is a step-by-step depolarization of each

adjacent area of the axon (or dendrite)
membrane.

• It results form one area depolarizing

causing the next area to reach threshold
and depolarize.
Saltatory conduction

• Occurs in myelinated neurons.

• Depolarization only occurs at the nodes of Ranvier.

• The action potential jumps from one node to the next.

• Saltatory conduction will conduct the signal much faster than

continuous conduction.
Action Potentials (APs)
• A brief
• in membrane potential from -70mV(resting) to +30mV
(hyperpolarization)
• Action potentials are only generated by muscle cells and neurons
• They do not decrease in strength over distance
• An action potential in the axon of a neuron is a nerve impulse
Action Potential: Step 1 Resting State

• Na+ and K+ channels are closed

• Leakage accounts for small movements of Na+ and K+
• Each Na+ channel has two voltage-regulated gates
• Activation gates –
closed in the resting
state
• Inactivation gates –
open in the resting
state

Figure 11.12.1
Action Potential: Step 2 Depolarization Phase
• The local depolarization current flips open the sodium
gate and Na+ rushes in.
• Threshold: when enough Na+ is inside to reach a critical
level of depolarization (-55 to -50 mV) threshold,
depolarization becomes self-generating.

Figure 11.12.2
Action Potential: Step 2 Cont.
• Na + will continue to rush in
making the inside less and
less negative and actually
overshoots the 0mV
(balanced) mark to about
+30mV.
Action Potential: Step 3 Repolarization Phase
• After 1 ms enough Na+ has entered that positive charges resist
entering the cell.
• Sodium inactivation gates close and membrane permeability to Na+
declines to resting levels
• As sodium gates close, voltage-sensitive K+ gates open
• K+ exits the cell and
internal negativity
of the resting neuron
is restored

Figure 11.12.3
 Action Potential: Step 4 Hyperpolarization

• Potassium gates are slow and remain open, causing an excessive

efflux of K+
• This efflux causes hyperpolarization of the membrane (undershoot).
• The neuron is insensitive to
stimulus and depolarization
during this time

Figure 11.12.4
 Phases of the Action Potential
• 1 – resting state
• 2 – depolarization
phase
• 3 – repolarization
phase
• 4 – hyperpolarization
Propagation of an Action Potential
• When one area of the cell membrane has begun to return to resting
the positivity has opened the Na+ gates of the next area of the
neuron and the whole process starts over.
• A current is created that depolarizes the adjacent membrane in a
forward direction
• The impulse propagates away from its point of origin
Propagation of an Action Potential (Time =
0ms)
Propagation of an Action Potential (Time =
1ms)
Propagation of an Action Potential (Time =
2ms)
Conduction Velocities of Axons

• Conduction velocities vary widely among neurons

• Rate of impulse propagation is determined by:
• Axon diameter – the larger the diameter, the faster the impulse
• Presence of a myelin sheath – myelination dramatically increases
impulse speed
Saltatory Conduction (** Again here)
• Current passes through a myelinated axon only at the nodes of
Ranvier
• Voltage-gated Na+ channels are concentrated at these nodes and
Action potentials jump from one node to the next
• Much faster than conduction along unmyelinated axons where the
entire axon has continuous conduction.
Review
The Nerve Impulse or Action Potential

• Is the electrical current moving from

the dendrites to cell body to axon.

• It results from the movement of ions

(charged particles) into and out a
neuron through the plasma
membrane.
 Resting Membrane Potential

• Is the difference in electrical charge on the outside and inside of

the plasma membrane in a resting neuron (not conducting a nerve
impulse).

• The outside has a positive charge and the inside has a

negative charge.

• We refer to this as a polarized membrane.

• A resting neuron is at about -70mV

Why is there a difference?

1. There is 30 times more K+ inside the cell than outside and about 15
times more Na+ outside than inside.

2. There are also large negatively charged proteins trapped inside the
cell. (This is why it is negative inside.)
 Why so much K+ inside?

• Special protein channels called sodium-potassium pumps moving 3

Na+ out and bringing 2 K+ back in, when the cell is at rest.

• In a resting cell there are no open channels for Na+ to easily move
back into the cell. However, there are some K+ channels open at all
time.
• Na+ causes the outside to be positive forcing more K+ into the cell.
(Lots of potassium ions inside the resting cell.)
 Steps in an action potential

1. The neuron gets stimulated (ex. receives a signal from another

neuron). This stimulation causes a change in the resting
membrane potential.

2. If a neuron is stimulated enough the inside of the cell will reach a

critical level called threshold (about -55mV).

3. At this point sodium ion channels will open.

Depolarization

4. Sodium ions rush into the neuron because of diffusion forces (high to
low) and charge attraction (+ and -).

5. The charge inside the cell eventually reaches about +30mV. (Relative
to the outside of the cell the inside is now positive and the outside
is negative.) At this point the sodium ion channels close.

• This change in polarization (- inside to +) is called depolarization

Repolarization

6. Potassium ion channels open up. This causes K+ to rush out of the
cell.

7. As the K+ leaves it causes the inside of the cell to become negative

again (-70mV). This is referred to as repolarization