MF-1059

Agricultural Aircraft Calibration

and Setup for Spraying

COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, Kansas State University

Contents

Uniform Distribution 1

Basic Formulas for Aircraft Calibration 3

Pattern Testing 5
Prepare for Pattern Test
String Kit Layout and Procedure
Pattern Test

Spot Card Evaluation 7

Swath Width

String Kit Evaluation 8

Pattern
Droplet Size

Spray Boom Adjustments 12

Number of Nozzles
Nozzle Angle, Type, and Orifice
Spray System Pressure
Flight Height and Swath Width

Droplet Size, Coverage, and Drift 12

Meteorological Conditions 13

Summary 15

Selected References and Related Materials 15

Appendix 17

Dennis R. Gardisser, Ph.D., P.E., is an Extension agricultural engineer at the University of Arkansas
Cooperative Extension Service, Little Rock, Arkansas. Dennis K. Kuhlman, Ph.D., P.E., is an Extension
agricultural engineer at Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.
 Agricultural Aircraft Calibration
and Setup for Spraying
By Dennis R. Gardisser and Dennis K. Kulhman

Effective pest control is critical in a business Prop wash turbulence, which is the result of
that is as competitive as aerial application. The the clockwise propeller air helix spiraling into
successful aerial applicator recognizes the the fuselage, carries droplets from nozzles to the
importance of uniform distribution, proper air- right of the fuselage and deposits them on the
craft setup, spray droplet size, drift control, and target located beneath or to the left of the fuse-
weather conditions. Each of these has a big lage. Counterclockwise rotation propellers
effect on the degree of efficacy with most pesti- (counterclockwise rotating engines such as the
cides. These topics are introduced to assist PZL) will have similar but reversed prop wash
persons who are evaluating and modifying spray problems with the excess deposit on the opposite
system performance. Pattern testing gives a
measurement of spray swath uniformity, droplet side of the aircraft.
size, and effective swath width.
The result of prop wash is a lack of spray
deposit reaching targets from the center to
approximately 6 feet right (or left in the case of
Uniform Distribution the PZL engines) of the fuselage. Historically,
aerial application workshops have resulted in a
A symmetrical nozzle arrangement (same high percentage of the aircraft requiring com-
number of nozzles on both wings with symmetri- pensation for this problem. The seriousness of
cal spacing) seldom gives uniform deposition. prop wash spray shift depends on several factors
Spray distribution is disrupted by turbulence including aircraft fuselage and aerodynamics,
due to the wake of an aircraft in flight such as propeller length and rotation speed, special
air rotating from the propeller (propeller or cowlings - like speed rings, spray droplet size,
rotor wash - see Figure 1) and by air being and spraying height.
forced outward from beneath the wing tips
(wing tip vortices). Small droplets are often Helicopters exhibit similar rotor wash
carried further off target by this turbulence
characteristics. The rotation of the rotor creates
than larger droplets.
a swirling, cone-shaped helix that descends
Figure 1. Single swath distribution with prop wash downward and trails the direction of flight. This
pattern distortion. rotating air mass traps small spray droplets and
transports them resulting in a distortion of the
I I , I I 8 spray deposit away from the leading rotor and
in the direction of the trailing rotor. This shift
can be influenced by many factors including the
aircraft aerodynamics, location of boom
mounting, spray droplet size, forward flight
speed, and weight of the aircraft.

Prop wash is anticipated with propeller

aircraft, especially those with larger radial
engines. Some compensation is possible with

1
proper nozzle location. Extra nozzles should be aircraft. The combined vortex is approximately
installed to the right of the fuselage usually in the same strength as that produced by a mono-
line with or just inboard of a point directly wing aircraft of the same weight and air speed.
behind the propeller tip. To determine this
point, align the propeller horizontally and visu- Larger droplets released inboard and well
alize a line parallel to the line of flight rearward below the wing are least influenced by the wing
to the spray boom. Radial powered Ag Cats tip vortex. Wing down wash airflow causes the
typically require more nozzles on the right than pattern spray to spread. Wing tip vortices are
other types of aircraft. Engine speed rings alter also partially responsible for a swath wider than
the airflow around the engine and result in the aircraft wingspan. However, it is essential
differing distortions to the deposition patterns that spray enters only the outer, gently swirling
than the same aircraft without a speed ring. air during its second or third rotation rather
The deposition pattern of the large Melex than the eye of the vortex. The outer portion of
Dromader aircraft is particularly sensitive to the vortex has a downward and outward motion
the addition of third party manufactured speed that carries primarily the smaller droplets down
rings. Following the addition or relocation of any to the crop outside the wingspan. The eye of the
nozzle position, the aircraft should be pattern vortex traps all but the largest droplets, rotating
tested to verify the change in deposition
them above the aircraft wing level. These drop-
uniformity.
lets may be suspended long enough that the
pesticide carrier (water) may evaporate or move
Wing tip vortex originates in the turbulence
off target (Figure 2).
behind the wing, as a result of the air stream
moving quickly from the high pressure area
under the wing meeting the low pressure air Helicopters produce rotor vortices in much
from the top of the wing surface. The air mass the same way as fixed wing aircraft except that
travels the shortest route which causes part of the rotor blade changes the angle of attack as it
the air to slip outward from under the wing travels around in a circular path. The rotor
introducing a large amount of turbulence and vortices form just below and behind the blade
rotation. This rotation can be visualized as a tip with the maximum strength existing at the
spinning cone of air with the highest velocities point where the rotor blade is at the highest
toward the center of the cone. The highest angle of attack. Nozzles should be placed
velocity (strongest) vortex action is produced by inboard of the rotor blade tips to help prevent
heavy, slow-moving aircraft. Bi-wing aircraft entrainment of the spray in the vortex. Toe
produce vortices at each of the wing tips that mount booms produce less rotor distortion than
quickly combine into a single vortex behind the do skid or heal mounted booms.

Figure 2. Wlng tip vortex zones where smaller droplets can become trapped (droplet diameters shown in
microns, µ).
 Placing nozzles inboard and/or below the rate without physically changing the nozzle
trailing edge of the wing reduces the amount of configuration. The basic steps of aircraft
spray trapped in the vortex circulation. Recent calibration are:
NASA research on fixed wing aircraft indicates
that removing nozzles inboard from the wing Case 1
tips until a 10 percent reduction in effective
swath width was noted will reduce (by up to 1. Determine the acres your aircraft system
90 percent) potential driftable fines. Fly-in treats per minute at the speed and estimated
pattern testing has verified that the drift hazard swath width you plan to fly. The effective
reduction is maximized by not placing a nozzle swath width should match that determined
within 6 to 10 feet of the wing tip. Normally, the by pattern testing.
swath width of conventional aircraft is not
Equation 1
reduced by reducing the boom length to 70 or 75 Acres per Minute = (.00202)(Swath Width)(Speed)
percent of the wingspan. The effect of reducing
boom length more than 70 percent depends on Example using: 60 ft swath and 120 MPH
the aircraft, nozzle pressure, and spray droplet Acres/Minute = (.00202)(60 ft)(120 MPH) = 14.4
size.
2. Determine the gallons you must spray per
Applicator tests using rotary nozzles (i.e., minute to apply the recommended gallonage
Micronair) have indicated that the outermost rate.
nozzle position may be positioned inboard as Equation 2
much as 55 percent of the wingspan to ensure GPM = (Acres per Minute) (Application Rate)
that material is not entrained in the wing tip
vortex circulation. Example using: 10 gallons per acre
GPM = (14.4 A/min)(10 GPA) = 144 GPM
Nozzle stoppage, improper swath width, and
other factors can cause poor distribution. Strips 3. Once the flow rate has been determined,
of poor weed control, streaking, indicate poor select the nozzle orifice size and number of
distribution. However, identifying the cause and nozzles needed to deliver the correct number
remedying this problem from field results is of gallons per minute within the allowable
strictly chance. If one waits for problems to operating pressure range of your system. It
show up in a field situation, the damage has is generally recommended that spray pres-
already been done and is hard to remedy. Pat- sures remain greater than 18 psi and less
tern testing should be completed and calibration than 40 psi (preferably 18-30 psi to minimize
adjustments made to the aircraft to obtain drift).
uniform deposition prior to making annual
applications. Some useful patterning techniques Case 2
are described later in this publication.
Determine the number of nozzles to use.
Assume you are using a nozzle with a flow rate
of 3 GPM at 25 psi.
Equation 3
Basic Formulas for Number of Nozzles = Total Flow
Aircraft Calibration GPM per Nozzle
144 GPM = 48 Nozzles Needed
Calibration is a process to determine how GPM/Nozzle
3 GPM per Nozzle
much liquid solution must be delivered from the
nozzles to deposit the required amount of A total of 48 nozzles would need to be opera-
product active ingredient (AI) per acre. The tional to obtain the desired application rate. The
amount of material applied by an aircraft can be positioning of each nozzle should be selected and
changed only by a change in ground speed or a the system pattern tested to verify distribution
change in flow rate. Swath width should never pattern uniformity and nozzle pattern changes
be used as a method of changing the application required.

3
Case 3 If the desired pressure is known, the
unknown nozzle flow rate may be calculated by
Determine what nozzle tip size to use. For rearranging the above equation:
this calculation, the total number of nozzle
outlet positions on the boom or the total number Equatlon 6
of positions one plans to use must be selected
before calculations begin. Assume that 66
nozzles are needed. GpwJ”know” = (OPhnowtJ(~~~
t
J WGIOW”
Equation 4 Or if a desired flow rate is known, the needed
GPM per Nozzle = Total Flow pressure may be calculated by rearranging
Number of Nozzles Equation 6:

144 GPM Equation 7

= 2.18 GPM
88 Nozzles
/ w
Based on this calculation, one would select a
nozzle that has a flow rate close to 2.18 GPM in
the desired pressure range of 18-30 psi.
wJnknow” =
I tGPM Desked)
G PM Known

Calculating flow rates from individual This relationship is accurate for most
nozzles once they are mounted on a boom sys- hydraulic nozzles.
tem is difficult, especially when equipping an
aircraft for high application rates. Individual As an example, suppose we would like to use
nozzle flow rates vary depending on location, 6530 flat fan tips at a flow rate for Case 3
turbulence in the boom, and the number of scenario above. From the nozzle catalog, deter-
mine that the flow rate of this nozzle at 40 psi
boom restrictions. After placing nozzles on the
boom, make a trial run to ensure the proper is 3.0 GPM.
application rate is being applied and that the
spray results in a uniform deposition. A high GPW(mJ
number of larger nozzles (larger orifices) results wJ”know” = (2.18
3.0 GPM
in high fluid velocities inside the boom and a
large pressure drop from the center of the boom
to the end of the boom where the last nozzle is From Equation 7 the unknown pressure
located. This pressure differential may result in needed to provide a flow rate of 2.18 GPM with
narrower effective swath widths. Full three inch this nozzle is calculated to be 21 psi. This is
liquid systems (no restrictions smaller than within the acceptable range for this nozzle.
three inches from the pump outlet on) are
recommended for field applications greater than The above calculation assumes that all
9 GPA. nozzles receive the same pressure. This is
usually not the case, especially on higher
The exact flow rate (GPM) or pressure (psi) volume applications. Pressures will usually have
needed for a particular nozzle may not be listed to be increased approximately 10 percent to
in the available tables. If the flow rate is known compensate for flow restrictions and pressure
at one pressure, the pressure or flow rate can be loss along the boom.
calculated for other pressures or flow rates by
using the following equation: Inboard and outboard pressure gauges
should be installed to check for significant
(l-2 psig or more) pressure drops along the
Equation 5
boom at high flow rates. Switch gauge positions
GPM1 {PSI, to check for gauge error. Make a trial run to
ensure the aircraft is dispersing the desired
-=JpsI, application rate.

4
 Prepare for Pattern Test
Pattern Testing
(The following steps are basically the same
There are several pattern testing methods whether using spot card or paper image analysis
for isolating specific aerial spray problems. A or a type of string collection system.)
simple method utilizes water sensitive papers or
spot cards that do not require dye to obtain a 1. Obtain material to conduct the pattern tests,
visual image of the droplet impact locations, such as string kits, water sensitive papers,
size, and density. These water sensitive cards or spot cards and dye. Material sources are
are manufactured by Ciba Geigy and marketed shown in the Appendix.
through Spraying Systems Company, Wheaton,
Illinois. Techniques used with water sensitive 2. Clean tank, filter, nozzles, screens, and
cards may also be used with water, dye, and boom. Ensure that all nozzle bodies and tips
clean paper. are of the proper size. Pressurize the system
and check nozzle flows to ensure uniform
flow across the boom length and check the
This visual analysis allows the pilot to check system for leaks.
his pattern frequently and to adjust his equip-
ment quickly for particular applications. Taking 3. Put about 100 gallons of clean water In the
30 minutes to evaluate spray patterns with tank and fly a short pass to verify that the
string kits, water sensitive papers, or paper and aircraft is ready and that the pump will
dye replaces years of trial-and-error adjustments develop the desired pressure. This is a good
using field results. Operators may also verify time to check the calibration of your flow
their patterns by observing spray deposition meter to ensure that the proper flow rate is
that is apparent on irrigation pipe or a similar being obtained.
collection surface across the flight path or swath
following a single pass. 4. If using a commercial string kit, mix the dye
as indicated on the kit instructions. If using
a dye and paper technique - follow the
When pattern testing, swath pattern testing mixing procedures on the dye bottle or those
should duplicate field situations. Boom height, suggested in the Appendix. If using water
aircraft trim and power, spray pressure, and sensitive papers, no dye mixing is necessary.
nozzle arrangement should be typical of daily
operations. Experience indicates that the best 5. Determlne wind direction and align fllght
pattern testing results are when aircraft are path flags into the wind about 100 yards
lightly loaded as light loads produce the most either side of the deposition line along the
nonuniform field deposition patterns. centerline of the sampling site. The pilot
should be able to see the flags readily and
The best time for testing is early morning center the aircraft directly over them when
before the sun heats the ground and causes making a pass directly into the wind over
thermal turbulence. It is desirable to choose a the system (Figure 3).
time when the wind is blowing steadily and
from one direction at less than 10 miles per 6. Lay out 25 spot cards perpendicular to the
wind starting with the far left (from pilot’s
hour so that pattern nonuniformities can be
viewpoint) as number one. Space cards on
identified and corrected with minimal effects 4-foot intervals (3 to 5 feet acceptable) up to
from crosswind. Choose an open, unrestricted 50 feet on both sides of the center. This may
area where the lane can be flown directly into be done by laying a 100-foot tape (or a
the wind without danger of flight obstructions 100-foot string or small cable with knots or
for some distance prior to and beyond the markers at desired spacing) down on the
sample line. All pattern testing should be done ground as an alignment guide. The 100-foot
with the aircraft making a good level approach width is adequate for most aircraft but can
and exit over the sample station. Three to four be adjusted if necessary with the addition of
hundred feet of level flight on both sides of the more cards or a wider space between cards
sample line is desirable. for large aircraft or special situations.

5
Figure 3. Suggested field layout for string kits and/or card analysis. When using the card technique, there
may be more cards, but they will be laid out in the same fashion. Cards may be supported by a wooden
block to keep them off the grass - see inset.

String Kit Layout and Procedure of winding treated string is to use a battery
powered drill. The spool may be attached to the
Follow the directions included in the string drill using a headless bolt, flat washers, and a
kit for this procedure. All the supplies needed to wing nut (Figure 4). Place the cover over each
do a complete pattern test will be included in spool while other passes are being made to
the kit. The string should be suspended 12 to 24 avoid contamination of the string on each spool
inches above the plant canopy to prevent con- from succeeding spray passes.
tamination of the string with dye deposited on
the target surface from the previous pass. Figure 4. Suggested method of attaching windup
Research has verified that the deposition unifor- spools to a battery-powered drill.
mity measured will be essentially the same
when sampled at 12 inches as when sampled on
the ground surface. String kits for pattern anal-
ysis usually consist of four sections of string pre-
marked to identify the ends and center. The
string should be laid out as shown in Figure 3.
Pay particular attention to where the supply
and wind up ends are located in relation to the
aircraft’s right and left side (as viewed from the
pilot’s perspective).

Depositions should be made on all four

sections of the string with only one pass made
over each section. The string should be wound
off the supply spool onto the storage spool after
each pass. A disposable winder comes with the
string kits; however, a more convenient method

6
Pattern Test pattern, little variation should be evident in the
amount of dye (color) present on the cards
1. After aircraft takeoff, if dye is being used, across the center of the pattern when compared
purge the spray lines until dye is observed at with the basis card determined earlier. If
both end nozzles of the boom. Make sure nonuniformity is noted in the deposition, refer to
spray pressure is properly adjusted to the Pattern section below for possible causes
achieve the desired flow rate. and suggested solutions.
2. Align aircraft with flags into the wind using To estimate effective swath, begin at one end
the aircraft and power configurations to
duplicate those used in field application of the cards and compare the amount of deposit
while making approach for pattern testing. with the basis card. Continue to move toward
the centerline until a card is found that has
3. Turn spray system on at least 100 yards about one-half the amount of deposit (half the
ahead of the sample collection site on the number of equal sized droplets) as the basis
approach side and keep the spray on for at card. Mark that card. Repeat the process begin-
least 100 yards on the departure side of the ning at the opposite end. The effective swath
test site. Maintain level flight for at least width (the swath width that the aircraft should
400 yards beyond the collection line if work) will be the distance between the two
possible. Sudden control surface movements marked one-half deposition cards. The cards
immediately after passing the collection line may also be placed side by side on a cardboard
may produce distortions in the collected strip to make comparison easier, and the effec-
pattern. tive swath width calculated by knowing the
spacing used between the cards during the test.
4. Replace cards and repeat as needed to Droplet density on the spot cards should be
ensure that a representative sample has uniform, or nearly so, across the wingspan
been obtained with minimal crosswind inter- width, then gradually taper off to the half-
ference. If string kits are being used, wind
up the exposed string, seal it to prevent deposit marked cards. The effective swath will
contamination, and signal the aircraft to be considerably narrower than the distance
make additional passes as needed. It takes between the outside samples where dye is
about 60 to 90 seconds to wind up the string, evident. Gradual dye level reduction at the edge
so the aircraft can circle until you are ready of the pattern is ideal. The overlap from an
for the next pass. Water sensitive cards are adjacent pass which has one-half of the deposit
also supplied with string kits but should be density is allowed to combine with the present
used on only one of the four passes to pass without voids or double rates where the
identify leaks, relative droplet size, and patterns overlap.
other potential problems.
Under typical circumstances, agricultural
aircraft effective swath widths usually range
from 40 to 70 feet wide, while total swath
Spot Card Evaluation widths may range from 60 to 120 feet. Those
Visual evaluation requires some experience, spray droplets that impact beyond the effective
but common problems with spray uniformity, swath width are fewer, subject to prevailing
droplet size, and swath width can be identified. weather conditions, and are needed to provide
Best results are obtained by quickly scanning all overlap feathering for the next swath. Under
cards (in place) looking for the card with the normal flying conditions, the overlap will be
most spray deposit. This card then becomes the sufficient for good coverage.
basis card for further comparison on either side.
Complete additional pattern tests to verify
Swath Width the effective swath width for this aircraft, spray
boom, and height. Use dependable flagmen,
While spot cards are still on the ground, permanent markers, or some type of electronic
walk along the entire set scanning them for precision control system to maintain accurate
uniformity. With a very uniform deposition swath widths while working.
7
 Pattern
String Kit Evaluation
There are no cookbook solutions to distri-
Specialized equipment is used to analyze bution problems. Every aircraft and pilot
commercial string kits. Many states or aerial combination will produce its own unique
application associations have equipment and characteristic distribution, because:
trained analysts to perform this task. Private
firms also offer this service for a fee (see No two aircraft are exactly alike. Wing
Appendix). The analysis will be performed and mountings, riggings, power and propeller
sent back to the operator with an explanation. efficiencies vary. Experienced ag pilots agree
The results may look like the illustrations in that each agricultural aircraft flies
Figures 5 and 6. differently.
Each pilot has his own flying techniques. On
Figure 5. Single swath pattern developed from a spray run, sounds and vibrations associ-
analysis of string. ated with the correct setting feel different to
each pilot.

pass A L-+vR Even though booms appear to be mounted

the same, there may be significant
differences between aircraft.

Cl!
I Differences in booms and hanger styles,
boom hanger position and angles, bleed
lines, nozzle plumbing designs, nozzle
angles, nozzle orifices, and pressure gauges
z -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
are a few of the liquid system items that
Sample Locatilln (ftl
may affect the uniformity of the distribution
pattern.

Figure 6. Aircraft overlap patterns that show the deposltion uniformity one would expect during a field
application with the setup that tested using the string system.
A g r i c u l t u r a l A i r c r a f t
-rest sarias : C a l i b r a t i o n Q SetUP
Aircraft : ORUMMAN 0 - 1 6 4 - A f o r S p r a y i n g
NOrrla S/T : 6 5 3 0
N O . NDrrlaa : 3 4
-roat LlqUia : W A T E R / D Y E
Preaauro : 46 pai

S E R I E S AVERAGE-- METHOO SW*TH (ft) cvx R A T E (cl!J-)

____-_------- _ _ _ - - - - - __------ __- - - -
HeiQht (ft) 1 0 . 6
OPDUnd 1 2 0 . 0 Race Track 6 4 . 0 1 0 . 0 6 . 5
Wi”d 7 . 3 6-c k 5s Forth 5 4 . 0 I S . 0 a . 5
croea - 0 . 4

m
0
0
: 6 0
5 0
al 4 0
>
rl 3 0
4J 2 0
m 1 0
l-4
0
0 6 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0
6emple Location (ft)

m
0
a

m 50
> 40
,d 30
u 20

8 ;” 5 0 1 0 0 150 2 0 0 2 6 0
S a m p l e L o c a t i o n (ftl
MXIM. f141
 To evaluate the distribution pattern with connection and effectively turning the nozzle
spot cards, examine each sample and note any off. Only after verifying that there are no
irregular deposition. A graph of the amount of plugged nozzles and after confirming the
material present on the cards can be prepared pattern with several passes to eliminate
which may help in the visualization of the depo- wind effects should additional nozzles be
sition pattern. If using commercial string kits, added under the belly or just left of the
refer to the deposition graphs and suggested fuselage.
solutions in the analysis report.
3. Light deposition at other points within the
Determine if there is: wingspan - Areas of light deposit are often
caused by a blocked nozzle, poor nozzle
1. Light deposition on right side of the locations near wheel struts or wing supports,
fuselage - This pattern distortion is often bent or crooked boom hangers, flaggers, trim
due to the influence of the propeller moving tabs, and other obstructions that cause
spray material from the right side of the turbulence and pattern distortion. Moving
aircraft to the left, creating a light coverage nozzle positions away from hangers, adding
area on the right side of the swath centerline a tee and extra nozzle (double nozzle), or
and may produce a heavier deposit on the removing the obstruction causing the
left side. To compensate for prop wash, add distortion are potential solutions to the
one or two nozzles on the right, directly distortions.
behind the outer area of the propeller rota-
tion arc. Remove nozzles under the belly or Operators adding automatic flagger
on the left only if it is apparent that the deflectors to deflect flags away from the
vortex has shifted too much spray to the left. elevator often find a light area of deposit due
If there is a heavy buildup to the left of to the distortion in airflow caused by the
center as in Figure 1, it may be necessary to deflector. Helicopter operators may find that
remove nozzles under the belly or on the one or two additional nozzles are needed
first 2 to 3 feet just left of the fuselage. under the center of the aircraft to compen-
sate for fuselage distortion and that an addi-
A common problem is the overcompensation tional nozzle may be needed just outboard of
for prop wash with too many nozzles placed the skid on one or both sides to compensate
to the right or under the belly of the aircraft. for the distortion caused by the
Pattern testing has indicated that most counterbalance rotor.
aircraft need few if any belly nozzles with
application rates of 3 GPA or less. Higher 4. Heavy deposition within the swath - Heavy
application rates may require the addition of deposits are often caused by crooked boom
some belly nozzles. hangers or some other object that causes
distortion in the airflow behind the wing. A
Turbine powered aircraft which have the crooked boom hanger can cause the output of
propeller located forward as compared to two or more nozzles to be pushed together as
radial powered aircraft exhibit much less though the liquid spray had been emitted
distortion due to prop wash. The prop wash from one nozzle. Eliminate or reposition
characteristics will be reversed in the case of nozzles only after flying several passes to
reverse rotation PZL engines. confirm the heavy application is not due to
unusual wind. Inspect the plumbing and
2. Light deposition on the left of fuselage - fuselage for streaking stains from plumbing
With radial powered aircraft, a light deposit drips and leaks.
left of centerline generally is the result of
plugged or inoperative nozzles. First check 5. Irregular deposition due to wing vortices
that the nozzles immediately to the left of and/or crosswinds - Wing tip or rotor
the fuselage and belly nozzles aren’t par- vortices will generally cause two high levels
tially plugged. Belly drop nozzles with very of deposition (peaks or humps) approxi-
flexible hose connections will often swing mately near the ends or edge of the wing-
back in flight thereby kinking the hose span or mid-rotor span in calm wind or in

9
 pattern tests flown directly into the wind, or Droplet Size
a high level deposition on the upwind side
and a gradual trailing with smaller peaks on Nozzles dispense a wide range of droplet
the downwind side. Indications of vortex sizes ranging from very small (the smallest of
entrainment should be vivid warnings of these may not be visible) to very large. The
potential drift problems. Plug the end two or desired range of droplet size is generally
three nozzles and repeat the pattern test obtained by the choice of nozzle size and type.
until outer peak spray densities decline Some nozzles produce a wider spectrum than
uniformly. Full length booms do not contrib- others. Unusually large droplets on one or more
ute to an aircraft’s effective swath width. spot cards are often an indication of partially
Spray released near the end of the wing is plugged, dirty, or worn nozzle orifices. Nozzle
deposited inboard of spray from nozzles at tips (especially brass tips) do wear out and are
about one-half to three-fourths of the easily damaged by improper cleaning with a
wingspan. Cut boom lengths to 75 percent of wire or knife. Nozzle tips are precision machines
the wingspan to minimize drift from wing tip and cannot be returned to service once worn or
vortices. damaged by drilling or other technique. Worn or
damaged nozzle tips should be removed from
When booms extend beyond the position service and discarded.
where the last nozzle is located, a properly
installed bleed-back line is needed. This Nozzles that vary more than 10 percent from
avoids the possibility of a compressed air the flow of the other nozzles should be replaced.
pocket in the end of the boom. When there is Replacement nozzle tip sets should be stainless
a compressed pocket of air in the system, it steel, ceramic, or high-density plastic tips. Brass
is compressed during spraying operations nozzle wear is irregular and rapid and a poor
and slowly expands when the spray pressure investment. Aircraft boom systems that have
is turned off. This extends the time it takes not been calibrated should start with a new set
for the shutoff valves to completely stop flow of nozzles. Calibration with old, worn nozzle tips
out the nozzles. Positive shutoff is needed to wastes money. When replaced with new tips
lessen the drift potential. later, the pattern will be different.

6. A few unusually large droplets - Large Orientation of nozzles has often been used in
irregular drops that often impact the water the past to alter the droplet size of a nozzle
sensitive cards in differing directions are an configuration. Recent research indicates that
indication of leaks or boom slobbering. nozzles should be oriented such that the liquid
Check boom and nozzles for leaks making stream is released parallel to the airstream to
sure there are no odd-sized or worn orifices. limit the amount of driftable fines produced.
Boom slobbering is indicated by areas behind
the nozzle on the boom surface being Flgure 7. Nozzle orientation with the airstream to
discolored or having spray material on it reduce the amount of driftable fines produced. The
indicating that the nozzle is releasing the upper tip has an airflow which is almost parallel to
the liquid flow which should result in a more uni-
liquid spray into an area of high turbulence form droplet size than the lower tip with air shear.
and eddy currents. Relocate those nozzles to
remove them from turbulent airflow areas.

7. Miscellaneous pattern problems - Most

pattern problems are caused by the propeller
effects, wing tip vortex, or by an obstruction
in the airstream. Areas of light or heavy
deposit between the pattern center and the
outer ends may be caused by irregular wind
conditions during a pattern test and should
be confirmed through repetitive sampling
before taking corrective action. A pattern
distortion that is confirmed or repeats itself
in two out of three pattern tests warrants
corrective action.

10
 Modification of the droplet size should be the side, there is much less area exposed to the
achieved through the selection of nozzle type prevailing wind Sheet nozzles with a narrower
and orifice size. spray angle have reduced wind interference.
When this is compared to a conventional disc and
Sheet flow type tips such as the flat fans and core nozzle, you can visualize why there is less
CP's produce less exposed shear area and gener- shatter and wind effect with the sheet nozzles
ally allow better control of droplet size. When the (Figures 8 and 9), resulting in better drift control
spray pattern from a sheet nozzle is viewed from with CP and narrow spray angle flat fan nozzles.

Figure 8. The amount of spray aligned with airstream may be better with sheet type nozzles, reducing the
amount of potential shear.

TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW

Figure 9. Cone type nozzles fan the spray out in all directions and allow the wind to catch a lot of the
particles and increase the potential for particle shatter.

TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW

 pressure increases should not be used to
Spray Boom Adjustments increase the volume per acre. A correct combina-
tion of orifice size and nozzle type matched to
When pattern testing indicates that changes the mixture ratio of the active ingredient gives
should be made, the following suggestions can the most application flexibility.
be used as a guide.
Flight Height and Swath Width
Number of Nozzles
Increasing boom height from 8 to
The primary reason for changing the number approximately 12 feet should not change the
of nozzles is to obtain more uniform pattern or effective swath width significantly. Boom opera-
to change the volume of material applied. tion lower than the 8 feet level decreases the
However, once you choose an orifice that gives a swath width and produces a less uniform deposi-
desirable droplet size, varying the number of tion. An aircraft that has basically the same
nozzles will alter the volume per acre while swath width throughout this flying range allows
maintaining the same droplet size characteris- the pilot some flexibility. Repeated testing
tics. Minor volume adjustments can be made by should be done under a variety of wind, relative
adjusting boom pressure, but pressure changes humidity, and temperature situations to assure
should be limited to + 5 psi. that uniform coverage is obtained at a particu-
lar height. Pattern testing indicates more
Nozzle Angle, Type, and Orifice uniform deposition patterns may be obtained
with the higher application heights. However,
On fixed-wing aircraft, especially, nozzle higher discharge heights significantly increase
angle adjustment makes a dramatic droplet size droplet fall time - increasing evaporation of
change. For example, it may be possible to sim- droplets and off target drift potential.
ply change the nozzle angle to adjust droplet
size when moving from one job to another (some Certain weather conditions combined with
nozzles such as the CP have this feature built small droplets warrant extra caution. Allowing
in). As the temperature increases and humidity droplets to fall from greater elevations dras-
decreases, angling the nozzle more directly tically increases evaporation, wind effects, cover-
parallel to the wing slipstream helps maintain age, and possible drift. If higher altitudes are
better deposition efficiencies. Adding drift desirable, be sure to pattern the aircraft and
control agents or other additives may change adjust droplet size to compensate for drift and
the droplet size considerably. Recent research evaporation.
indicates that nozzles operated such that the
emitted liquid spray is released parallel to the
direction of the wing slipstream (0 degrees
shear) will produce the least amount of potential Droplet Size, Coverage,
drift for that particular nozzle type and boom
arrangement. and Drift
Impacting droplet sizes vary with boom Droplet size selection is a tradeoff between
height above the target, spray boom arrange- the desired and undesired effects. If the droplets
ment, material being applied, drift reduction or are too large, there will not be enough of them
other adjuvants, and weather conditions. for proper spray coverage of the target. But, if
droplets are too small, they may evaporate or ”
Spray System Pressure become airborne and never reach the target. The
goal is to dispense the bulk of the pesticide in
Pressure should be adequate to force liquid droplet sizes that both reach the target and
equally to all nozzles. Generally, a pressure provide effective control.
between 20 to 30 psi is desirable. Increased
pressure may be used for slight increases in A typical aerial spray has a wide range of
volume per acre or vice versa. However, increas- droplet sizes including very small drops. The
ing pressure above the 30 psi range increases larger drops are often 50 times the diameter of
the number of small drift-prone droplets. Large the small ones. Doubling the diameter increases

12
the volume in the droplet eight times. For this acre can be used to overcome low humidities
reason, a slight change in droplet size can have and high temperatures provided appropriate
a very pronounced effect on pest control. nozzles are used. Simply increasing spray pres-
sure worsens the risk of drift and may actually
Even though sprays are composed of a range decrease canopy penetration because smaller
of droplet sizes, a mid-range droplet diameter droplets are produced.
called volume median diameter (vmd) is helpful
for description. This droplet describes a spray Droplets smaller than 100 u diameter,
that has 50 percent of the spray volume in drop- generally referred to as driftable fines, tend to
lets smaller than the median size and 50 float with air movement. One-half of the volume
percent of the spray volume in larger droplet in a 100 p vmd spray would be defined as drift-
sizes. able fines. These droplets can evaporate in less
than 10 seconds in 50 percent R.H. (relative
Large droplets fall rapidly and are less humidity) weather; under these conditions the
affected by wind and evaporation. Actual deposi- majority of these droplets will evaporate before
tion size is dependent on the volatility of the they reach the canopy (if largely water). Low
droplet and weather conditions. boom height is often considered helpful for
increased deposition of pesticides during hot,
Phenoxy herbicides, even at low concentra- dry weather. Other techniques to increase
tions, are damaging to sensitive crops such as deposition should be used if possible. Lowering
cotton. Specific state government application boom height below 8 feet usually results in poor
regulations - such as boom lengths not exceed- distribution uniformity and should be avoided
ing 70 percent of the wingspan and restricting
nozzles to a straight back position - are an In general, if drift is a critical factor, the
effort to minimize drift. (Contact your appropri- drift hazard can be reduced by increasing the
ate regulatory agency for specifics.) Using larger droplet size or by using techniques to prevent
orifices and low pressures and/or angling nozzles the formation of driftable fines. If increased
backward to obtain 400 micron (p) vmd droplets coverage (droplets per square inch) is important
or larger is also very important. Drift residues to the mode of action of the active ingredient,
from a typical 290 p vmd spray may be twice select a nozzle type that produces the optimum
that of a 420 p vmd spray 200 yards downwind. droplet size at a pressure in the 20-30 psi range
and use the number of nozzles required to
Research in Arkansas shows that both provide the liquid flow rate needed to apply the
propanil and phenoxy herbicides drifted from highest labeled volume per acre.
rice fields when they were applied in less than
100 p diameter droplets. Larger droplets were Good equipment, properly adjusted and
effective in controlling some grass, but a consis- operated, makes the most effective use of a
tent kill of the smallest grass required 10 pesticide regardless of the total volume per acre.
gallons per acre. The higher volume simply Where adverse weather or critical drift situa-
provides more droplets per square inch to give tions occur, extra volume and large droplets
more thorough coverage of the grass. may be the key differences. An application is
simply a compromise between small droplets for
Efficacy depends on coverage with the proper coverage and larger droplets for drift control.
droplet size and an adequate volume of spray
mix per acre. A specific pesticide’s mode of
action and the canopy density dictate the proper
droplet size and what is a required volume per
acre. For example, once cotton has a dense Meteorological Conditions
canopy 3 to 4 feet tall, most bollworm insecticide
applications are more effective at 3 gallons per Wind has a great effect on coverage, espe-
acre than at 1 gallon per acre. This is generally cially during gusty periods. A side wind causes
true of other canopied crops such as corn and spray to pile up on the upwind side. Additional
sorghum. The larger droplets hit the top applications with the proper swath width will
surfaces, and the medium and smaller droplets overlap and smooth out the overall field applica-
penetrate within the foliage. High volumes per tion. Field applications are usually made under

13
crosswind conditions. When wind velocities indicators of air stability. Inversion wind shear
become too high, the distribution may become levels can vary from 50 feet to 500-1000 feet or
distorted such that additional application more above the terrain level.
swaths will no longer be able to compensate for
the wind turbulence effects. A uniform deposi- The key threat, then, is a temperature
tion pattern into the wind (while pattern gradient that causes air to rise and stagnate. A
testing) provides the most uniform crosswind smoke plume that rises from a ground source
field deposition pattern. Flying with crosswind and hits a ceiling is an ideal indication of
will not correct the pattern aberrations of a severe air stagnation due to temperature inver-
nonuniform deposition. sion conditions (Figure 10b). Patches of ground
fog suspended about windshield height, thick
Applications of drift-sensitive pesticides haze or fog across a creek or depression, are
should be confined to times when the wind also indicators of inversion conditions.
ve1ocity is below labeled speeds or below 5 miles
per hour. Wind direction should always be away Localized inversions may form over fields
from a sensitive crop. Avoid applications under that are wet or flooded, ranging from a flooded
rice field to a corn field under a center pivot
conditions of no wind, dead calm, night tempera-
irrigation system as shown in Figure 10c, due to
ture, or under stable conditions or inversions (it the cool temperatures that exist next to the soil
is better to at least know what direction or water surface. These localized conditions may
driftable fines will move than to have no idea be strong enough to prevent the penetration of
where they will go). spray into the plant canopy. Smoke from an
aircraft mounted smoker should descend into
Increasing droplet size and adding a drift the canopy in the absence of a localized
reduction agent that increases droplet surface inversion.
tension, reducing potential evaporation, will
help limit the distance at which drift damage Air temperature and humidity have a
could occur. An aircraft-mounted smoke pronounced effect on the evaporation rate of
generator is a prudent tool to use in determin- droplets as well as the activity of some
ing the potential for movement of driftable fines. pesticides. Evaporation of water or volatile
Wind directions vary a lot on a given field or carriers becomes critical with droplets less than
pasture, especially with hills, creeks, and trees 100 microns in diameter.
bordering the site.
Relative humidity above 70 percent is ideal.
A pilot should also be watchful for signs of a A relative humidity below 50 percent is critical
temperature inversion (cool air at ground level enough to warrant special application adjust-
with a warmer air layer above). They often ments. Temperature, wind, and relative
occur when wind velocities are very low or still humidity are not independent. Aiming nozzles
at ground level. High deposition percentages straight back, using larger orifices and/or
may occur during temperature inversions, but reducing spray pressure are methods to increase
the direction which drifted pesticide moves is initial droplet size. One of these simple adjust-
ments could be a solution to preventing a
uncertain. Shifting winds may cause damage to
control failure.
an adjacent crop on any side of a herbicide
application. Morning applications combine the desirable
spraying weather variables such as low temper-
A pilot can determine the presence of a ature, low wind velocity, and high relative
strong inversion by watching for a rise in humidity. When an application must be made
outside air temperature as his aircraft climbs after 9 a.m. or before 7 p.m., an applicator needs
through 100 feet of altitude (Figure 10a). a low wind, humid, cool day. When this isn’t the
Failure to observe a change in outside air case, increasing the droplet size and the total
temperature does not ensure that an inversion volume per acre is necessary to get the pesticide
does not exist, but it could be the pilot’s only to the target. Cost, risk, and percent of pest
indicator. Observation of wind movements, dust control efficacy
efficacy are factors that the applicator
from gravel roads, smoke or steam from power must weigh and discuss with the producer.
or industrial plants, for example, will provide However, applying certain pesticides around

14
Figure 10. Atmospheric stability effects on spray (a) Inversion; (b) Inversion above, lapse below;
(c) Inversion below, lapse above; (d) weak lapse; (e) strong lapse. (Bierly and Hewson, 1962).
9
inversion

Temperature - A

- inversion Above - Lapse Below - Inversion Below- Lapse Above

Temperdun - 0 Tern-t ure - C

Weak Lapse Strong Lapse

Temperature - D Temperature - E

TEMPERATURE PROFILE

sensitive crops or locations simply should not be acquiring judgment to make acceptable compro-
done under adverse weather. Leaving a wider mises. The objective of any application is to
buffer zone and ground spraying may be the properly place the material with respect to the
widest solution at sensitive application sites. target pest and the plant so that the pesticide
can perform. The most valuable tool that the
aerial applicator has is the accumulation of gray
matter between the ears.
Summary
These spray pattern analysis techniques can
help improve pesticide deposition and minimize Selected References and
off-target drift. Experience with droplet patterns Related Materials
and string system printouts builds confidence
and skill in interpretation. This is a practical Akesson, N. B., and W. E. Yates. The Use of Aircraft in Agricul-
way to gain an understanding of where spray ture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
goes and how to compensate for weather condi- Nations. Rome, Italy, 1974.
tions and other application needs. The final Boving, P. A., and R. G. Winterfield. “Testing Selected Nozzles for
factor is applicator skill. Experience and under- Deposit Efficiency in Aerial Application of Spray.” Trans-
standing are keys to maximizing control and actions of the ASAE, Vol. 23(l): p. 36-38, 42, 1980.

15
Coutts, H. H., and W. E. Yates. “Analysis of Spray Droplet Distri- Trayford, R. S., and L. W. Welch. “Aerial Spraying : A Simulation
butions from Agricultural Aircraft.” Transactions of the ASAE, of Factors Influencing the Distribution and Recovery of Liquid
Vol. 11(l): p. 25-27, 1968. Droplets.” Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 22:
p. 183-196, 1977.
Huitink, G., Pattern Your Ag Spray Plane, MP183, University of
Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service, 1980. Yates, W. E., N. B. Akesson, and K, Cheng. “Criteria for Minimiz-
ing the Hazard of Drift from AeriaI Applications.” ASAE
Kuhlman, D. K. Aircraft Sprayer Calibratian. Ag Facts - 25, Paper No. 67-155, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, 1967.
Cooperative Extension Service, Kansas State University,
1979. Yates, W. E., N. B. Akesson, and H. H. Coutts. “Drift Hazards
Related to Ultra-Low Volume and Diluted Sprays Applied by
Nelson, G. S. and C. Lincoln. Performance of Airplane Sprayers Agricultural Aircraft.” Transactions of the ASEA, Vol. 10(5):
for Insecticide Applications. Bulletin No. 730, University of p. 628-638, 1967.
Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, 1968.

Smith, R. J., Jr., W. T. Flinchum, and D. E. Seaman. 1977. “Weed

Control in U.S. Rice Production.” USDA Agriculture
Handbook 497, 78 pp.

16
 Precision Laboratories, Inc.
Appendix P. O. Box 127
Nozzle Manufacturers Northbrook, IL 60065
(contact your local dealer or the following:) Phone: (800) 323-6280
In Illinois: (847) 498-0800
The CP Products Company, Inc. Fax: (847) 498-1176
Mesa, AZ 85201 Email: info@precisionlab.com
Phone: (602) 969-2604
FAX: (602) 969-6671
(Fluorescent Dyes)
Delavan Delta, Inc.
Keystone Aniline Corporation
4115 Corporate Center Dr.
(Bulk or large quantities)
Monroe, NC 28110
2501 West Fulton Street
Phone: (704) 291-3100 or (800) 621-9357
P. O. Box 75871
FAX: (704) 291-3101
Chicago, IL 60612
Phone: (312) 666-2015 or (800) 522-4DYE
Spraying Systems Company
FAX: (312) 666-8530
Agricultural Division
North Avenue at Schmale Road
P. O. Box 7900 Water and Oil Sensitive Papers
Wheaton, IL 60189-7900 (any Spraying Systems Company dealer or:)
Phone: (630) 665-5000
FAX: (630) 260-0842 Spraying Systems Company
E-mail: info@spray.com Agricultural Division
North Avenue at Schmale Road
P. O. Box 7900
Dye Sources
Wheaton, IL 60189-7900
(Marker Dyes) Phone: (630) 665-5000
Becker-Underwood FAX: (630) 260-0842
801 Dayton Ave. E-mail: info@spray.com
Ames, IA 50010
Phone: (515) 232-5907 or (800) 232-5907
String Kits
FAX: (515) 232-5961
In Arkansas contact of the following:
E-mail: request@bucolor.com
Mr. Wayne Rupe
Executive Director AAAA
AgMark Dye
P. O. Box 58
LAN Products, Inc.
Lonoke, AR 72086
P. O. Box 1514
Phone: (501) 676-3591
Brownwood, TX 76801
Phone: (915) 646-0067

This publication was originally produced

in 1992. These addresses have been
updated to the best knowledge of Kansas
State University Cooperative Extension
but are subject to change. (March, 2001)

Trade names are mentioned solely for the purpose of providing specific information. Mention of a trade name or specific product does not constitute,
a guarantee or warranty of the product by the University of Arkansas or Kansas State University Cooperative Extension Services/B i o l o g i c a l a n d / o r
Agricultural Engineering Department or an endorsement by the University of Arkansas or Kansas State University over other products mentioned or not
mentioned.

17
 Text printed on recycled paper with soybean ink.

COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, MANHA’ITAN, KANSAS

MF-1059 December 1992
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, acts of May 8 and June 30.1914. as amended. Kansas State University, County Extension
Councils, and United States Department of Agriculture Cooperating. Richard D. Wootton, Associate Director. All educational programs and materials
available without discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age. or handicap.