VARIATION OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SOIL PROPERTIES WITH SOIL

HORIZON AND LAND USE AT THE RESEARCH FARM FOR DEPARTMENT OF

CROP AND SOIL SCIENCES.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Soil may be defined as the naturally formed unconsolidated material which covers the earth's
surface, whose chemical, physical and biological properties are capable of supporting plant
growth. According to Forth (1990), climate, parent material, relief or topography, vegetation and
time are the soil forming factors that influence soil characteristics. The climate acting over parent
material for a pedogenic time on different physiographic units is the most dominant factor
responsible for development of different types of soil to support different vegetation. Vegetation
types are also one active factor which greatly influences soil formation by adding organic matter,
providing pores for translocation and accumulation of minerals and clay (Fanning et. al., 1989).
During soil development many morphological, physical, chemical, biochemical and macro and
microbiological reactions and processes occur simultaneously and interactively in the soil. These
reactions and processes that affect the characteristics of soils and its development are in turn
influenced by several natural factors such as climate, organisms, and parent material and
modified to a great extent by the topographic features such as slope. Slope aspect is important in
the development of soils; however, the position of a soil on a slope also affects the characteristics
of soil (Brady and Weil, 2008).

Characterizing the variability and distribution of soil properties is important in predicting the
rates of ecosystem processes with respect to natural and anthropogenic factors, and in
understanding how ecosystems and their services work. In agriculture, studies of the effects of
land use on soil properties have shown that cultivation generally increases the potential for soil
degradation due to the breakdown of soil aggregates and the reduction of soil cohesion, water
content and nutrient holding capacity (Tesfahunegn et.al., 2011). Soil properties vary
considerably under different crops, land use, tillage type and intensity, fertilizer types and

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application rates. Since the variability of soil characteristics or properties affects plant growth,
nutrient dynamics, and other soil processes, knowledge of the variability of soil physical and
chemical properties is therefore necessary. Therefore, this study will be conducted in order to
evaluate the variation of physical and chemical soil properties with horizon and land use at the
research farm for the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences.

1.2 Soil profile

A soil profile is a vertical exposure of soil horizons of an individual soil that helps to evaluate
and illustrate different properties of soil at a particular place (Buol et. al., 1989). A soil profile
includes all the layers that have been pedogenically altered during the period of soil formation
and also deeper layers that influenced pedogenesis and these layers are called horizons. A soil
horizon is a layer generally parallel to the soil surface, whose physical characteristics differ from
the layers above and beneath (McDonald, 1990). Horizons are defined in most cases by obvious
physical features, chiefly colour and texture. According to Murphy and Banfield (1978), six
master soil horizons are commonly recognized and are designated using the capital letters O, A,
E, B, C, and R and these horizons are listed by their position from top to bottom within the soil
profile.

1.3 Soil Physical Properties

The physical properties of soils determine their adaptability to cultivation and the level of
biological activity that can be supported by the soil. Soil physical properties also largely
determine the soil's water and air supplying capacity to plants. Many soil physical properties can
change with changes in land use system (McAlister et. al., 1998).

1.3.1Soil texture

Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay in a sample of soil. Soil texture
determines a number of physical and chemical properties of the soil. It affects the infiltration and
retention of water, soil aeration, absorption of nutrients, microbial activities, tillage and irrigation
practices (Forth, 1990).It is also an indicator of some other related soil features such as type of
parent material, homogeneity and heterogeneity within the profile, and intensity of weathering of
soil material (Brady and Weil, 2008). According to Brady and Weil (2008), pedogenic processes
such as erosion, deposition and weathering can change the textures of various soil horizons.

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1.3.2. Bulk density

Bulk density is the mass of a unit volume of dry soil. Measurement of soil bulk density is
required for the determination of compactness, as a measure of soil structure, for calculating soil
pore space and as indicator of aeration status and water content (Barauah et. al., 1997).

According to White (1997), the values of bulk density range from < 1 g/cm 3 for soils high in
organic matter, 1.0 to 1.4g/cm3 for well-aggregated loamy soils and 1.2 to 1.8 g/cm 3 for sands
and compacted horizons in clay soils. Bulk density normally decreases as mineral soils become
finer in texture. Soils having low and high bulk density exhibit favorable and poor physical
conditions, respectively (Gupta, 2004).

1.4 Soil Chemical Properties

Soil chemical properties are the most important among the factors that determine the nutrient
supplying power of the soil to the plants and microbes. The chemical reactions that occur in the
soil affect processes leading to soil development and soil fertility build up. Minerals inherited
from the soil parent materials overtime release chemical elements that undergo various changes
and transformations within the soil (McAlister et. al., 1998).

1.4.1. Total Nitrogen

Nitrogen (N) is the fourth plant nutrient taken up by plants in greatest quantity next to carbon,
oxygen and hydrogen, but it is one of the most deficient elements in the tropics for crop
production (Mesfin, 1998). Thus, lack of nitrogen is the greatest single cause of low crop yield
(Young, 1976). Of the total amount of nitrogen present in soils, nearly 95-99% is in the organic
form and 1-5% in the inorganic form as ammonium and nitrates. Total nitrogen is merely an
indicator of the soil potential for the element, but not the measure in which it becomes available
to the plant. Nitrogen in organic forms is not available to plants but must be converted to
available forms, either the cationic form ammonium ion (NH4+), or anionic form nitrate (NO3-).

Even though total nitrogen is not a measure of available nitrogen to plants, it is an important
indicator of the soil potential for the element. Nitrogen contents of soils are also needed for the

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evaluation of C-N ratios of soils, which give an indication of the processes of transformations of
organic N to available N like ammonia, nitrite and nitrate. Nitrogen in the soil can be lost
through the process of leaching, plant removal, denitrification and volatilization.

1.4.2 Available phosphorus

Phosphorus (P) is known as the master key to agriculture because lack of available P in the soils
limits spread the growth of both cultivated and uncultivated plants (Foth and Ellis, 1997).
Following N, P has more wide influence on both natural and agricultural ecosystems than any
other essential elements. In most natural ecosystems, such as forests P uptake by plants is
constrained by both the low total quantity of the element in the soil and by very low solubility of
the scarce quantity that is present (Brady and Weil, 2002). It is the most commonly plant growth-
limiting nutrient in the tropical soils next to water and nitrogen (Mesfin, 1996). Erosion tends to
transport predominantly the clay and OM fractions of the soil, which are relatively rich in P
fractions. According to Foth and Ellis (1997), natural soil will contain from 50 to over 1,000 mg
of total P per kilogram of soil. Of this quantity, about 30 to 50% may be in inorganic form in
mineral soils (Foth and Ellis, 1997).

The main sources of plant available P are the weathering of soil minerals, the decomposition and
mineralization of soil OM and commercial fertilizers.

1.4.3 Soil organic matter

Soil organic matter is the fraction of the soil that consists of plant or animal tissue in various
stages of decomposition. It is made up of different components that can be grouped into three
major types: plant residues and living microbial biomass, active soil organic matter also referred
to as detritus, and stable soil organic matter, often referred to as humus. The living microbial
biomass includes the microorganisms responsible for decomposition of both plant residues and
active soil organic matter or detritus. Humus is the stable fraction of the soil organic matter that
is formed from decomposed plant and animal tissue. It is the final product of decomposition
(McAlister et. al., (1998).

According to Celik (2005), the following are some of the functions of organic matter to the soil;
causes soil aggregation which aids in infiltration and increases pore space in clay soils. Thus,
water and oxygen holding capacity is increased. Organic matter also increases exchange and

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buffering capacity since well- decomposed organic matter has a very high CEC that adds to the
buffering capacity of the soil. It also minimizes leaching loss because organic substances have
the ability of holding substances other than cations against leaching. It is a source of nutrients
such as N, P, S and most micronutrients. Organic matter stabilizes soil structure and provides
energy for microbial activity.

1.4.4 Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

The cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soils is defined as the capacity of soils to adsorb and
exchange cations (Brady and Weil, 2008). Cation exchange capacity is an important parameter of
soil because it gives an indication of the type of clay minerals present in the soil, its capacity to
retain nutrients against leaching and assessing their fertility and environmental behavior.

The CEC of a soil is strongly affected by the amount and type of clay, and amount of organic
matter present in the soil. Soils with large amounts of clay and organic matter have higher CEC
than sandy soils low in organic matter (Curtis and Courson, 1981).

According to Landon (1991), the top soils having CEC of > 25, 15-25 cmol (+)/kg, 5-15 cmol
(+)/kg and < 5 cmol (+)/kg are classified as high, medium, low and very low, respectively.

1.4.5. Soil pH

Soil pH is the degree of soil acidity or alkalinity, which is caused by particular chemical,
mineralogical or biological environment. Soil pH affects nutrient availability and toxicity,
microbial activity and root growth. Thus, it is one of the most important chemical characteristics
of the soil solution because both higher plants and microorganisms respond so markedly to their
chemical environment (Miller et al. 1995).

Descriptive terms commonly associated with certain ranges in pH are; extremely acidic (pH <
4.5), very strongly acidic (pH 4.5-5.0), strongly acidic (pH 5.1-5.5), moderately acidic (pH 5.6-
6.0), slightly acid (pH 6.1-6.5), neutral (pH 6.6-7.3), slightly alkaline (pH 7.4-7.8), moderately
alkaline (pH 7.9-8.4), strongly alkaline (pH 8.5-9.0), and very strongly alkaline (pH > 9.1) (Forth
et al.1997).

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2.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND JUSTIFICATION

2.0.1 Problem

According to Brady and Weil (2008), the physical and chemical properties of a soil determine
the fertility of the soil and in turn these soil properties affect plant growth. Several studies have
been conducted across the globe to analyze the chemical and physical characteristics of soil
under different land use in order to understand the effects of soil properties on fertility and plant
growth (Curtis and Courson, 1981). These studies showed that soils under different land use have
different chemical and physical properties which in turn affect production. Little or no
information is known about the variation of physical and chemical soil properties according to
soil horizons and land use at the research farm for the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences.

2.0.2 Justification

Knowledge of physical and chemical soil properties is very important for appropriate decision
making regarding sustainable land use in crop production. Therefore, this study will help in
proper decision making regarding soil management at the research farm for the Department of
Crop and Soil Sciences. It will also help facilitate a rational transfer of agro-technologies
developed at the farm to other areas in Malawi.

. 3.0 OBJECTIVES

3.1.1 Main objective

 To determine the physical and chemical properties of some soils at the crop research
farm.

3.1.2 Specific objectives

 To determine their variation with soil horizons (depth).

 To determine their variation with land use.
 To evaluate the properties with respect to crop production.

1.2.3 HYPOTHESIS
 Soil physical and chemical properties do vary with types of soil horizons.

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  Land use has effect on the physical and chemical properties of soils.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

4.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Soil texture

Several studies have been conducted to analyze the texture of the soil under different land use
and soil horizons. The study made by White (1997) showed that the highest average from
surface and subsurface sand content (66%) was observed under the cultivated land and the lowest
(60%) in the forest land, whereas the average clay fraction content of the forest and crop lands
were 23 and 14%, respectively. The results by White (1997) agreed with those of Abubakar
(1997). Abubakar also studied vertical distribution of soil nutrients along different land use types
and reported that sand content of both topsoil and subsoil is higher in cultivated land than in
forestland. However, silt fractions are higher in forest land than the contents in cultivated land.
White (1997) suggested that this variation may be due to the intensive and continuous cultivation
which might cause compaction on the surface that reduces translocation of clay particles within
the different layers and due to mixing up by tillage activities. These results showed that there
were variations in the soil particle size distribution among the land use types and the soil depths.

Bulk density

Woldeamlak and Stroosnijder (2003) studied effects of land use on bulk density and the study
revealed that the bulk density of cultivated soils was higher than the bulk density of forest soils.
Similarly, Ahmed (2002) reported that soil bulk density under cultivated land increased with
increasing soil depth whereas of forest land decreased. According to Woldeamlak et al. (2003),
the reason for the lowest soil bulk density on the forest land as well as in the subsurface soil
depth could be due to the highest clay content and less disturbance of the land under forest unlike
the cultivated land. This meant that the changes in the physical soil attributes such as bulk
density can be attributed to the impacts of land use such as frequent tillage and the decline in
organic matter content of the soils (Celik, 2005).

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Total nitrogen

Nitrogen (N) is one of the major nutrients required for the nutrition of plants and is often the
controlling factor in plant growth. A study conducted by Nega (2006) showed that the average
total N increased from cultivated to forest land soils, which again declined with increasing depth
from surface to subsurface soils. According to Nega (2006), the considerable reduction of total N
in the continuously cultivated fields could be attributed to the rapid turnover (mineralization) of
the organic substrates derived from crop residue (root biomass) whenever added following
intensive cultivation. Furthermore, the decline in soil total N might have been caused by the
insufficient inputs of organic substrates from the farming system. On the other hand, Nega
(2006) also reported that the increase in total nitrogen content in forest soils might be due to
decaying plant and animal matter, and nitrogen compounds produced by thunderstorms.

The finding in this study appeared in agreement with the observation made in Ethiopia by
Fantaw and Abdu (2007). Fantaw and Abdu (2011) found that total nitrogen (TN) was the
highest (0.44% in surface and 0.21% in subsurface) under forestland and was the lowest (0.14%
in surface and 0.11% in subsurface) under cultivated land. According to Fantaw and Abdu
(2011), the highest nitrogen content in top soils of forestland indicates the prevalence of more
biological (microbial) activities that might have resulted from highest consumption rate of
nitrogen by microbial in forest land than in cultivated lands. The reduction in total nitrogen with
depth in the cultivated land might be due to nitrogen loss through harvest removal, leaching, and
humus losses associated with cultivation (Fantaw and Abdu, 2011).

Available phosphorus

According to the study conducted by Murphy (1968) the content of available P in the cultivated
land appeared to be significantly higher than forest land. The highest (4.51 mg/kg) and the
lowest (3.53 mg/kg) available P contents were observed under the cultivated and the forest lands,
respectively. The study also showed that available P was higher (4.21 mg/kg) in the subsoil
(20-40 cm) than in the surface layer. Generally, variations in available P contents in soils are

8
related with the intensity of soil weathering or soil disturbance, the degree of P- fixation with Fe
and Ca and continuous application of mineral P fertilizer sources (Paulos, 1996).

The low contents available P observed in the soil of the study area are in agreement with the
results reported by Nega (2006). The study showed that the highest (6.24 mg/kg) and the lowest
(2.26 mg/kg) of available P contents were recorded at the subsoil (20-40 cm) layer of the
cultivated and the forest lands, respectively. The study also showed that available P content was
highest under the cultivated land than forest land. According to Nega (2006) the highest
available P could be due to the application of diammonium phosphate (DAP) fertilizer on the
cultivated land. Furthermore, these may indicate temporally better OM mineralization than
others land uses , and that OM is not necessarily the primary supplying source of available P in
highly weathered tropical soils, rather mineral weathering have considerable importance as
source of available and total soil P pools. On the other hand, the lower P content in the forest
land may be because of the forest vegetation with their larger biomass, absorb larger amount of
available P causing P depletion particularly below the surface (0-20 cm) layer of the soil. In line
with this, the P content of the surface soils under the cultivated land explored by plant roots, had
lower availability P compared to the subsoil layers.

Organic matter

The distribution of soil organic matter also varies under different land use and soil horizons. The
study made by Ahmed (2002) revealed that organic matter content was affected by land use and
soil depth. The study showed that soil organic matter content was highest (1.85%) and lowest
(0.99%) under forest and cultivated land respectively. According to Ahmed (2002), the decline
in soil organic matter in the cultivated land might be due to insufficient inputs of organic
substrate from the farming system, residue removal and zero crop rotation. Considering the soil
depth, higher average organic matter (1.55%) was observed in the surface than subsoil horizons
under forest and the cultivated lands respectively. The study showed that soil organic matter
decreased with increasing soil depth under forest land but this was contrary with the cultivated
land. Soil organic matter content under the cultivated land was higher in the subsoil layers than
in the surface layers. Ahmed (2002) reported that this might be due to soil organic matter
incorporation from surface layer to subsoil layer as a result of the mixing effect of tillage
activities.

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The results of Ahmed (2002) agreed with those of Morgan (2005). The results showed that
organic matter was the highest (9.0 %) and lowest (3.0 %) in topsoil under forest and cultivated
land respectively. According to Morgan (2005), the higher organic matter content in topsoil
under forest land might be attributed to continuous accumulation of un-decayed and partially
decomposed plant and animal residues mainly in the surface soils of forestland and absence of
erosion. On the other hand, the decrease of organic matter in cultivated land might be due to the
prevalence of active erosion, decomposition process and disturbances by tillage implements.
According to Yifru and Yaye (2011), tillage combines different soil layers. It therefore, results
into rapid de-composition of soil organic matter and reduce the contribution of organic and
microbial process to nutrient cycling.

Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

Cation exchange capacity is one of the chemical soil properties which affect plant growth.
Several studies have been conducted to analyze the CEC of soils under different land use and soil
horizons. The study made by Chapman (1965) showed that forest soils have higher CEC than
cultivated soils. This was shown by the highest (28.17 cmol (+)/kg) and the lowest (11.83 cmol
(+)/ kg) values of CEC which were observed under the forest and the cultivated lands,
respectively. Considering the interaction effect of land use by soil depth, the highest CEC value
(30.33 cmol (+)/ kg) was recorded at the surface layer of the forest land, whereas the lowest (10.
66 cmol (+)/ kg) was observed at surface layer of the cultivated land. According to Chapman
(1965), under cultivated land, organic matter increased with soil depth. Therefore, the CEC
under the cultivated lands increased from the surface horizon to the underlying soil layer which
might be attributed to the increase in organic matter content with depth whereas the high CEC on
the forest land might be due to high organic matter content on the surface layer. This finding is
also supported by McAlister et. al., (1998), who justified that soils containing high clay and
organic matter contents have high cation exchange capacity.

Thus, the variability of CEC with soil depth among different land uses imply the difference in the
ability of the soil to hold positively charged ions affecting the stability of soil structure, nutrient
availability, soil pH and soil’s response to fertilizers (Crewett et. al., 2008).

Soil pH

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Soil pH is one of the chemical soil properties which affect plant growth. According to a study
made by Rowell (1994) on assessing the effect of land use on soil pH showed that land use and
depth have an impact on soil pH. Land use changes for example from forest to crop land,
resulted in reduction of soil pH of the soil. The study showed that the highest (6.82) and the
lowest (5.83) soil pH-H2O values were recorded under the forest and the cultivated lands,
respectively. According to Rowell (1994), the lowest value of pH under the cultivated land could
be due to the depletion of basic cations in crop harvest. Generally, the pH values observed in the
study were within the ranges of moderately acidic to neutral soil reactions as indicated by Foth
et. al., (1997).

According to the study, the soil pH also varies with depth (horizon). The study showed that the
higher mean values of pH-H2O (6.50) and pH-KCl (5.58) were observed within the surface soils.
In general, pH values decreased with increasing soil depth.

Kizilkaya and Dengiz (2010) also made a study on the impacts of land use and soil horizon on
soil pH and the results were consistent with those of Rowell (1994).

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CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS

5.0MATERIALS AND METHODS

5.0.1 Study area

This study will be carried out at the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences Research Farm.

The farm is located at 14o35’S latitude and 33o50’E longitude at an altitude of 1158m above sea
level. The area has a unimodal rainfall pattern starting from November to May with annual
rainfall of about 785mm and annual mean minimum and maximum temperatures of 18 to 27 oC,
respectively (Mkumba, 2006). It is characterized by exotic trees such as gmellina and indigenous
trees with natural grasses covering the surface.

5.0.2 Soil sampling and procedure

Two sites will be selected in this study at the research farm, each located within two different
land use types, representing forestland and cultivated land. Six soil pits exposing different
horizons will be dug, three on research field representing the cultivated land and the other three
on the forest land. The boundaries of each horizon will be demarcated and its depth measured
and recorded at each soil pit. Soil samples will be collected from each horizon at different depth.

5.0.3 Laboratory analysis

The soil samples will be air-dried and passed through 2 mm sieve to remove stones, roots, and
large organic residues. Soil sample will be analyzed following standard procedures applied to
tropical soils for soil particle size distribution, cation exchange capacity (CEC), exchangeable
cations, organic matter and soil total nitrogen.

Particle size distribution

The soil particle size distribution will be determined using the Boycouos hydrometric method as
follows; 50 g of air dry soil (2% moisture) will be weighed in a beaker. Then 50 ml of 10%
calgon solution and 100 ml of distilled water will be added to the beaker and mixed, and it will
be let to stand for 15 minutes. Afterwards, the soil suspension will be poured and washed into a
1000ml cylinder, making the suspension to the 1000ml mark with distilled water. The contents of

12
the cylinder will be mixed by end to end shaking with palms for at least ten times. The cylinder
will be placed on the bench and immediately the time will be noted. After 5 minutes, the special
Bouyoucos hydrometer will be placed gently into the suspension and the hydrometer reading
will be taken. This will give the mass in grams of silt + clay. Carefully a thermometer will be
inserted and the temperature recorded. Thereafter, the thermometer will be removed carefully.
After 2 hours the hydrometer reading will be taken again to obtain the value of clay. A blank
determination (one without soil) will be prepared and put on the demonstration table. This will
give the weight due to calgon.

The readings will be corrected a as follows: 0.3 g will be added to hydrometer reading for every
10C above 19.50C, or 0.3 g will subtracted from hydrometer reading for every 1 0C below 19.50C.
Then the blank reading will be subtracted from the weight of calgon.

CALCULATIONS:

 % Silt + Clay = 5 min corrected reading  100

Oven dry weight of soil sample

 % Clay = 2 hr corrected hydrometer reading  100

Oven dry weight of soil sample

 % Silt = % (Silt + Clay) - % Clay

 % Sand = 100 - % (Silt + Clay)

 Thereafter, the textural class will be determined using the textural triangle.

Bulk density

The bulk density will be determined as follows; Firstly, the mass of empty cylinder will be
weighed and its dimensions such as height and radius will be measured. Then the volume of
cylinder will be calculated by multiplying the square of its radius by height and 3.14. The Mass
of dry soil + cylinder will be measured in grams and will be recorded. Afterwards, the mass of
dry soil will be calculated by subtracting mass of empty cylinder from the Mass of dry soil +
cylinder

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CALCULATIONS:

Mass of Dry Soil

= Total Volume of Soil
Bulk density

Total Nitrogen

The total Nitrogen will be determined using the sample digestion method as follows; 0.200 g of
ground, mixed soil will be weighed into a 50 ml digestion tube. Then 4.4 ml of the digestion
solution will be added to each tube. It will be added quickly to ensure that no soil is sticking to
the bottom. Each tube will be swirled for a few seconds immediately after adding digest solution
to ensure good mixing. 5 blanks (4.4 ml of digestion solution with no soil) will be included in
each batch. Then the tubes will be placed on a hot plate, and a stopper or heavy glass vial will be
put on each tube. The solution will be digested for 2 hours at 3600C until they are clear. If not,
the solutions will be swirled and digested for an additional hour. The solutions will be allowed to
cool, and then diluted to 50 ml. From the blank solutions 0, 2.00, 4.00, 6.00 and 8.00 ml will be
removed .Then the same amount of 100 ppm N stock solutions will be added and mixed well.
These solutions will contain 0, 4.00, 8.00, 12.00, and 16.00 ppm N respectively. 0.500 ml of
standards and samples will be placed in 20ml glass vials and 5 ml of N1 solution will be added.
After 10 minutes, 5 ml of N2 solution will be added. Then it will be left for 1 hour for full colour
development and the colour will be stable for one day only. Thereafter, the standard and sample
absorbance will be read at 655 nm. The spectrophotometer will be turned on at least 30 minutes
before running samples and standards. A standard curve will be drawn and the concentrations of
samples and blank will be obtained.

CALCULATIONS:

 % N in soil = (N smpl. conc. ppm – N blnk conc. ppm) × 0.0001 × 50 ml /0.2 g

Where N smpl. conc. is the concentration of the sample and N blnk conc. is concentration
of the blank.

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Available phosphorus

Mehlich-3 extraction method

Soil sample (2.5g) was weighed into centrifuge tubes and 20ml of Mehlich-3 solution was added
to each tube. Then the solution was mixed for 10 minutes and centrifuged/let to stand overnight
then 1ml from each tube was pipited into 25ml vials. 5 standards were made from the Murphy-
Riley stock solution. Volume of 8ml of the working solution was added to the vials. After
30minutes or more the absorbance was read at 860nm.The concentration of available P in a
sample was determined from a standard curve (ppm) using a formula.

Organic matter

Organic matter will be determined using the Walkley – Black Wet Oxidation method as follows;
2 g of oven dry soil will be weighed and put into a 500ml erlenmeyer flask. 10ml 1N potassium
dichromate [K2Cr2O7] will be added to the flask and mixed. Then 10ml of concentrated sulphuric
acid will be added and mixed by gentle rotation for atleast 1 minute. The flask will be set aside
and wait for 30 minutes to keep the heat that will develop to speed up the reaction. Afterwards,
200ml of distilled water will be added and mixed thoroughly. Then 1ml of diphenylamine
indicator and titrate with 0.5N ammonium ferrous sulphate will be added. The colour will change
from dirty black or brown – clear blue – green. Afterwards a blank titration will be run.

CALCULATIONS:

 % easily oxidized C = [B – S] × N × 12 × 100 (1)

4 × 1000 × soil sample weight

 Not all carbon is oxidized, only 77% carbon is oxidized, therefore:

 % total carbon = (1) × 100/77 (2)
 % organic matter = (2) × 100/58

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  % OM = [B – S] × 0.5 × 0.003 × 100 × 1.3 × 1.724

Soil sample weight

Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

The examination of CEC will be as follows; A 400ml beaker will be marked at 290ml. Then 50
ml of 1N barium chloride solution will be put in the beaker. Afterwards, 10 g soil will be
weighed and be stirred into the solution in the beaker. The contents will be swirled for 2 minutes
and then will be decanted through the filter paper collecting the filtrate in a container. The soil on
the filter paper is going to be washed with another 50 ml of barium chloride solution and then
allowed to drain completely. The beaker will be washed with distilled water and will be poured
through the filter paper. Then the soil on the filter paper will be washed with distilled water until
free from chlorides (this can be checked by the use of Silver Nitrate solution). The marked
beaker will be placed under the filter paper containing the soil. The paper will be pierced with a
glass rod and all the soil will be washed with distilled water back into the beaker up to the 290ml
mark. Then 10 ml of 0.5N sulphuric acid is going to be pipetted in, and the whole will be stirred
and will be allowed to settle. The whole is going to be filtered into a 500 ml graduated
volumetric flask and washed up to the mark with distilled water and shake well. Two lots of 20
ml of the extract will be titrated with N/50 sodium hydroxide using 3 – 4 drops of bromo-cresol
green indicator. Then 10 ml of the 0.5N sulphuric acid will be diluted to 500 ml and the two lots
of 20 ml of the dilute acid will be titrated with the sodium hydroxide solution in the same way.
From the difference between the two sets of titrations, the CEC of the soil in milli -equivalents
per 100 g of soil will be calculated.

CALCULATIONS:

(B−T ) X 0. 02 X 100
= 10
CEC (meq/100g)

Soil pH

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The soil pH will be measured electrometrically by using a glass electrode pH meter as follows;
Firstly, 10 g of soil will be weighed out into each of the three 50ml beakers. To the first beaker,
20 ml of distilled water will be added. To the second beaker 50 ml of distilled water will be
added and 20 ml of 0.01M CaCl2 to the third beaker. Afterwards, the suspensions will be stirred
intermittently for 15 – 20 minutes and will let the suspensions to stand for 5 minutes. Then the
pH of the supernatant will be determined using a pH meter.

6.0 DATA ANALYSIS

The physical and chemical soil data will be subjected to descriptive statistics in order to get the
means ranges, and coefficient of variation (CV) of soil attributes. The soil physical and chemical
properties will be analyzed based on the means, ranges and coefficient of variation that will be
calculated.

17
 7.0 WORK PLAN

ACTIVITIES MAR APR MAY JUN SEPT- JAN- MAR- JUNE

2016 2016 2016 2016 DEC FEB MAY 2017
2016 2017 2017

Proposal
development

Proposal
presentation

Proposal
submission

Data collection
and lab analysis

Data processing
and analysis

final report
preparation

Presentation
and submission

18
8.0 BUDGET

REQUIREMENT QUANTITY COST PER UNIT AMOUNT

(MKW)

STATIONERY 3,000

(writing material,
papers)

PRINTING AND K30/page 4,500

PHOTOCOPYING
K20/page

FIELD 5,000
ASSISTANTS

LABORATORY 8 000
CHEMICALS

FIELD TAPE MEASURE 8,000

EQUIPMENTS AND PLASTIC BAGS

PROTECTIVE 8,000
WEAR (coat &
field gumboots)

CONTIGENCY 3,500

TOTAL 40,000

19
9. REFERENCES

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Chilalo, M.Sc. Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Alemaya University,
Ethiopia. 111p.
 Brady N. C. and Weil R. R., (2008). The Nature and Properties of Soils. 14th edition.
Persons Educ. Inc. New Jersey.
 Buol S.W., Hole F.D. and McCracken R.J., (1989). Soil genesis and classification, 3rd Ed.
The Iowa State University Press. New Delhi. 446p.
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southern Mediterranean highland of Turkey. Soil and tillage research 83, 270-277.
 Chapman H.D., (1965). Cation exchange capacity. In: C.A. Black, L.E. Ensminger and
F.E. Clark (Ed). Methods of soil analysis. Agronomy. 9: 891-901. Am. Soc. Agro., Inc.,
Madison, Wisconsin. .
 Chapman H.D., (1965). Cation exchange capacity. In: C.A. Black, L.E. Ensminger and
F.E. Clark (Ed). Methods of soil analysis. Agronomy. 9: 891-901. Am. Soc. Agro., Inc.,
Madison, Wisconsin.
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 Fantaw Y., Ledin S. and Abdu A., (2003). Changes in soil organic carbon and total
nitrogen contents in three adjacent land use types in the Bale Mountains, south-eastern
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 Landon J.R., (1991). Booker tropical soil manual: A Handbook for Soil Survey and
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Technical, Essex, New York. 474p.
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