Pressure Measurement

Pressure
Measurement
Pressure is one of the key thermodynamic parameters. It
is an intensive property. Pressure is defined as a ratio between
a force and a unit area, perpendicular to the direction of that
force, on which the force acts. Mathematically this definition
is expressed as:
In its most basic form, pressure is defined as the amount
of force being applied to an area. As this force is distributed
over a specific area, a change in movement of the defined area
is occurring. It is important to remember that a force is just
an occurrence that is causing an object to move, either
accelerating or decelerating. The amount of movement from
that object is based upon the amount of force. So why is
pressure important? In everyday activities, pressure may not
be a concern whatsoever, however, in a process environment,
pressure is a key component to keeping a system functional.
PRESSURE OF A FLUID (P)
All fluid molecules will be in constant and random
motion called “Brownian motion”, due to which fluid at rest in
a vessel, does exerts force on all the walls of the vessel, with
which it is in contact.
Total pressure of a fluid in a nominated point consists
of two elements:
1. Static pressure - Also referred as “hydrostatic pressure” is the
pressure of a fluid at rest.
2. Dynamic pressure – the pressure of a fluid moving.
Fluid - Any substance that does not conform to a fixed shape

such as liquid or gas.
Static pressure
Defined as a pressure not associated with the fluid
motion, but its state. It is the pressure which would be
indicated by a gauge moving together with the fluid.
Dynamic Pressure
A measurement of kinetic energy of a moving fluid and
depends on its velocity and density.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
At the end of the 16th century, the Italian Galileo Galilei
(1564-1642) was granted the patent for a water pump system used
on irrigation. Galileo Galilei found that 10 meters was the limit to
which the water would rise in the suction pump, but had no
explanation for this phenomenon. Scientists were then devoted to
find the cause for this. In 1643, the Italian physicist Evangelista
Torricelli (1608-1647) invented the barometer, with which he could
evaluate the atmospheric pressure. His research about mercury
columns pave way to his discovery of vacuum.
Five years later, French physicist Blaise Pascal used the
barometer to show that the air pressure was smaller at the top
of the mountains. He also determined the weight of air and
called it “pressure”. In 1849, Eugène Bourdon was granted the
Bourdon Tube patent, used until today in relative pressure
measurements.
The Four common reason why we measure Pressure
• Safety
– Prevent pressurized pipes and vessels from
bursting
• Process efficiency
– Variation of pressure below or above a set-point
will result in scrap rather than usable product in
some manufacturing process
• Cost saving
• Inferred measurement of other variable
Most common types of Pressure Measurement
In function of the reference, the pressure measurement can
be classified as: gauge, absolute and differential or relative.
• Absolute pressure: it is measured with relation to perfect vacuum,
namely, the pressure difference at a given measurement point by
the vacuum pressure (absolute zero). Normally the ABS notation
is used when this greatness is indicated. Example: The absolute
pressure applied by the atmosphere at sea level is 760mmHg.
Differential pressure : it is the pressure difference measured
between two points. When any point other than vacuum or
atmosphere is used as reference it means differential
pressure. For example, the differential pressure found on an
orifice plate.
Gauge pressure : it is measured in relation to the ambient
pressure, namely, in relation to the atmosphere. It is always
important to register on the notation that it is a relative
measurement. Example: 10Kgf/cm2 Relative Pressure.
Manometers
A very simple device used to
measure pressure is the manometer:
a fluid-filled tube where an applied
gas pressure causes the fluid height
to shift proportionately. As you can
see, a manometer is fundamentally
an instrument of differential
pressure measurement, indicating
the difference between two pressures
by a shift in liquid column height
Working Principle of Manometer:
The term manometer is derived from the ancient Greek words
'manós', meaning thin or rare, and 'métron'. A manometer works
on the principle of hydrostatic equilibrium and is used for
measuring the pressure (static pressure) exerted by a still liquid or
gas. Hydrostatic equilibrium states that the pressure at any point
in a fluid at rest is equal, and its value is just the weight of the
overlying fluid. In its simplest form, a manometer is a U-shaped
tube consisting of an incompressible fluid like water or mercury. It
is inexpensive and does not need calibration.
Manometer Types
Manometers come in a variety of forms and they are as
follows:
1. U-Tube Manometers
2. Well Manometers
3. Raised-Well Manometers
4. Inclined Manometers
U-Tube Manometers
It consists of a glass tube bent like the letter 'U'. In this type
of manometer, balancing a column of liquid is done by another
column of same or other liquid. One end of the U-tube is
attached to the point where pressure is to be measured, while the
other end is open to atmospheric pressure.
Well Manometers
As shown in the figure, the well
area is larger than the area of the
tube, denoted by A. The rise in liquid
level in the tube is considered while
that in the well is ignored. If p1 and p2
are absolute pressures applied as
shown in figure:
Raised Well Manometers
It is similar to a well type
manometer in construction. The
only difference being that the
vertical column limb is inclined
at an angle θ. Inclined
manometers are used for
accurate measurement of small
pressure.
Sphygmomanometer and Digital Manometer
A sphygmomanometer, a type of manometer, is commonly used
to check blood pressure in humans. Systolic pressure reading is the
mercury reading on the pressure gauge when the pulse is first
heard, while diastolic pressure reading is when the pulse can first no
longer be heard.
A digital manometer uses a microprocessor and pressure
transducer to sense slight changes in pressure. It gives the pressure
readout on a digital screen. It measures differential pressure across
two inputs. An analog/digital output in proportion to the
instantaneous pressure can be obtained.
Mechanical Pressure Elements
Mechanical pressure-sensing elements include the
bellows, the diaphragm, and the bourdon tube. Each of these
devices converts a fluid pressure into a force.
Bellows
Bellows resemble an accordion constructed from metal
instead of fabric. Increasing pressure inside a bellows unit
causes it to elongate. They are thin-walled metallic cylinders,
with deep convolutions, of which one end is sealed and the
other end remains open. The closed end can move freely while
the open end is fixed.
Bellows Principle of Operation:
When pressure is applied
to the closed end, the bellows
will be compressed. The closed
end will move upwards and the
link, which is the rod in
between the closed end of the
bellows and the transmission
mechanism, will go up and
rotate the pointer.
Diaphragms
A diaphragm is nothing more than a thin disk of material
which bows outward under the influence of a fluid pressure.
Many diaphragms are constructed from metal, which gives them
spring-like qualities. Some diaphragms are intentionally
constructed out of materials with little strength, such that there is
negligible spring effect. These are called slack diaphragms, and
they are used in conjunction with external mechanisms that
produce the necessary restraining force to prevent damage from
applied pressure.
Diaphragm Principle of Operation:
A fluid in contact with a flexible membrane pushes on that
membrane, bending it. The pressure is a measure of how hard it
pushes. When the outside preference is low, the reference pressure
bends the membrane out. As the outside pressure increases, it pushes
back on the membrane, bending it back the other way. By measuring
how far the membrane bends, the gauge can detect the outside
pressure.
Bourdon Tubes
Bourdon tubes are made of spring-like metal alloys bent into
a circular shape. Under the influence of internal pressure, a
bourdon tube “tries” to straighten out into its original shape
before being bent at the time of manufacture. The Bourdon tube
is the namesake of Eugéne Bourdon, a French watchmaker and
engineer who invented the Bourdon gauge in 1849. Over the years,
the Bourdon tube has entrenched itself as the elastic element in
most pressure gauges in application today.
Bourdon Tube Working Principle:
The Bourdon pressure gauge
operates on the principle that, when
pressurized, a flattened tube tends to
straighten or regain its circular form
in cross-section. When a gauge is
pressurized, the Bourdon creates the
dial tip travel to enable pressure
measurement. The higher the
pressure requirement of the
application, the stiffer the Bourdon
tube needs to be
Electrical Pressure Elements
Several different technologies exist for the conversion of
fluid pressure into an electrical signal response. These
technologies form the basis of electronic pressure
transmitters: devices designed to measure fluid pressure and
transmit that information via electrical signals such as the 4-
20mA analog standard, or in digital form such as HART or
FOUNDATION Fieldbus.
Piezoresistive Sensors
Piezoresistive means “pressure-sensitive resistance,” or a
resistance that changes value with applied pressure. The strain gauge
is a classic example of a piezoresistive element: A Strain gauge is a
sensor whose resistance varies with applied force; It converts force,
pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance
which can then be measured. A strain gauge is an elastically
deformable transducer that transforms an applied force or a
mechanical displacement into a change in resistance. It is the
underlying mechanism for the working of a strain gauge load cell.
Strain Gauge Working Principle:
When external forces are applied to a stationary object,
stress and strain are the result. Stress is defined as the object's
internal resisting forces, and strain is defined as the
displacement and deformation that occur.
Applications of the Strain Gauges
The strain gauges are used for two main purposes:
1) Measurement of strain: Whenever any material is subjected to high
loads, they come under strain, which can be measured easily with
the strain gauges. The strain can also be used to carry out stress
analysis of the member.
2) Measurement of other quantities: The principle of change in
resistance due to applied force can also be calibrated to measure a
number of other quantities like force, pressure, displacement,
acceleration etc since all these parameters are related to each other
Differential capacitance sensors
Another common electrical pressure sensor design works on
the principle of differential capacitance. Like the strain gauge,
differential capacitance sensors use a change in electrical
characteristics to infer pressure. Here a change in capacitance is
used to infer pressure measurement. A capacitor is a device that
stores electrical charge. It consists of two metal plates separated by
an electrical insulator. The metal plates are connected to an
external electrical circuit through which electrical charge can be
transferred from one metal plate to the other.
In this design, the sensing
element is a taut metal diaphragm
located equidistant between two
stationary metal surfaces, forming
a complementary pair of
capacitances. An electrically
insulating fill fluid (usually a liquid
silicone compound) transfers
motion from the isolating
diaphragms to the sensing
diaphragm, and also doubles as an
effective dielectric for the two
capacitors:
A classic example of a pressure instrument based on the
differential capacitance sensor is the Rosemount model 1151
differential pressure transmitter, shown in assembled form in
the following photograph:
The concentric corrugations in the metal of the
diaphragm allow it to easily flex with applied pressure,
transmitting process fluid pressure through the silicone fill
fluid to the taut sensing diaphragm inside the differential
capacitance cell.
Differential pressure transmitters
One of the most common, and most useful, pressure
measuring instruments in industry is the differential pressure
transmitter. This device senses the difference in pressure between
two ports and outputs a signal representing that pressure in
relation to a calibrated range.
Regardless of make or model, every differential pressure (“DP”,
“d/p”, or ΔP) transmitter hast two pressure ports to sense different
process fluid pressures. One of these ports is labeled “high” and the
other is labeled “low”. This labeling does not necessarily mean that the
“high” port must always be at a greater pressure than the “low” port.
What these labels represent is the effect that a pressure at that point
will have on the output signal.
-End of Pressure Measurement-
Level
Measurement
Definition:
Level may be defined as the height or vertical distance of a material
from a datum or a fixed referenced point.
Normally, the reference point is the bottom of the tank or vessel that
contains a material.
Units of Level:
1- as DISTANCE- Inches, Meters, etc
2-as % of level span (40%, 90%, etc.)
How is Level Measured?
Level is measured at the position of the interface between

phases, where the phases are liquid/gas, solid/gas, or
immiscible liquid/liquid.
Manners of Level Measurement
Innage - the datum line is at the bottom of the tank, vessel, or
container. The measurement is taken in the liquid from the
datum line to the surface of the liquid.
Outage or Ullage - the datum line is located above the position of
the surface of the liquid or solid.
- the measurement is taken out of the liquid from the datum
line to the surface of the liquid or solid..
Methods of Level Measurement
Direct – simple, almost straightforward and economical; it uses
a direct measurement of the distance (usually height) from the
datum line, and used primarily for local indication.
Indirect - This type of method level is measured in terms of the

variables which changes with change in level of liquid. Such
variables are hydrostatic pressure, attenuation of radioactive
energy, electrical properties.
General Types of Level Measurement
Point Level - interest is only at a certain level or depth
Continous Level - interest is over a range of levels or depth,
typically ) to 100% on operating range
Examples of Level Instruments
Non-Contacting Contacting
-Non contacting radar (C) -Pressure transmitter (C)
-Ultrasonic (C) -Guided Radar wave (C)
-Nuclear (C, P) -capacitance (C, P)
-Magnetic LG (C)
-Displacer ( C)
-Level Switches (P)
-Vibrating pork (P)
INDUSTRIAL LEVEL MEASUREMENTS METHODS
1. VISUAL METHODS
2. FLOAT METHOD
3. DISPLACER METHOD
4. PRESSURE OR DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METHOD
5. DIAPHGRAM BOX METHOD
6. BUBBLER METHOD
7. CAPACITANCE METHOD
8.CONDUCTANCE METHOD
9. TIME OF FLIGHT METHOD
10. NUCLEONIC METHOD
I. VISUAL METHOD
– Dipstick
– Lead Lines
– Gauge and Sight Glass
I. VISUAL METHODS OF MEASURING LEVEL
Dipstick - oldest form of level measuring device that is essentially a stick or rod
that is calibrated to indicate level.
Working Principle
-Dipstick is lowered vertical into a tank or vessel until it reaches a reference
point.
-Usually the bottom of the tank is used to ensure that the stick is inserted to
the correct depth.
-The dipstick is then withdrawn and the level is read by determining where
the interface made contact with the dipstick. Reading the scale on the dipstick
indicates the level measurement.
Dipstick
Advantages:
• simple, cheap, instant
• can be used by any wet material and not affected by density
Disadvantages:
• Need to remove to read
LEAD LINES
A lead line acts in the same way as a dipstick. A steel measuring

tape with a weight attached, the lead line can be used in the
most places that the dipstick can.
Lead Lines
Advantages:
-easier to handle than dipsticks
-can measure much higher levels than dipsticks
Disadvantages:
-it requires action be performed
-no continuous representation of process measurement
GAUGE AND SIGHT GLASSES
Provides continuous measurement and can
also be employed in both open and closed
tank applications
Working Principle
The sight glass is a transparent tube of glass
or plastic mounted outside the vessel and
connected to the vessel with pipes. The liquid
level in the sight glass matches the level of
liquid in the process tank.
TYPES OF LEVEL GAUGES
1. Transparent Level Gauge
• Employ two transparent glasses fitted with a liquid chamber on
either side. The liquid level is indicated as a result of difference in the
transparent properties of the two media. For water / steam
applications, an illuminator is mounted on the rear side of the gauge
with its light rays deflected upward into the water column.
2. Magnetic Level Gauge
• A float-containing magnet follows liquid level in the liquid
chamber, which corresponds to the level in the tank. Position of
the float inside the chamber is indicated outside by bi-colored
flapper embedded with magnet by 180 Deg rotation and setting
into uniform color along the traverse of the float.
3. Reflex Level Gauge
• Use glasses having the face fitted towards the chamber shaped to have
prismatic grooves with section angle of 90°. When in operation, the chamber
is filled with liquid in the lower part and gases or vapors in the upper part.
II. FLOAT METHOD
-A float is a device that follow the level
variations of the liquid and transmit these
variations to a pointer through cable or
tape, which passes over a pulley to as
counter weight. The float itself must be
substantially lesser density than the
substance of interest, and it must not
corrode or otherwise react with the
substance.
Float Switch
Float switches are inexpensive
way to detect level of liquid at a
specific level.
III. DISPLACER METHOD
Archimedes’ Principle:
A body immersed in a liquid will be buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of
the liquid it displaces. This upward pressure acting on the area of the displacer
creates the buoyant force.
Variable displacement level device utilize this principle by measuring the weight
of the immersed displacer.
Basic principle:
A displacer must be connected to a measuring mechanism which, when sensing
the changes in buoyant force, converts this force into an indication of level. A
displacer body can be suspended directly in a tank, or installed in a float
chamber outside of the vessel.
IV CONDUCTIVITY METHOD
Principles of Operation:
Two electrodes are positioned in a tank. One extends to the
minimum level; the other is positioned so that its lower edge is at the
maximum level.
The tank is grounded and functions as the common, or third

electrode. Usually, a stilling well is provided to ensure that the
interface is not disturbed and to prevent false measurement.
CONDUCTANCE AND RESISTANCE TYPE
• The terminals of the electrodes are connected to relays, which
transmit signals to a display or control device. If the process level
contacts any portion of the electrode that extends to the
minimum level, a conductive path is established through the
grounded tank to the electrode.
• If the level falls below this electrode, the path is interrupted given
that the gas or vapor is nonconductive.
• The level condition may then activate a device , which sounds an
alarm or energizes a control device to operate a pump, feed
controller or other processing equipment.
Advantages:
• There are no moving parts
• They are low cost
• Fairly easy to use
Disadvantages:
• They are invasive (meaning they must touch the product being
sensed)
• They only sense conductive liquids
• The probe will erode over time
V CAPACITANCE METHOD
The principle of operation of capacitance level indicator is based upon the familiar
capacitance equation of a parallel plate capacitor given by:
C = K (A/D)
C = Capacitance in farad
K = Dielectric constant
A = Area of plate in m2
D – Distance between two plates, in m
Capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to the dielectric constant
, and this principle is utilized in the capacitance level indicator.
As material contacts the probe, the radio frequency shifts indicating an
increase in capacitance C.
Application: Liquids
Advantage:
• The primary sensing element is very simple and rugged and has no moving
parts.
• They can be used to measure levels of liquids and powdery or granular
materials.
• Capability for temperature, pressure and corrosion resistance is easily
obtained.
• The sensing elements are easily cleaned, and sanitary standards are readily
met.
Limitations:
• Viscous conducting liquids, which coat the sensing element can cause
erroneous or false readings unless a detector which compensates for coating is
used.
CAPACITANCE LEVEL MEASUREMENTS
• Rotating Paddle Switch
• Vibration Fork
Rotating Paddle Switch
• Rotating Paddle switch is used to detect the
presence and absence of solids in a process
tank.
• The device makes use of a motor which
slowly rotates a paddle in the absence of
material, and rotates itself to actuate a
switch when the paddle is prevented from
turning by the presence of material.
• They may be used for both high and low-
level point control.
Typical application- Lime silos
Rotating paddle:
• Industry: Water and
wastewater
• Application: Lime silo

measurement, Hi and re
order levels
Vibration Fork
Principle:
Tuning Fork Sensors are point level switches
that are designed to detect low or high levels of
liquids. It is based on the vibrating tuning fork
principle, using piezoelectric crystals. The
switch vibrates at a resonant frequency. When
the tuning fork is submerged in the product,
the frequency changes. This change is detected
by the integrated oscillator and converted into a
switching output.
VIBRATING FORK SENSORS
• This type of control features a tuning fork as a sensing probe.
• A piezoelectric crystal vibrates the probe when there is no
material surrounding it. When material contacts the probe,
the circuitry detects its presence and operates a contact
closure.
• The natural frequency of oscillation is approx. 1300Hz and
1400 hz.
• Vibratory controls can be used for both high and low level
detection.
VI Differential Pressure Method
Level measurement using hydrostatic principle with

differential pressure transmitter.
Application: almost in all applications, especially between
gaseous and liquid interface such in boilers.
The Pressure of liquid in an open tank depends on two factors:

• The elevation of the liquid above the measurement point
• The specific gravity (relative density) of liquid
– Pressure head = PH= height x specific gravity
(expressed as head water)
VII DIAPHRAGM BOX
Another open tank level measuring instrument which uses
the hydrostatic head principle is the diaphragm box.
• The diaphragm box is submerged in the process liquid
and connected to a pressure gage by gage line. The
hydrostatic head produced by the level of the liquid in
the tank exerts pressure on the bottom of the diaphragm
causing it to flex upward.
• This action compresses the gas in the box and the gage
line.
• The pressure is applied to a gage or other pressure element
that is part of an indicator assembly calibrated to indicate
liquid level units.
• As the level in the vessel rises, the pressure exerted by the
hydrostatic head on the diaphragm increases in direct
proportion. The diaphragm will continue to flex until the
pressure of the gas in the box and the gage line is equal to the
pressure exerted by the level of the liquid on the bottom of the
diaphragm
Disadvantage:
• The diaphragm is in contact with the process liquid. This may
preclude its use in corrosive process applications.
• A diaphragm can admit gas into a process liquid. In some
instances, this can be detrimental to the process.
• The system is also sensitive to changes in volume and
pressure caused by changes in temperature.
VIII BUBBLER METHOD
• The simple level measurement has a dip tube
installed with the open end close to the
bottom of the process vessel. A flow of gas,
usually air or nitrogen passes through the
tube and resultant air pressure in the tube
corresponds to the hydraulic head of he
liquid in the vessel. The air pressure in the
bubbler tube varies proportionally with the
change in head pressure.
• Application: Liquids
BUBBLER TUBE PURGE OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT
• One method of monitoring/controlling liquid level in a tank is the
use of Bubbler Tubes with Pressure or Differential Pressure
Transmitters. A small but uninterrupted flow of air or inert gas is
forced down through a dip tube which extends to near the bottom
of the tank.
• The pressure transmitter takes the back pressure and converts it
to an analog signal that is sent to the control room. The plant
operator will then be able to monitor the exact level in the tank.
ADVANTAGES:
• Simplicity of design
• Low initial purchase
• It can be mounted at any location and elevation with respect to the tank.
• Most useful applications such as underground tanks and water wells.
DISADVANTAGES:
• It is frequently necessary to periodically clean this device
• The tip of the pipe can collect material from the process, solidify and plug
the hole
• Bubblers are not suitable for use in non vented vessels.
• They are generally limited to open-tank applications.
IX TIME OF FLIGHT
– Ultrasonic Level Measurement
– Radar Level Measurement
ULTRASONIC LEVEL MEASUREMENTS
Principle: Ultrasonic devices operate on the

echo principle. When sound waves contact
solid or liquid surfaces , only a small
proportion of the sound energy in the wave
penetrates the surface. Most of the sound is
reflected. The reflected sound wave is an
echo. A sound wave is usually generated at a
frequency of about 20 kHz.
Application: Liquids and Slurries
Continuous ultrasonic level measurement systems are designed
to measure the time of flight of a reflected sound wave. In other
words, it measures the time required for an ultrasonic sound
wave to travel to the process surface and be reflected back to the
receiver. The genetic name for such device is sonar.
Note:
Technology is limited by the shapes of surfaces and the consistency of the material.
For example foam on the surface of a liquid in a tank could distort a reading.
ADVANTAGES:
• Essentially no moving parts
• Accuracy is good where application is suitable
• Application to some difficult-to-measure streams such as
powders, solids, solid-contacting fluids and slurries
• Easy to install
• Capability for continuous measurement without contacting
the process material
DISADVANTAGE:
• More expensive and sophisticated than the more conventional
measuring systems.
• Ultrasonic techniques are generally reserved for those
applications in which the use of conventional systems would
present serious difficulties and yield less successful results.
Radar level measurements
• Radar method- radar instruments
operate by transmitting a high
frequency (GHz) electromagnetic
radiation and timing the transit time
to the level surface and back.
Uses time of flight
Technology of radar
And microwave signals
Which is used for
Level measurements
Principle: The two technologies on the market are:
Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave ( FMCW)
• Continuously emit a swept frequency signal and distance is inferred from
the difference in frequency between the transmit and receive signals at any
point in time. FMCW is therefore the only method that is suitable for the
high accuracy’s demanded for tank gauging.
Pulsed Wave Time of Flight ( PWTF)
• Emit a microwave burst towards the process material , this burst is reflected
by the surface of the material and detected by the same sensor which now
acts as a receiver. Level is inferred from the time of flight (transmission to
reception) of the microwave signal. Microwave “echoes” are evaluated by
sampling and building up a historical profile of the echoes.
Radar Type (Non contact)
Radar level instruments send radio waves

out through open space to reflect off the
process material. The instruments relying on
open space for signal propagation are called
non contact radar
Radar type Guided-wave Radar (GWR)
Radar level instruments use waveguide

“probes” to guide the radio waves into
the process liquid. The instruments
using wave guided-wave are called
guided-wave radar instruments
Radar Gauge Applications:
Radar gauge effectively overcome the difficulties of level measurement problems such as:
• Agitations
• Density change
• Temperature change
• Vapors
• Condensates
• Changing dielectric
When selecting a level measurement technology, consider the reliability, accuracy, and
versatility of radar technology.
X. NUCLEONIC METHOD
Nuclear Level Measurement
One of the most effective methods of shielding against
gamma ray radiation is with very dense substance such
as lead or concrete. That is why the source boxes
holding gamma-emitting radioactive pellets are lined
with lead, so the radiation escapes only in the direction
intended.
These “sources” may be locked out for testing and

maintenance by moving a lever that hinges a lead
shutter over the window of the box. This lead shutter
acts as an on/off switch for the radioactive source.
The lever actuating the shutter typically
has provisions for lock-out/tag-out so
maintenance person may place a padlock
on the lever and prevent anyone else from
“turning on” the source during
maintenance.
Nuclear continuous level measurement

works by directing a narrow fan of
radiation through the vessel to a detector.
As the process level rises, it shields the
detector from the radiation.
The more radiation the detector “sees” the lower the process level
(discernable to 1% of span). The less radiation detected, the
higher the process level.
Applications:
• Used in many difficult applications such as High
Temperature, High Pressure, Toxic and sticky materials.
-End of Level Measurements
Flow
Measurement
FLOW PROFILES
Laminar
-Characterized by concentric layers of fluid moving in parallel
down the length of a pipe.
Turbulent
-Characterized by a fluid motion that has local velocities and
pressures that fluctuate randomly.
Factors affecting Flow rates in pipes
1. Fluid Velocity or Head (+)
-Depends on the head pressure which is forcing the fluid
through the pipes.
2. Viscosity (-)
-is the molecular friction w/in a fluid
3. Frictional Resistance (-)
-the friction of the fluid in contact w/ the pipe
Four Types of Flowmeters
1. Volumetric
– Directly measures ”Q” by repeatedly trapping a sample of the fluid.
– PD meters, Helical screw meter, rotating lobe meter, paddle wheel meter
2. Velocity
– Measures the velocity; ie. Turbine, vortex shedding, electromagnetic,
ultrasonic
3. Inferential/Indirect
– Differential pressure or head meters. Ie; orifice plates, venturi tubes, flow
tubes, flow nozzles, pitot tubes, elbow tap meters, rotameters, target meters
4. Mass
– Measures mass directly. i.e, mass coriolis, thermal
1. Volumetric Flowmeters
a) Helical screw
The helical (spindle) flow meter (SRZ)
operates by way of the displacement
principle. Two circular helical axes with
geometric profiles are in a cylindrical
housing. Through the enclosed
measuring chambers between the spindle
and the wall of the housing, the liquid is
transported, causing the spindles to
rotate. The spin speed of the spindles is
proportional to the volume flow over a
very wide range.
b) Rotating Lobe
A flowmeter is an instrumentation device
used to measure and record the flow rate
of a gas or fluid. A rotating vane flow
meter is a type of positive displacement
meter in which the fluid passed through
a rotating set of vanes. The passage
between each set of vanes delivers a
specific volume of fluid to the outlet side
of the meter, allowing the flow rate to be
determined based on the rotational rate
of the vanes.
c) paddle wheel
The working principle of a paddle
wheel flowmeter is simple. A
paddle wheel probe is in contact
with the process fluid and, as the
fluid flows in the flowmeter, it
makes the paddle wheel rotate at a
speed proportional to the flow rate
2. Velocity Flowmeters
a) Turbine flowmeter
-The unit consists of a multiple-
bladed rotor mounted with a pipe,
perpendicular to the liquid flow. The
rotor spins as the liquid passes
through the blades. The rotational
speed is a direct function of flow rate
and can be sensed by magnetic pick-
up, photoelectric cell, or gears
Applications
The turbine meters are widely used for military applications.

They are particularly useful in blending systems for the
petroleum industry. They are effective in aerospace and air
borne applications for energy-fuel and cryogenic flow
measurements
b) Vortex
Vortex flow meters operate under
the vortex shedding principle,
where an oscillating vortexes occur
when a fluid such as water flow
past a bluff (as opposed to
streamlined) body. The frequency
that the vortexes are shed depend
on the size and shape of the body.
c) Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic Flowmeters are
based on Faraday's Law of
Electromagnetic Induction.
In an Electromagnetic Flowmeter,
the magnetic field is generated by a
set of coils. As the conductive liquid
passes through the electromagnetic
field, an electric voltage is induced
in the liquid which is directly
proportional to its velocity.
• This induced voltage is perpendicular to both, the liquid flow
direction and the electromagnetic field direction. The voltage sensed
by the electrodes is further processed by the transmitter to give
standardized output signal or displayed in appropriate engineering
unit.
• The flux density of the electromagnetic field in a given Flowmeter and
the distance between the electrodes are constant.
• The induced voltage is not affected by the physical properties of
liquids like temperature, viscosity, pressure, density and conductivity
as long as the conductivity of the measured liquid is above the
minimum threshold level. For reliable measurement, the pipe must
be completely full of liquid
d) ultrasonic
Ultrasonic flowmeters use sound waves to
determine the velocity of a fluid flowing in a
pipe. At no flow conditions, the frequencies
of an ultrasonic wave transmitted into a pipe
and its reflections from the fluid are the
same. Under flowing conditions, the
frequency of the reflected wave is different
due to the Doppler effect. When the fluid
moves faster, the frequency shift increases
linearly. The transmitter processes signals
from the transmitted wave and its reflections
to determine the flow rate.
For transit time ultrasonic flowmeters, be sure that the fluid can
adequately conduct ultrasonic waves, because the flowmeter will
not measure when the ultrasonic waves cannot penetrate the flow
stream between the transducers.
Similarly, ultrasonic waves must be able to penetrate the fluid for
Doppler flowmeters to operate accurately. When the fluid is
relatively opaque and does not penetrate the fluid, Doppler
flowmeters tend to measure the velocity of the fluid at or near the
pipe wall, which can cause significant measurement error and/or
cause the flowmeter to fail.
3. Indirect/Inferential Flowmeters
a) Orifice
An Orifice Meter is basically a type of
flow meter used to measure the rate of
flow of Liquid or Gas, especially
Steam, using the Differential Pressure
Measurement principle. It is mainly
used for robust applications as it is
known for its durability and is very
economical.
Principle:
• When a liquid / gas, whose flow-rate is to be
determined, is passed through an Orifice Meter, there is
a drop in the pressure between the Inlet section and
Outlet Section of Orifice Meter. This drop in pressure
can be measured using a differential pressure
measuring instrument.
• Since this differential pressure is in direct proportion to
the flow-rate as per the Bernoulli's Equation hence the
differential pressure instrument can be configured to
display flow-rate instead of showing differential
pressure.
• The working principle of Orifice Meter is the same, as
that of Venturi meter.
Orifice meters are built in different forms
depending upon the application specific
requirement, The shape, size and location
of holes on the Orifice Plate describes the
Orifice Meter Specifications as per the
following:
• Concentric Orifice Plate
• Eccentric Orifice Plate
• Segment Orifice Plate
• Quadrant Edge Orifice Plate
Concentric Orifice Plate
It is made up of SS and its thickness varies from 3.175 to 12.70 mm. The plate thickness
at the orifice edge should not be exceeded by any of following parameters:
• 1 - D/50 where, D = The pipe inside diameter
• 2 - d/8 where, d = orifice bore diameter
• 3 - (D-d)/8
• *Beta Ratio(β): It is the ratio of orifice bore diameter (d) to the pipe inside diameter
(D).
Quadrant Edge Orifice Plate
This type of orifice plate is used for flow such as crude oil, high viscosity syrups or
slurries etc. It is conceivably used when the line Reynolds Numbers* range from 100,000
or above or in between to 3,000 to 5,000 with a accuracy coefficient of roughly 0.5%.
Eccentric Orifice Plate
• It is similar to Concentric Orifice plate other than the offset hole which is
bored tangential to a circle, concentric with the pipe and of a diameter
equal to 98% of that of the pipe. It is generally employed for measuring
fluids containing
• Media having Solid particles
• Oils containing water
• Wet steam
Segment Orifice Plate
• It has a hole which is a semi circle or a segment of circle. The diameter is
customarily 98% of the diameter of the pipe.
Advantages of Orifice meter:
• The Orifice meter is very cheap as compared to other types of flow meters.
• Less space is required to Install and hence ideal for space constrained applications
• Operational response can be designed with perfection.
• Installation direction possibilities: Vertical / Horizontal / Inclined.
Limitations of Orifice meter:
• Easily gets clogged due to impurities in gas or in unclear liquids
• The minimum pressure that can be achieved for reading the flow is sometimes difficult to
achieve due to limitations in the vena-contracta length for an Orifice Plate.
• Unlike Venturi meter, downstream pressure cannot be recovered in Orifice Meters. Overall
head loss is around 40% to 90% of the differential pressure .
• Flow straighteners are required at the inlet and the outlet to attain streamline flow
thereby increasing the cost and space for installation.
• Orifice Plate can get easily corroded with time thereby entails an error.
• Discharge Co-efficient obtained is low.
b) Venturi
When a fluid, whose flowrate is to be determined, is passed through a Venturi
meter, there is a drop in the pressure between the Inlet section and Cylindrical
Throat of Venturi meter. The drop in pressure can be measured using a
differential pressure measuring instrument. Since this differential pressure is in
direct proportion to the flowrate as per the Bernoulli's Equation hence the
differential pressure instrument can be configured to display flowrate instead of
showing differential pressure.
Application of Venturi meter:
• It is used where high pressure recovery is required.
• Can be used for measuring flow rates of water, gases,
suspended solids, slurries and dirty liquids.
• Can be used to measure high flow rates in pipes having
diameters in a few meters.
Advantages of Venturi meter:
• The Venturi tubes can be used to handle fluids that contain
slurries / sludges (for example: Sugar Cane Mill) , because these
Venturi tubes contain no sharp corners and do not project into
the fluid stream.
• Negligible possibility of clogging with deposits or sludge.
• A higher Coefficient of discharge obtainable.
• Operational response can be designed with perfection.
• Installation direction possibilities: Vertical / Horizontal / Inclined.
Limitations of Venturi meter:
• Venturi meters are expensive
• Cannot be used in space constrained application because of their
significant size.
• Flow straighteners are required at the inlet and the outlet to
attain streamline flow thereby increasing the cost and space for
installation further.
• Minimum line size for Installation of Venturi meter is limited to
1/2" (0.5 inch).
c) Flow nozzle
Flow Nozzle Principle.
• When a flow nozzle is placed in a pipe carrying whose rate

of flow is to be measured, the flow nozzle causes a pressure
drop which varies with the flow rate. This pressure drop is
measured using a differential pressure sensor and when
calibrated this pressure becomes a measure of flow rate.
Description of Flow Nozzle
• The main parts of flow nozzle arrangement used to measure
flow rate are as follows:
• A flow nozzle which is held between flanges of pipe carrying
the fluid whose flow rate is being measured. The flow nozzle’s
area is minimum at its throat.
• Openings are provided at two places 1 and 2 for attaching a
differential pressure sensor (u-tube manometer, differential
pressure gauge etc.,) as show in the diagram.
Applications of Flow Nozzle
• It is used to measure flow rates of the liquid discharged into
the atmosphere.
• It is usually used in situation where suspended solids have the
property of settling.
• Is widely used for high pressure and temperature steam flows.
Advantages of flow Nozzle
• Installation is easy and is cheaper when compared to venturi
meter
• It is very compact
• Has high coefficient of discharge.
Disadvantages of flow Nozzle
• Pressure recovery is low
• Maintenance is high
• Installation is difficult when compared to orifice flow meter.
d) Pitot Tubes
The basic pitot tube consists of a tube
pointing directly into the fluid flow.
As this tube contains fluid, a pressure
can be measured; the moving fluid is
brought to rest (stagnates) as there is
no outlet to allow flow to continue.
This pressure is the stagnation
pressure of the fluid, also known as
the total pressure or (particularly in
aviation) the pitot pressure.
How it operates is that flow moving down the pipe encounters
the front side of the T-shaped bar which creates high-pressure
above the pipe static pressure, which is picked up by slots in the
Annubar sensor. These slots capture the flow profile across the
bar to get a more accurate measurement of the flow rate. Low
pressure, below the pipe static pressure, is created on the back
side of the bar. The differential pressure (DP) transmitter reads
these pressure values
4. Mass Flowmeters
a) coriolis
A Coriolis flow meter contains a
tube which is energized by a fixed
vibration. When a fluid (gas or
liquid) passes through this tube
the mass flow momentum will
cause a change in the tube
vibration, the tube will twist
resulting in a phase shift.
What Is the Coriolis Effect?
• Coriolis flow meters are named after Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis,
a French mathematician and engineer. In 1835, Coriolis wrote a
paper in which he described the behavior of objects in a rotating
frame of reference. While this is sometimes called the Coriolis
Force, it is more accurately called the Coriolis Effect, since it is not
the result of a force acting directly on the object, but rather the
perceived motion of a body moving in a straight line over a
rotating body or frame of reference.
4. Mass Flowmeters
b) Thermal
Thermal mass flow meters are designed
to accurately monitor and measure mass
flow (as opposed to measuring volumetric
flow) of clean gases, a parameter that is
not temperature dependent.
Therefore, the thermal mass flow meter

does not require a correction for changes
in gas temperature, pressure, viscosity
and density.
Thermal Mass Flow Meter Advantages
• Measure gas mass flow rate directly
• Suitable for applications where temperature and pressures
fluctuate
• Highly accurate and repeatable measurements with a typical
accuracy of ± 1% FS
• Able to measure accurately low gas flow rates or low gas velocities
• Excellent turn down ratio, typically 50:1
• No moving parts
Thermal Mass Flow Meter Limitations
• Gas mass meter use is limited to clean, non abrasive fluids
• Presence of moisture or droplets can lead to measurement
inaccuracy
• Thermal properties must be known: variation from calibrated
values can cause inaccuracies
• Relatively high initial cost
Thermal Flow Meter Applications
Thermal mass flow meters are suitable for a variety of processes requiring mass
flow measurement and are frequently used for the regulation of low gas flows.
Some common gas flow applications for thermal mass flow meters include:
• Compressed air flow and distribution
• Natural gas consumption eg for burner and boiler feed control
• Monitoring and control of stack or flue gas (where composition known)
• Landfill gas recovery
• Flare gas measurement
• Gas flow mixing & blending
• Gas leak testing and detection
-End of Flow measurement
Analytical
Measurement
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Analytical
DEFINITION:
It deals with the measurement
and control of various physical
Instrumentation and chemical properties.
EXAMPLE OF MEASURED PROPERTIES
o ph o flash point
o Conductivity o distillation curve
o Density o Chemical
o Viscosity composition
o octane number
CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION
OF ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS
CALIBRATION VALIDATION
a process by which ensure a detailed process of
that an instrument readings confirming that the instrument
are accurate with reference is installed correctly, that it is
established standards. operating effectively, and that
it is performing without error.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTATION
(AI) AND ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (AC)
Analytical Analytical Chemistry

Instrumentation (AI) (AC)
▪ Real time analysis • Results are delayed
▪ Continuous sampling • Grab sampling
▪ Probe location is in the plant • Probe locations is in the laboratory
PURPOSE AND 1.Detection of harmful agents
and screening
USES OF ANALYSIS ▪ Preventive medical examinations (e.g.,

blood sugar, test sticks)
▪ Toxicology and forensic medicine:
identification of poisons and drugs.
▪ Toxin identification and cause
determinations in environmental incidents
2. Decision making
• Proof in criminology, Medical diagnostics
• Evaluation of toxic emissions from
facilities (threshold limit)
• Determination of fees and penalties (e.g.,
wastewater emissions, solid waste
disposal, atmospheric emissions)
• Quality control testing of raw material
upon receipt from suppliers
PURPOSE AND USES OF ANALYSIS
3.Ensuring the protection of 4.Monitoring, process supervision,

people and the environment and process regulation
▪ Warning systems (e.g., gas detection • Process supervision of foodstuff,

systems) pharmaceutical, chemical, and material
▪ Foodstuff inspections production
▪ Quality control of pharmaceuticals, • Emissions monitoring of environmentally
chemicals, fuels, and other materials relevant facilities
TITRATIONS A technique where a solution
of known concentration us used to
determine the concentration of an
unknown solution using analytical
method.
ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS
SPECTROMETERS RHEOMETER
ELEMENTAL ANALYZER CHROMATOGRAPHS
THERMAL ANALYZERS PH METER

SPECTROMETERS
Instruments used to gauge properties of
light over a particular portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum, characteristically
used in spectroscopic analysis to detect
materials. The variable measured is usually the
light's intensity or the polarization state.
A spectrometer is used in spectroscopy

for generating spectral lines and gauging their
wavelengths and intensities.
Components of Spectrometers:
An emission source which produces the spectrum
An optical system which collimates and disperses the spectrum
The detecting device to measure the emitted lines intensities
Main Features
APERTURE – depends on the dimension of the source and the characteristics of the spectrometer
TRANSMITTANCE – depends on the spectral range and the optical components
ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT – takes into account the arrangement of components,
their material and the environment, such as humidity, pressure.

Spectrometers Range of Operation:
From Gamma Rays & X-Rays
To Far Into the Infrared Spectrum
Measures in Relative Units
Common Types:
UV SPECTROMETERS - uses ultraviolet light
IR SPECTROMETERS - device sends a range of IR wavelengths through the sample to record the absorbance
MASS SPECTROMETERS - analytical technique that ionizes chemical species and sorts the ions based on their mass –
to – charge ratio
COLORIMETERS – used for determining the concentration of a known substance in solution, by measuring a sample's
transmittance or absorbance at a fixed wavelength and comparing the result to a calibration curve.
Parts of a Spectrometer
RHEOMETER A rheometer measures flow. More
specifically, rheometers measures
the forces (like shear) associated
with a flowing substance. Typically,
the flowing substance is much
thicker than a liquid.
It is an instrument that measures

both viscosity and viscoelasticity of
fluids, semi-solids and solids
How does it work?
Rheometer works by relating a materials property from how hard it’s being pushed, to how far it moves:
by commanding torque (stress) and measuring angular displacement (strain)
by commanding angular displacement (strain) and measuring torque (stress)
It can provide information about the material’s:

VISCOSITY VISCOELASTICITY
defined as a material’s resistance to A property of a material that exhibits both

deformation and is a function of shear rate viscous and elastic character. Measurements
or stress, with time and temperature of G’, G”, tan δ with respect to time,
dependence temperature, frequency and stress/strain are
important for characterization.
GEOMETRY OPTIONS
GEOMETRY OPTIONS
2 Types of Rheometer
ROTATIONAL RHEOMETER
It is an instrument used to
determine how a liquid or slurry flows.
Rotational rheometers can measure
viscosity, thixotropy, shear stress, and
shear strain.
Used in the plastics, petroleum,

cosmetic, food, and pharmaceutical
industries, rotational rheometers help
to maintain parameters such as
consistency and fluidity, which in turn
allow predictions to be made about
stability, texture, and shelf life.
2 Types of Rheometer
EXTENSIONAL RHEOMETER
It focuses on pulling on a piece of

material in a purely extensional
manner, i.e. no shear.
Parts of Rheometer
This rheometer has three main
components:
(1)the main unit mounted on a

cast metal stand that supports
the geometry,
(2) an electronic control circuitry

contained in a separated box
(electronic box), and
(3) the sample holder (Peltier

plate).
CHN/O ANALYZER
(ELEMENTAL ANALYZER)
a scientific instrument which can

determine the elemental composition
of a sample.
The name derives from the three

primary elements measured by the
device: carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and
nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O).Sulfur (S)
can also be measured.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
The capsule is injected into a high After scrubbing, the gases enter a mixing
temperature (1000°C) furnace and volume chamber to ensure a homogeneous
combusted in pure oxygen under static mixture at constant temperature and
conditions. At the end of the combustion pressure. The mixture then passes through a
period, a dynamic burst of oxygen is added series of high-precision thermal conductivity
to ensure total combustion of all inorganic detectors, each containing a pair of thermal
and organic substances. conductivity cells. Between the first two cells
is a water trap.
The resulting combustion products pass The differential signal between the cells is
through specialized reagents to produce proportional to the water concentration,
carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and which is a function of the amount of hydrogen
Nitrogen (N2) and oxides of nitrogen. These in the original sample. Between the next two
reagents also remove other interferences cells is a carbon dioxide trap for measuring
including halogens, sulfur and phosphorus. carbon. Finally, nitrogen is measured against
The gases are then passed over copper to a helium reference (Figure 2).
scrub excess oxygen and reduce oxides of
nitrogen to elemental nitrogen.
ADVANTAGES
can combust the widest range of sample type, from volatiles to
refractories.
Fully automated.
Rapid analysis for high productivity - analysis time of less than 5

minutes per sample.
Stable thermal conductivity detector provides linear response

with superior precision and accuracy.
Horizontal sample injection removes interfering residue between

each sample run.
pharmaceuticals, chemicals, oil-related products,
catalysts and food.
APPLICATIONS In the oil industry, an important application is the

regular monitoring of coke build-up on refinery
APPLICATIONS catalysts to ensure that regeneration procedures
(involving controlled burning of the carbon) are
APPLICATIONS executed at optimal intervals. Since many of these
catalyst systems involve large quantities of noble
APPLICATIONS metals such as platinum, palladium and rhenium,
APPLICATIONS mismanagement of this testing would entail
serious financial losses.
In food analysis, the determination of nitrogen (as

a surrogate for protein) is very important for pricing
grain and evaluating meat products, and is
increasingly undertaken by combustion analysis.
Characterization of Polymers and Plastics Using an
Elemental Analyzer
EXAMPLE
CHROMATOGRAPH LIQUID
CHROMATOGRAPH
a device for separating substances
that are volatile enough to be
vaporized. It consists of an injection
system for introducing the sample, a
column in which the separation
occurs, and a detector.
The mixture is dissolved in a fluid

called the mobile phase, which
carries it through a structure holding GAS
another material called the phase. CHROMATOGRAPH
Chromatography equipment includes all the components needed for
separation: columns, frits, flow cells, pumps, detector, collectors and
software to complete systems used for High Performance Liquid
Chromatography (HPLC), Gas chromatography (GC) and Liquid
Chromatography and Mass Spectrophotometers (LC-MS).
It is based on the principle where molecules in mixture applied onto the

surface or into the solid, and fluid stationary phase (stable phase) is
separating from each other while moving with the aid of a mobile
phase.
Gas Chromatograph
used to separate and measure various types of gases
It is a sensitive technique, can analyze small samples, and can be automated,
but is also relatively expensive and requires technical knowledge.
Liquid Chromatograph
used to isolate the individual components of a mixture.
This involves mass transfer of a sample through a polar mobile phase and
non-polar stationary phase.
Advantages
can be controlled by a single person a complex mixture can separate
rapid and precise very few sample volume/quantity is required

for analysis.
works on a broad range of samples. continuous operation
Disadvantages
expensive require high power consumption
periodic maintenance and parts need to be prone to error

changed
sensitive high operational pressure is required.
Thermal Analyzers
Thermal analysis can be used to measure the energy
absorbed or released as a function of time or a
controlled temperature profile.
Other methods include measuring weight changes as a

function of temperature or time, evolved gas analysis.
Measuring expansion of small components and low
expansion rates of circuit boards, component materials,
and much more.
These instruments can also be utilized to determine

sample decomposition, oxidation or loss of solvent or
water. To measure expansion, contraction, penetration,
softening of the sample.
v
Basic Parts
▪ Sample holder
▪ Sensors
▪ Enclosure within which the
experimental parameter may
be controlled
▪ Computer to control data
colletion and processing

Differential Thermal Analysis of Copper Sulphate
Advantages
Even at very high temperature, the instruments can be used
The instruments that are used have highly sensitive features
Reaction or transition temperatures can be determined accurately
Disadvantages
Reaction or transition estimations is only 20% to 50% DTA
Uncertainty in heats of fusion

used to measure the fibre content of
composites by heating a sample to remove the
APPLICATIONS resin by application of heat and then

determining the mass remaining.
APPLICATIONS determination of phase diagrams, heat change
APPLICATIONS measurements and decomposition in various
APPLICATIONS atmospheres.
power dissipation in present-day PCB design
widely used in the pharmaceutical and food

industries
pH DEFINITION:
A quantitative unit of measurement

which describes the degree of acidity
or alkalinity of a substance. It is
measured on a scale of 0 to 14.
The pH of a solution measures the
degree of acidity or alkalinity relative
to the ionization of water sample.
In practice, it is the hydrogen ion

activity that is measured, rather than
its concentration. The activity is a
measure of the “effective
concentration”.
Importance of pH
Many important properties of a Many chemical processes and
solution can be determined from an properties, such as the speed of a
accurate measurement of pH reaction and the solubility of a
compound, can also depend
including the acidity of a solution greatly on the pH of a solution.
and the extent of a reaction in the
solution.
In application ranging from

industrial operations to biological
processes, it is important to have
an accurate and precise
measurement of pH.
pH – Paper 0-14
Methods of pH Methyl orange 3.14 – 4.4
Measurement pH – indicators
pH – meters
Phenolphthalein 8.2 – 9.6

pH Meter
A pH meter is an electronic
instrument used to measure the pH
(acidity or alkalinity) of a liquid
through special probes is sometimes
used to measure the pH of semi –
solid substances.
Typical pH meter consists of a
special measuring probe (a glass
electrode) connected to an electronic
meter that measures and displays
the pH reading.
BASIC PARTS OF pH
METER
▪ Main body component

holding containing circuitry
for conversion of analogy
signals into digital display
▪ Ph – electrode
▪ Automatic Temperature
Compensation(ATC) probe
BASIC PARTS OF pH
ELECTRODE
The reference electrode provides a
constant potential regardless of the
composition of the solution it is placed in.
The voltage difference between the

reference and measuring electrodes is a
REFERENCE ELECTRODE function of the pH value of a solution.
REFERENCE ELECTRODE
REFERENCE ELECTRODE
REFERENCE ELECTRODE
Common reference systems in use are
Silver/ Silver chloride (Ag/ AgCl) and
Mercury/ Calomel (Hg2Cl2).
The Silver/ Silver Chloride reference is far

the most frequently employed because it
has universal applicability, a wide
operating temperature range and is
relatively non-toxic.
pH TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
The pH of any solution is a function of

its temperature. Voltage output from
One pH unitcorresponds to
the electrode changes linearly in 59.16 mV at 25°C, the
relationship to changes in pH, and the standard voltage and
temperature of the solution determines temperature to which all
the slope of the graph. calibrations are referenced.
The electrode voltage decreases to

54.20 mV/pH unit at 0.0°C and
increases to 74.04 mV/pH unit
at 100.0°C.
v
▪ Before the pH meter can give you accurate

readings, it needs to index itself against at
pH METER least two solutions of a known pH
CALIBRATION ▪ Most pH meters are set up to perform 2-

point calibrations using a pair of the three
built-in calibration points - usually pH 4.00,
7.01 and 10.01 - depending on what you’ll
be measuring
v
To fully demonstrate that all component of the

pH measuring system are functioning correctly,
the following steps should be performed:
ANNUAL
▪ 1. The performance of the temperature
probes should be compared to a certified
CALIBRATION reference thermometer.

▪ 2. The pH meter and electrode should be
OF pH METER calibrated using certified, traceable pH

buffers
▪ 3. The correct performance of the pH
electrode should be verified using certified,
traceable and control standards.
pH Buffers
Most modern pH meters are supplied
with the facility for automatic buffer Buffer Solution
recognition. The manufacturer will
have programmed in a pH versus Buffer solutions are used as a
temperature profile into a memory for a means of keeping pH at a nearly
constant value in a wide variety
specific type of buffer such as DIN or of chemical applications.
NIST.
Importance of pH buffers
Buffers are important for process and/or
reactions which require specific and
stable pH ranges.
The meter circuit is fundamentally no
more than a voltmeter that displays
measurements in pH units instead of
volts.
pH Meter At neutral pH (pH 7) the voltage at the

probe's output is 0 volts. 0 * 17 + 7 = 7.
Measurement At alkaline pH, the voltage at the probe's

output ranges from > 0 to +0.41 volts (7
* 0.059 = 0.41).
So for a sample of pH 10 (3 pH units

from neutral), 3 * 0.059 = 0.18 volts), the
output of the meter's amplifier is 0.18 *
17 + 7 = 10.
v
The circuit of a sample pH meter usually

consists of operational amplifiers in an
inverting configuration, with a total voltage
gain of about -17.
pH Meter The inverting amplifier converts the small

voltage produced by the probe (-0.059 volt/pH
Measurement in basic solutions, +0.059 volt/pH in acid

solutions) into pH units, which are then offset
by 7 volts to give a reading on the pH scale.
At acid pH, the voltage at the probe's output

ranges from -0.7 volts to < 0. So for a sample of
pH 4 (3 pH units below neutral), -3 * +0.059 = -
0.18 volts, the output of the meter's amplifier is
-0.18 * 17 + 7 = 4.
Advantages
fast and simple process of measurement
accurate results and precise pH value.
portable
Disadvantages
often needed to calibrate
there is a possibility of breaking due to fragile glass electrodes.
deposits on the electrode membrane can interrupt the processes.

very crucial in Agriculture industry for soil
evaluation.
mandatory for chemical and pharmaceutical

APPLICATIONS industries.
APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS pH level monitoring is essential in water
APPLICATIONS treatment plants and RO water purifiers.

APPLICATIONS
industrial applications
chemical production
electronics production
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ICE -2201
VALVES
Globe Valve
A globe valve is a linear motion valve used to stop, start,
and regulate fluid flow. The three primary body designs for
globe valves are Z- body, Y- body, and Angle.
Application
• Suitable for most liquids, vapors, gases, corrosive
substances
• General sizes available are 1/2" to 8".
• Pressure limitations are relatively high, ranging from
1480 to 1500 psi, dependent on materials of
construction, size and temperature.
Globe Valve Symbol
Advantages:
● Recommended for throttling applications
● Good for frequent operation.
● Easy to Repair
Disadvantages:
● Flow path causes a significant pressure drop.
● Globe valves are more costly than alternative valves.
TYPES OF GLOBE VALVES:
● Tee
This is the most common body type for a globe valve. The
horizontal setting of the seat allows the stem and disk to
travel perpendicular to the horizontal line. This design has
the lowest coefficient of flow and highest pressure drop.
They're used in severe throttling services, such as in
bypass lines around a control valve. When pressure drop is
not a concern and throttling is required, this globe valve
design is a good solution.
● Angle
The ends of this globe valve are at a 90°
angle allowing fluid to flow in a single 90°
turn. This valve is used for applications that
have periods of pulsating flow because of
their ability to handle "the slugging effect"
which naturally occurs with a pulsating flow .
● Wye
This type is an alternative for the high pressure drop
commonly found in globe valves. The seat and stem
are at a 45° angle which provides a straighter
flowpath when fully open and offers the least
resistance of flow. This design is commonly used for
throttling during seasonal or start-up operations.
Gate Valves
Flow is controlled by raising or lowering the valving
element. Gate valves are not usually used to regulate flow
because the valving element can be damaged when in the
partially open position
Applications
● Suitable for oil, gas, air, heavy liquids, steam, non-
condensing gases, abrasive and corrosive liquids
● Sizes available range from standard cast configurations as
small as 2" to special fabricated valves exceeding 100".
● Standard cast configurations have ASME 125/150 bolting
patterns and are rated at 150 psi
Gate Valve Symbol
ADVANTAGES:
● Gate valves opens or closes slowly, which prevents fluids hammer
and subsequent damage to the piping system.
● They need long operation time since setting the valve to the fully open
or closed position requires the handle to be turned many times.
● Good choice for on-off service.
● Full flow, low pressure drop.
● Bidirectional.
DISADVANTAGES:
● The opening and closing time is long.
● During the opening process, the valve plate needs to be lifted to the
upper part of the valve chamber.
● During the closing process, the valve plate needs to fall into the valve
seat
GATE VALVE PARTS:
Types of Gate Valves
There are three ways to classify the gate valve.
1. Types of Disk
1. Solid taper wedge
2. Flexible wedge
3. Split wedge or Parallel disks Valve
2. Types of Body Bonnet Joint
1. Screwed Bonnet
2. Bolted-Bonnet
3. Welded-Bonnet
4. Pressure-Seal Bonnet
3. Types of Stem movement
1. Rising Stem or OS & Y Type (Outside Stem and Screw Type)
2. Non-rising Stem type
Solid Wedge Gate Valve
Solid wedge is the most common & widely
used disk type because of its simplicity and
strength. A valve with a solid wedge may be
installed in any position, and it is suitable for
almost all fluids.
Flexible Wedge Gate Valve
The flexible wedge is a one-piece solid disk with a cut
around the perimeter. These cuts vary in size, shape,
and depth. A shallow, narrow cut on wedge perimeter
gives less flexibility but retains strength. A cast-in
recess or deeper and wider cut on wedge perimeter
gives more flexibility but compromises the strength.
Split wedge or Parallel disks Gate
Valve
Split wedge Disk consists of two solid pieces and
holds together with the help of a special mechanism.
You can see the same in images. In case, one-half of
the disk is out of alignment; the disk is free to adjust
itself to the seating surface. The split disk can be in a
wedge shape or a parallel disk type.
Types of gate valve based on body, bonnet connection
1st is screwed bonnet: This is the simplest design available and it is used for inexpensive valves.
2nd is bolted-bonnet: This is the most popular design and used in a large number of gate valves. This
requires a gasket to seal the joint between the body and bonnet.
3rd is Welded-Bonnet: This is a popular design where disassembly is not required. They are lighter in weight
than their bolted-bonnet counterparts.
4th one is Pressure-Seal Bonnet: This type is used extensively for high-pressure high-temperature
applications. The higher the body cavity pressure, the greater the force on the gasket in a pressure -seal
valve
OS & Y Gate Valve or Rising Stem (Outside Stem and Screw Type)
For a rising stem valve, the stem will go up while
opening the valve and move down when you close
the valve. You can see in the image. In inside screw
design, the threaded portion of the stem is in contact
with the flow medium, and when you open the valve,
handwheel rise with the stem.
Whereas in the case of outside screw design, the

only smooth portion is exposed to the flow medium
and the stem will rise above the handwheel. This type
of valve is also known as OS & Y valve. OS & Y
means outside steam and York.
Non-rising Stem Gate Valve or Insider Screw Valve
There is no upward movement of the stem in a non-
rising stem type. The valve disk is threaded internally.
The disc travels along the stem like a nut when the
stem is rotated. You can see the image. In this type
of valve, stem threads are exposed to the flow
medium.
Therefore, this design is used where space is limited

to allow linear stem movement, and the flow medium
does not cause erosion, corrosion, or wear and tear
to stem material. This type of valve also known as an
insider screw valve.
Ball Valve
Ball valves are a quick opening valves that give a tight
shutoff. When fully open, a ball valve creates little
turbulence or resistance to flow. The valve stem rotates a
ball which contains an opening. The ball opening can be
positioned in the fully open or fully closed position but
must not be used to throttle flow as any abrasive wear to
the ball will cause leakage when the valve is closed.
Ball Valve Parts:
Ball Valve Symbol
ADVANTAGES:
● Maintains and regulates high volume, high pressure, and
high temperature flow.
● No lubrication requirements.
● Give tight sealing with low torque.
● Time of valve operation is minimized.
● Can be used of throttling service.
● Can handle fluids with suspended solids.
DISADVANTAGES:
● Have relatively poor throttling characteristics.
● Difficult to clean, leads to contamination.
Types of Ball Valves:
Floating Ball Valve

In a floating ball valve, the ball is held in the
position by the compression of the two
elastomeric seats against the ball. The ball is
free to float inside the valve body. See the
highlighted portion in the image and remember
as you will see the difference when I will
explain to you about the trunnion mounted
valve.
Trunnion Mounted Ball Valve
Trunnion mounted valve is a solution to the problem
of excessive torque required by a floating type valve
in high-pressure service. A short shaft like an
extension which is known as a trunnion set in the
body. You can see this in the image. In this design
steam and ball work as a single unit. The ball is
supported by two floating or spring-loaded seats that
remain in constant contact with the ball.
3 Way Ball Valve
Depending on your requirements, you can arrange the port
of valve in the three-way.
1. One inlet and two distribute

2. One inlet and one outlet with diverting a flow
3. Straight pass the fluid without No inlet
Three patterns are available. Venturi port type, full port type,
and reduced port type. The full-port ball valve has an inside
diameter equal to the inside diameter of the pipe. This
design allows pigging. In the venturi and reduced-port types,
the port is generally one pipe size smaller than the line size.
The ball type disc can be a free float or fixed in the valve
body. A free-floating valve is known as a floating type
whereas a fixed type valve is known as a trunnion mounted
valve.
Butterfly Valves
Butterfly valves consist of a disc attached to a shaft with
bearings used to facilitate rotation. These are considered
high recovery valves, since only the disc obstructs the valve
flow path. The flow capacity is relatively high and the
pressure drop across the valve is relatively low. The butterfly
valves are used for limited throttling where a tight shut off is
not required. When fully open, the butterfly creates little
turbulence or resistance to flow.
Applications:
• Most economical for large lines in chemical services, water
treatment, and fire protection systems. General sizes available
are 2" to 48", although sizes up to 96" are available from certain
manufacturers.
• Due to the valve design, incorporating a small face-to-face
dimension and lower weight than most valve types, the butterfly
valve is an economical choice for larger line sizes (i.e. 8" and
above).
Butterfly Valve
ADVANTAGES:
● They are suitable for large valve applications.
● Compact, lightweight design.
● The maintenance costs are usually low.
● Pressure drop across a butterfly valve is small.
● Used with chemical or corrosive media.
DISADVANTAGES:
● Difficult to clean.
● Throttling limited to low differential pressure
● Potential for cavitations and choke
● Unguided disc movement is affected by flow turbulence
Types of Butterfly Valves
Rubber-Lined Valves
● Less expensive valves for non-
demanding, non-abrasive, lower
temperature applications
Plastic-Lined Valves
● For use with harsh chemicals,
ultrapure applications, sanitary, or
abrasive applications
Metal Valves
● For high-pressure or high-
temperature applications, or
those requiring fire
resistance
Needle Valve
A needle valve has a comparatively tiny orifice at
the end of a screw that suits the seat precisely, with a
lengthy, tapered seat and a needle-shaped plunger.
Needle valves can also be used in vacuum systems at
low pressure when accurate control of gas flow is
needed, such as filling gas-filled vacuum tubes, gas
lasers and comparable devices.
Applications
● Needle valves are frequently used as metering valves.
Metering valves are used for extremely fine flow control.
● Needle valves are used to control flow and protect delicate
gauges from damage caused by sudden pressure surges of
liquids and gases.
● Needle valves are used in low-pressure hydraulic systems,
chemical processing, and other gas and liquid services.
● Needle valves are used in flow-metering applications,
especially when a constant, calibrated, low flow rate must be
maintained for some time.
● Since flow rates are low and many turns of the valve stem
are required to completely open or close, needle valves are
not used for simple shut-off applications.
● Small, simple needle valves are often used as bleed valves
in water-heating applications.
● One of the most commonly used location for needle valves is
to monitor gas flow, like propane, in a system.
● Needle valves are also sometimes used in vacuum systems,
in order to release a controlled yet steady supply of gas
without a great amount of pressure.
Needle Valve Symbol
Advantages:
- The flow control at a low rate is very accurate.
- Needle valves are smaller in size.
- They can be used for throttling purpose.
- Needle valves are used as bleed valves for hot water heating.
- These valves can shut off easily.
- Flow rates can be adjusted accurately.
Disadvantages:
- Because of the excessive turning force while shutting off the seat of the needle valve
could be damaged
- Pressure loss is high in needle valves, because of the high restriction of the fluid flow.
- This valve is used for low flow rates, because of the small passage flow between the
seat and needle.
- Damage could happen to the seat and the needle if the fluid has suspended solids.
- We won’t be able to tell if the valve is open or closed by examining the handle position
Check Valve
Used to prevent backflow, these valves are typically self-
activated allowing the valve automatically opens when media
passes through the valve in the intended direction and close
should flow reverse.
Applications
● Protect sensitive equipment against possible damage or
contamination resulting from a reversal of flow direction
● Hold water in a system or pipe after the flow has been
turned off to prevent drainage or facilitate restart (e.g.
pumping systems).
● Prevent crossover flow in systems with unequal line
pressures (e.g. cold and hot water inlets in thermostatic
mixers).
● Reduce the risk of backflow or leakage in case of valve
failure (e.g. solenoid valve at the inlet of an appliance).
● Allow complex systems to function properly by ensuring
unidirectional flow (e.g. multi-zone heating system or
booster pumps).
Check Valve Symbol
Advantages:
● Prevents backflow
● Maintains pressure
● Serves as backup system
● Most can be used horizontally as well as vertically
Disadvantages:
● Can't be used with pulsating systems
● Closing element may slam close causing damage and excessive wear
Types of Check Valves:
● Swing Check Valve

The disc in a swing type valve is unguided as it fully opens or
closes. This Valve operates when there is flow in the line and get
fully closed when there is no flow. Turbulence and pressure drop
in the valve is very low. Disk and seat designs can be of metal to
metal or metal to composite.
The angle between the seat and the vertical plane is known as
the seating angle and varies from 0 to 45 degrees. Usually, the
seat angles are in the range of 5 to 7 degrees. Larger seat angles
reduce the disc travel, resulting in quick closing, thus minimizing
the possibility of water hammer. A vertical seat has a 0-degree
angle
● Tilting Disc Check Valve
The tilting disc type valve is designed to overcome some of
the weaknesses of conventional swing type valves. The
design of the tilting disk enables the valve to open fully and
remain steady at lower flow rates and close quickly when
the forwarding flow stop.
The dome-shaped disc floats in the flow and fluid flow on

both the bottom and top of the disk surfaces. As the disk is
spring-loaded, when forward flow pressure reduces, the
spring force helps the valve to close fast. In the image
above, you can see the flow from the valve.
● Ball Type and Plug Type Lift NRV
The seat design of a lift Check valve is similar to a Globe
valve. A piston or a ball is usually used as a disk.
Lift Check valves are particularly suitable for high-pressure

service where the velocity of flow is high. The disk is
perfectly set on the seat with full contact. They are suitable
for installation in horizontal or vertical pipelines with upward
flow.
A ball-type valve is very simple as it simply works on the

principle of gravity. When there is enough pressure in the
flow, it lifts the ball upward but when pressure reduced ball
roll down and closed the opening.
● Dual Plate / Dual Disc Check
Valve
A dual plate check valve is known as a butterfly
check valve, Folding Disc Check Valves, double-disc,
or splits disc check valve. As the name suggests, two
halves of the disk move towards centreline with the
forward flow and with reverse flow two halves open
and rest on the seat to close the flow (Flapping
action).
● Stop Check Valve
Stop Check Valve is a combination of a lift check
valve and a globe valve. It can either be used as a
check valve or as an isolation (stop) valve like a
globe valve. These valves can be closed with the
help of a stem that is not connected to the valve disc
during normal operation and make it possible to use
these valves as a regular NRV.
Diaphragm valve
Diaphragm valves are bi-directional, on-off throttle valves.
They are used to control fluid flow by regulating the area with
which media can enter and exit the valve, effectively changing
its speed and velocity. They are so-called “diaphragm” valves
because a thin, flexible membrane is used to control the opening
and closing of the valve. They can be made with metal such as
stainless steel, plastic, and even single-use materials.
Applications
● Clean or dirty water and air service applications
● De-mineralized water systems
● Corrosive applications
● Radwaste systems in nuclear facilities
● Vacuum service
● Food processing, pharmaceutical, and brewing systems
Diaphragm Valve Symbol
ADVANTAGES :
● Tight shut-off
● Easy maintenance
● Repairs can be made without interrupting pipeline
● Reduce leakage to the environment
DISADVANTAGES :
● Cannot be used multi- turn operations.
● No industry standard face to face dimensions.
● The body must be made of corrosive resistant material.
Types of Diaphragm Valves:
● Weir-type
is the most popular type of diaphragm valve
and it is best for general use applications or for
tough corrosive and abrasive services. They
are best used to control small flows. The body
of the weir-type has a raised lip that the
diaphragm comes into contact with. Weir-type
valves use a smaller diaphragm because the
material does not have to stretch as far. The
material can be heavier so the valve can be
used for high-pressure and vacuum services.
● Straight through
Can be used in situations where the flow direction
changes within the system. The body of this design
has a flat bottom that is parallel to the flow stream.
This allows the flow to move uninhibited through the
valve with no major obstructions. A flexible material is
required for the diaphragm so that the mechanism
can reach the bottom of the valve body; this can
shorten the lifespan of the diaphragm. They are
excellent for use with sludge, slurries and other
viscous fluids but they are not well suited for high
temperature fluids.
Pinch Valve
Often used for handling solid materials, slurries and liquids
with suspended solids, pinch valves use a linear motion.
Typically Pinch Valves feature an internal sleeve to isolate the
media.
Applications
It is ideally suited for the handling of slurries, liquids with
large amounts of suspended solids, and systems that convey
solid material pneumatically.
Pinch Valve Symbol
ADVANTAGES :
● It can be used for application where corrosion or metal contamination
of the fluid might be a problem. The flow from the valve is straight
without any obstruction.
● There are no internal moving parts in contact with the fluid hence, low
maintenance cost.
● Inexpensive due to simple construction
DISADVANTAGES :
● It cannot be used in high temperature-pressure applications and gas
media.
Plug Valve
Using a quick-acting quarter-turn valve handle, these valves
control flow using tapered or cylindrical plugs. They provide
some of the best ratings when tight shutoff is essential and are
reliable in high-pressure or high-temperature environments.
Applications
● Plug valves are commonly used in low-pressure-low-temperature
services, although some high-pressure-high-temperature designs
also exists.
● Plug valves are high capacity valves that can be used for
directional flow control, even in moderate vacuum systems.
● Plug valves can efficiently handle gas and liquid fuel.
● Plug valves can safely handle extreme temperature flow, such as
boiler feed water, condensate, and other such elements.
● Plug valves can be used to regulate the flow of liquids containing
suspended solids, for example, slurries.
Plug Valve Symbol
ADVANTAGES :
● Plug valves have simple design with few parts.
● Plug valves open and close easily (except large dimensions).
● Maintenance and repair of plug valves can be done at the place of operation.
● Plug valves have low flow resistance.
● Plug valves provide reliable leak proof.
DISADVANTAGES :
● Because of high friction, first movement (opening-closing) requires a large amount

of force.
● NPS 4 (DN100) and larger plug valves require a gearbox or an actuator.
● Plug valve transitions are narrowing flows due to conic plug.
● Generally, plug valves costs are much larger than ball valves.
Pressure Relief Valve
Used to help improve safety, these valves are spring-
automated and will help to return a system to the desired
pressure during overpressure events.
Applications
Pressure relief valves are used in a wide range of specifications
where pressure levels are critical for smooth operations such as oil
and gas, petrochemical, and power generation using steam, air, gas
or liquid. They are also used in multi-phase applications in refining
and chemical processing systems.
Pressure Relief Valve Symbol
Advantages:
● Wide range of material available
● Wide range of chemical compatibility
● High operating temperature
● Standard Piping dimensions
● Compatible with foaling and/or dirty service
Disadvantages:
● Prone to leakage (if no soft seat)
● Long simmer or long flow period
● Prone to chatter on liquid service unless with special trim
● Vulnerable to effects of initial pressure losses
● Sensitive to the effect on the back pressure (affects the set point and
the capacity)
● Limited in pressure size ratio
Types of Pressure Relief Valves:
● Conventional spring loaded. In the conventional spring-loaded valve the bonnet, spring, and guide
are exposed to the released fluids. If the bonnet is vented to the atmosphere, relief-system back
pressure decreases the set pressure. If the bonnet is vented internally to the outlet, relief-system
back pressure increases the set pressure. The conventional spring-loaded valve is used in non
corrosive services and where backpressure is less than 10% of the set point.
● Balanced spring-loaded. The balanced spring-loaded valve incorporates a means to protect the
bonnet, spring, and guide from the released fluids and minimizes the effects of backpressure. The
disk area vented to the atmosphere is exactly equal to the disk area exposed to backpressure.
These valves can be used in corrosive or dirty service and with variable backpressure.
● Pilot operated. The pilot-operated valve is combined with and controlled by an auxiliary pressure
pilot. The resistance force on the piston in the main valve is assisted by the process pressure
through an orifice. The net seating force on the piston actually increases as the process pressure
nears the set point.
Knife Gate Valve
Typically used for controlling flow of media containing solids, the knife
gate valve features a thin gate controlled through linear action which can
cut through materials and create a seal.
Applications
Knife gate valve installations are typically found in wastewater treatment
plants, chemical plants, mining, cement plants as well as in many other
industrial applications while gate valves are typically found in drinking water
mains, distribution networks and drinking water pump stations. Knife gate
valves are advantageous in sludge and slurry applications because their
blades cut right through thick liquids easily. They’re generally specified in
larger sizes for handling thick flows of heavy oils, light grease, slurry, paper
pulp, varnish and wastewater to name but a few knife gate valve applications.
Knife Gate Valve Symbol
ADVANTAGES:
● Knife gates are cheap, easy to actuate and light. They are advantageous in
applications involving viscous fluids such as sludge and slurry because their
blades can cut through thick liquids with ease. As such, they are generally
specified in larger sizes for the handling of thicker flows in demanding
applications.
DISADVANTAGES:
● Despite this, knife gates are known for their low-pressure limitations. As
such, this makes them a less desirable shut-off valve for applications which
require cleanliness or optimal hygienic conditions
Three-way Valve
A Three-way control valve shuts off water flow in one
pipe while opening water flow in another pipe. In a
modulating or 3-point floating application the valve can also
mix water from two different pipes into one pipe or divert
water from one pipe into two different pipes.
Applications
● The three-way is a compact control valve and actuator system,
designed to accurately control water, oil, steam and other industrial
fluids, especially used for heating & cooling systems. Typical
applications are air-handling units, water chillers, boilers and fan coils.
● The three-way is a compact control valve and actuator system, designed
to accurately control water, oil, steam and other industrial fluids,
especially used for heating & cooling systems. Typical applications are
air-handing units, water chillers, boilers and fan coils.
Three-way Valve Symbol
ADVANTAGES
● 3 way valves are designed to handle high pressure applications such
as boiler feed water service in steam power plants. All Valves can be
serviced in the field without removing them from the pipeline.
DISADVANTAGES
● More expensive to buy and install.
● Potentially high costs for pumping and distribution systems.
CONTROL VALVE
SELECTION
A control valve is a power operated device capable of
modulating flow at varying degrees between minimal flow and
full capacity in response to a signal from the controlling
system. Control valves may be broadly classified by their
function as “on-off” type or “flow regulating” type.
Control valve is comprised of an actuator mechanism that

is capable of changing the position of flow controlling element
in the valve. The valve modulates flow through movement of a
valve plug in relation to the port(s) located within the valve
body.
There are many types of valves available, each having their
advantages and limitations. The basic requirements and selection
depend on their ability to perform specific functions such as:
● Ability to throttle or control the rate of flow;
● Lack of turbulence or resistance to flow when fully open -
turbulence reduces head pressure;
● Quick opening and closing mechanism - rapid response is many
times needed in an emergency or for safety;
● Tight shut off - prevents leaks against high pressure;
● Ability to allow flow in one direction only - prevents return;
● Opening at a pre-set pressure - procedure control to prevent
equipment damage; and
● Ability to handle abrasive fluids - hardened material prevents rapid
wear.
Selection is primarily dependent on the service
conditions, the task, and the load characteristics of the
application. The most common types are ball valves,
butterfly valves, globe valves, and gate valves.
Control valve sizing and selection is based on a
combination of theory and empirical data. Typical
parameters used to select a valve are:
• Flow medium
• Service requirements (flow regulation or on-off type)
• Pressure-Temperature rating
• Material of construction
• Valve Action (Normally Open vs. Normally Closed)
• Valve size or valve coefficient (Cv)
• Precision control
• Leakage or Tight shut-off
Flow medium
Identifying the fluid that will flow through the valve is the first and most
important consideration.
● Highly erosive fluids, such as those carrying suspended solids or

slurries, may require full port valves which do not provide any
obstruction to flow in the full open position. Never specify butterfly
valves for such services.
● If the flow stream contains fibrous particles, it may block or plug the
valve openings. Diamond port plug valves, V-plug and V-ball valves
have port shapes that minimize plugging.
● Highly viscous or gummy fluids create a high pressure drop through
valves and piping. Ball valves, diaphragm valves and butterfly valves
are ideal for these services.
Service requirements
Ask the following questions:
● Should the valve merely start and stop the flow?
● Should it regulate (throttle) flow within a preset flow range limit?
● Should it provide a combination of two functions above?
● How much through valve leakage can the system tolerate?
Pressure–Temperature Rating (P-T Rating)
Ask the following questions:
● What is the maximum pressure that the valve needs to be rated for?
● What are the upstream and downstream pressures for each of the
maximum, normal and minimum flow rates?
● Is the valve operating consistently near the system's maximum design
pressure and temperature?
● Do the system's peak pressure and temperature occur
simultaneously? Do these conditions peak out only when the valve is
open?
These questions would decide the type of valve and its seating
material.
Pressure–Temperature Rating (P-T Rating)
The pressure-temperature rating of a valve is
simply the maximum pressure the valve is designed
to handle at a particular temperature and varies with
the material of construction. The higher the process
temperature, the less pressure can be handled by
the body subassembly.
Materials of construction
General Service valves are specified with commonly
found materials to match the pipe material. The
standard materials are:
● Carbon Steel
● Stainless Steel
● Chrome-moly
Valve Action
Valve action defines whether the valve will be fully open,
or fully closed in the event of any process failure. The
engineer must define whether the safest condition for each
valve is fully open or fully closed. This will be the failure
position, and the combination of the actuator and valve body
must achieve this position upon loss of power. We must
analyze the entire process, including integrated units to
identify the safest conditions. In a few cases, the failure
condition is “unchanged”. If the air power is lost, air leakage
will result in a slow drift to either open or closed.
Valve Size (Capacity)
Valves are sized according to their Cv value. For liquid service,
the equation for Cv is:
The required flow and pressure drop information used to size a

valve is based on the process operations and equipment. Once the
Cv value is known, the rated* Cv can be determined from the
manufacturer's data books.
A general guideline is that valves should be sized
so that maximum flow is obtained at about 90% valve
open. Valves should be able to provide normal flow
condition at around 60% to 70% of the travel. Valve
should provide minimum flow when about 10% open.
It is better to make an error in under sizing a control
valve than to oversize it.
As a good engineering practice, the rated Cv of the valve shall be
in accordance with following criteria:
If normal flow is specified:
● Calculated Cv – Based on the normal flow
● Selected Cv – Based on 1.4 x normal flow
If maximum flow is specified but is equal to or less than 1.4 x
normal flow
● Calculated Cv – based on normal flow
● Selected Cv – based on 1.5 x normal flow
When maximum flow is specified but is greater than 1.4 x
normal flow
● Calculated Cv – Based on normal flow
● Selected Cv – Based on 1.1 x maximum flow
Precise System Control
Some system control loops require highly accurate control in
the face of severe disturbances. Ideally the control valve should
have low friction, no backlash, and a stable flow pattern.
● Rotary valves, such as high-performance butterfly and plug

valves employing low friction bearings and packings provide
good control.
● Ball valves have large backlash and are not recommended.
● Linear motion valves, such as globe valves cannot match
the low friction of rotary valves and must be critically
evaluated.
Leakage or Tight shut-off
A valve having tight shutoff will have virtually no
flow or leakage in its closed position. Generally
speaking, only single-seated valves have tight
shutoff. Double-seated valves may be expected to
have a leakage of 2 to 5% while in closed position.
Leakage or Tight shut-off
Control valve seat leakage shall be designed and constructed in
accordance with the requirements of ANSI B16-104.
● Class I – N/A
● Class II - 0.5% of maximum valve capacity
● Class III - 0.1% of maximum valve capacity
● Class IV - 0.01% of maximum valve capacity
● Class V – 0.0005 ml/min/inch of port dia./psi differential
Close-off pressure is an important parameter that defines the

differential pressure required to seat the valve and stop flow
completely and is a function of the hydraulic design of the system and
the criteria for deciding the type of valve actuator
TYPES OF CONTROL VALVE
FAILURE MODE
When selecting the control valve, one of the most important
parameter is to select the failure mode of the valve when it loses its
source of power.
For electrical valve, it stays in its last position when it loses power
supply.
For hydraulic and pneumatic type actuator, a valve comes with spring
have a capability of fail-safe in case of air loss.
The fail-safe mode in the hydraulic and pneumatic valve depends on both
actuator type and valve body type.
For sliding stem valve it has two possibilities,
● Direct-acting
● Reverse-acting
In sliding stem valve with direct-acting action, with an increase in
pressure, pushes down the valve plug.
In a reverse-acting case with increases in pressure, stem lifts up.
Based on both action such type of valve has two possibilities in fail-
safe condition, one is Air to open(ATO) or Air to close(ATC).
Now let's discuss each type of valve body action with its fail-safe
action mode from the below attached image.
1. DIRECT ACTING - (AIR TO OPEN AND AIR TO CLOSE MODE)

Have a look at the figure to see how valve with direct-acting action
looks like. As you can see in the left side figure air supply is fed through
downside.
Increase in pressure will lift the valve. Such type of valve is known as
Air-to-open. In case of air fail valve due to spring return action is done by
spring, the mode fails to close.
On the right-hand side, the air supply is fed through the top side, with
an increase in air supply it closes the valve, in the case of air failure,
spring take it back in an actual position known as a fail-open mode.
2. REVERSE ACTING - AIR TO OPEN AND AIR TO CLOSE MODE.
Now have a look at the image of the reverse-acting body. Here, on the
left-hand side air supply is fed through the bottom side which lifts the
valve plug.
The plug assembly which is inserted in the valve body will move up
blocking the flow. This type of valve is called air-to-close, if the air fails,
due to spring it returns to its previous position, this called fail-open mode.
On right-side, the red circle as you can see the plug is not seated, so
with an increase in air supply will push the plug down making valve open
as flow pass-through hole located on it, which is not visible here in the
image.
If air fails the valve, returns to its previous position which is called fail
to closed mode.

Pressure Measurement

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Pressure

Fluid - Any substance that does not conform to a fixed shape

Level is measured at the position of the interface between

Indirect - This type of method level is measured in terms of the

A lead line acts in the same way as a dipstick. A steel measuring

The tank is grounded and functions as the common, or third

• Application: Lime silo

Level measurement using hydrostatic principle with

The Pressure of liquid in an open tank depends on two factors:

Principle: Ultrasonic devices operate on the

Radar level instruments send radio waves

Radar level instruments use waveguide

These “sources” may be locked out for testing and

Nuclear continuous level measurement

The turbine meters are widely used for military applications.

• When a flow nozzle is placed in a pipe carrying whose rate

Therefore, the thermal mass flow meter

EXAMPLE OF MEASURED PROPERTIES

Analytical Analytical Chemistry

USES OF ANALYSIS ▪ Preventive medical examinations (e.g.,

3.Ensuring the protection of 4.Monitoring, process supervision,

▪ Warning systems (e.g., gas detection • Process supervision of foodstuff,

ELEMENTAL ANALYZER CHROMATOGRAPHS

THERMAL ANALYZERS PH METER

A spectrometer is used in spectroscopy

An optical system which collimates and disperses the spectrum

The detecting device to measure the emitted lines intensities

TRANSMITTANCE – depends on the spectral range and the optical components

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT – takes into account the arrangement of components,

their material and the environment, such as humidity, pressure.

To Far Into the Infrared Spectrum

Measures in Relative Units

It is an instrument that measures

by commanding torque (stress) and measuring angular displacement (strain)

by commanding angular displacement (strain) and measuring torque (stress)

It can provide information about the material’s:

defined as a material’s resistance to A property of a material that exhibits both

Used in the plastics, petroleum,

It focuses on pulling on a piece of

(1)the main unit mounted on a

(2) an electronic control circuitry

(3) the sample holder (Peltier

a scientific instrument which can

The name derives from the three

Rapid analysis for high productivity - analysis time of less than 5

Stable thermal conductivity detector provides linear response

Horizontal sample injection removes interfering residue between

APPLICATIONS In the oil industry, an important application is the

In food analysis, the determination of nitrogen (as

The mixture is dissolved in a fluid

It is based on the principle where molecules in mixture applied onto the

rapid and precise very few sample volume/quantity is required

periodic maintenance and parts need to be prone to error

Other methods include measuring weight changes as a

These instruments can also be utilized to determine

▪ Enclosure within which the

experimental parameter may

▪ Computer to control data

colletion and processing