BIO - DATA

NAME - MRIGENDRA SINGH

CLASS - 11th - A
ROLL NO. - 22
SUBJECT - PHYSICS
SUBJECT TEACHER – Mr. L.S.
RATHOUR
SCHOOL - LUCKNOW PUBLIC
COLLEGE, SAHARA STATES,
JANKIPURAM, LUCKNOW.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am very grateful to everyone who supported
me to complete my project effectively and
moreover on time. My deep acknowledgment
and gratitude go to all those who helped me
present these ideas well.
I would like to express my gratitude to my
Physics teacher – Mr. L.S. Rathour for his
support and guidance in completing this
project and providing us all the valuable
support and guidance which made us
complete the project.
Secondly, I would also like to thank my
parents and friends who helped me a lot in
finalizing this project within the limited time
frame.
“It doesn’t matter
how beautiful your
theory is, it doesn’t
matter how smart
you are. If it
doesn’t agree with
the experiment, it’s
wrong.”
- Richard P.
Feynman.
 THERMODYNAMICS
• The branch of physics which deals with
the study of transformation of heat into
other forms of energy and vice-versa is
called Thermodynamics.
• Thermodynamics is a macroscopic
science. It deals with bulk systems and does
not go into the molecular constitution of
matter.
• A collection of an extremely large number
of atoms or molecules confined within
certain boundaries such that it has a certain
values of pressure (P), volume (V) and
temperature (T) is called a ; thermodynamic
system.
Some important terms used in
Thermodynamics :-
(i) System - The system to which we are concern
has a fixed amount of matter enclosed within a
surface.
(ii) Surroundings - Everything outside the
system under the consideration is called
Surroundings. The surroundings may have the
direct effect on the performance of the system.
(iii) Isolated System - If the surroundings of the
system does not have any effect on the system,
then it is called an Isolated System. In other words,
an isolated system cannot exchange matter or
energy with any other body or system.
(iv) Thermodynamic System - A system, the
state of which at any instant can be completely
defined by pressure, volume and temperature is
alled Thermodynamic System.
(v) Thermodynamic Variables - The
parameters required to study the behaviour of a
thermodynamic system is called Thermodynamic
Variables. These are Pressure (P), Volume (V) and
Temperature (T).
(vi) Equation Of State - The relation between
thermodynamic variables Pressure (P), Volume (V)
and Temperature (T) for a system is called Equation
of State. One such equation is the perfect gas
equation : PV = nRT.
(vii) Thermal Equilibrium - Suppose two bodies
A and B in which A appears hotter than B, are
placed in contact. Then heat flows from A to B and
after sometime they appear equally hot. It means
that heat flows from body A to body B till their
temperatures become equal. In this state, the
bodies A and B are said to be in Thermal
Equilibrium with each other.
Zeroth Law Of Thermodynamics :
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if two bodies A
and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third body
C, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
The concept of Zeroth Law (orThermal Equilibrium) give sus
the concept of temperature. All those bodies which are in
thermal equilibrium have a common property whose value is
sam for all the bodies. We call this property as 'temperature'.
Thus, Temperature is that property of the body by which we
know whether the body is in thermal equilibrium with
another given body, or not.
Thus, if A and B are separately in equilibrium with C, then
TA=TC and TB=TC. This implies that TA=TB.

Equivalence of Work and Heat

We can raise the temperature of body in two ways; by directly
giving heat to the body (i.e. by heating) or by doing
mechanical work on the body.
Once the temperature-rise or the change of state of a body
has taken place, it is impossible to find out whether it has
been due to heating the body or due to the work done on the
body. If there is some hot water in the vessel, we cannot find
by any experiment whether the water has been heated or
stirred. Thus, heat and work are equivalent to each other.
1 kilocalorie = 4.18 * 103 joule or 1 calorie = 4.18 joule
or Q calorie = 4.18 Q joule.
Hence, if Q calorie of heat is equivalent to W joule of work,
then W = 4.18 Q
Here, Q is in calorie. Therefore, in order to express Q calorie
of heat in joule, it is multiplied by 4.18 . Thus, 4.18 is the
'conversion factor'. It is called as 'mechanical equivalent of
heat' and denoted by J.
Hence, the above equation may also be written as:
W = JQ,
where J = 4.18 joule calorie-1 (J cal-1) or 4.18 * 103 joule
kilocalorie-1 (J kcal-1).

Calculation of Work Done Using P-V Graph

Case I : When Pressure P remains constant
If P-V graph is a straight line parallel to the volume axis, as line AB (in
Fig. 3(a)) then P(V2-V1) denotes the (shaded) area enclosed between
AB and volume-axis from V1 to V2. By measuring this area we can
determine directly the work done W by the gas.
Case II : When Pressure P varies
If the pressure of gas is continuously varying, then P-V graph will be a
curve, as AB in (in Fig. 3(b)). In order to determine the value of ∫V2V1
PdV in this case, let us take a point M on the curve corresponding to
which the pressure and the volume are P and V respectively. Let
there be another point N very close to M at which the volume is V+
dV. We can assume that the pressure P remains constant from M to
N. Now, the area of the strip MNRS will be P*dV. This is also the work
done during the expansion of the gas through the volume dV. Hence,
the total volume ABCD enlosed between the curve AB and the
volume -axis from V1 to V2 will be equal to ∫V2V1 PdV, which is the work
done during the expansion of the gas from V1 to V2. Thus, we can
obtain directly the work done by a gas or a system by the area
enclosed between the P-V curve and the volume axis.
Dependence of Work Done on the Path of Change :
In a process, the work done by the system or on the system depends
not only upon the initial and final states of the system but also the
path adopted for the process.

Work Done in a Cyclic Process :

When a system after passing through different states return to its
original state, then it is called a 'cyclic process'.
Suppose a gas is in an initial-volume pressure state A (Fig. 5), and
expands to a state B. Let ACB be the P-V curve for this expansion of
the gas. Then, work done by the gas in going from state A to state B
is
WAB = area ACBB'A' ....(i)
Now, suppose the gas is compressed and brought back to the same
state A. Let BDA be the P-V curve for this compression. Now, the
work done on the gas (by some external agent) in bringing it from
state B to state A is
WBA = area BDAA'B' ....(ii)
Therefore, the net work done on the gas is
W = WBA - WAB = area of BDAA'B' - arae of ACBB'A' = area ACBDA.
Internal Energy:
Every bulk system consists of a large number of molecules. Internal
energy is simply the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of
these molecules. This is denoted by U. It depends upon state
achieved not on the path followed.

Suppose, a system is in an initial state A and is taken to a state B by

some process 1. Let Q1 joule be the heat taken by the system W1
joule be the work done by the system in this process. We can
compute the difference Q1-W1.
Suppose, we again take the system from state A to state B by another
process 2. Let Q2 be the heat taken by the system and W2 be the
work donr by the system in this process. Again we can compute the
difference Q2 - W2. Similarly, we can compute Q3-W3, Q4-W4, ... We
find that Q1-W1 = Q2-W2 = Q3-W3 = Q4-W4 = constt.

First Law of Thermodynamics

The change in internal energy of a system in two states remains
constant.
If UA and UB be the internal enrgies of a system in the states A and B,
then by definition of internal energy, we write
ΔU = UB - UA = Q1 - W1 = Q2 - W2 = ...
ΔU = Q - W

Applications of First Law of Thermodynamics

(i) Cyclic Process - When a system is taken from an initial state
to other different states and finally brought back to the initial state is
called a 'cyclic process'.
ΔU = 0
According to 1st Law of Thermodynamics,
ΔU = Q-W
 0 = Q-W
Q=W

(ii) Isolated System - A system which can neither do work nor

can take or give heat from or to outside is called an 'isolated system'.
According to 1st Law of Thermodynamics,
Q=0
W=0
ΔU = 0-0
ΔU = 0

(iii) Isobaric Process - A process taking place at constant

pressure is called an 'isobaric process'.
According to 1st Law of Thermodynamics,
ΔU = QP - W
Since, QP = CPΔT * n (for 1 mole)
QP = CPΔT
ΔU = CPΔT - W (At constt. pressure)

(iv) Isochoric Process - If a process takes place in a system at

a constant volume, then the process is 'isochoric'.
According to 1st Law of Thermodynamics,
ΔV=0
 W = P * ΔV = 0
ΔU = Q - 0
ΔU = Q
Since, Q = CVΔT [for 1 mole of gas]
ΔU = CVΔT (At constt. volume)

(v) Isothermal Process - If during a process taking place in a

system the temperature remains constant, then the process is
'isothermal'.
According to 1st Law of Thermodynamics,
ΔU = 0
Q = W (At constt. temperature)

(vi) Adiabatic Process - If during a process taking place in a

system, heat neither enters the system nor leaves it (Q=0), then the
process is 'adiabatic'.
According to 1st Law of Thermodynamics,
Q=0
ΔU = 0 - W
ΔU = -W
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) www.allaboutphysics.net
2) www.scribd.com
3) www.examfeed.com
4) www.slideshare.net
5) Nootan ISC Physics Class
XI (Part - 2)