Ques.1.What is a model?

Ans. Models are representations. In each case, the model is designed to provide a simplified
view of some more complex object, phenomenon, or process, so that fundamental properties or
characteristics can be highlighted and examined. Models highlight some features that their
designers believe are particularly critical, and there is less focus on other features. Thus, by
examining models, one learns not only about the object, situation, or process, but also about the
perspective of the designer.
According to Mortensen; ‘In the broadest sense, a model is a systematic representation of an
object or event in idealized and abstract form. Models are somewhat arbitrary by their nature.
The act of abstracting eliminates certain details to focus on essential factors. The key to the
usefulness of a model is the degree to which it conforms in point by point correspondence- to the
underlying determinants of communicative behavior.

The simplest definition of a model is that it is an analogue. Models are metaphors. They allow us
to see one thing in terms of another. Models represent system or processes. They are a symbolic
way at looking at systems to help us think about them more lucidly. Models give us an idea of
complicated events in a general way.

A Model is an abstract representation of reality but being an abstraction is not the reality but a
representation of reality and executive of that process. Models tend to give us a simplified view
of a complete phenomenon.

What is a communication model?

A communication model is a pictorial representation of the communication process, ideas,
thoughts, or concepts through diagrams, etc. They can be considered to be systematic
representations of the process that help us understand how communication can be carried out.
Theorists have been building different types of communication models to understand & explain
how communication takes place.
It's difficult to determine the beginning & end of a human conversation as it's a complex process.
And these communication models will help us understand the process of communication in a
better way.

Why are communication models important?

Can you imagine getting anything done without communicating with your subordinates,
colleagues, or your bosses? Sounds absurd, right?
But, what is the use of communication if it’s not effective?
Understanding and using communication models will help you to communicate successfully
within and outside the organization, for e.g. solving customer service queries.
More often than not, miscommunication leads to unnecessary additional tasks, reduces
productivity, and costs a dime to the organization.

Understanding models of communication can help you:

1. Optimize your communication channels
2. Work on your past mistakes
3. Plan efficiently in the future
The fundamental characteristic of the process can be highlighted. Models are useful
because
•The" highlight the different elements in the process.
•It points to the relationship between the different elements in the process.
•It describes the role that each element plans.
•It explains the flow of the communication.
•It brings out the definition and approach in further explanation and investigation.
It describes what is necessary for an act of communication to take place. A model represents the
major features and eliminates the unnecessary details of communication.
Importance or objectives of communication model
Communication model has evolved to understand the communication process. It helps to
understand the important aspects of communication. Some points highlighting the importance
or objectives of communication model are given below:
1. Easy understanding of communication process: Communication model helps to understand
the communication process easily and logically.
2. Showing information flow: Communication model shows how information flows form one
person to another in the organization.
3. Introducing the parts of communication process: Communication model is also helpful to
orient the various parts of communication process to its readers.
4. Easy presentation of communication process: Communication process is a complex issue.
Through a model, this complex issue can be presented easily.
5. Understanding the communication complexities: Complex issues of commutation process
cannot be show in the communication model. Comparing these complexities with the model,
one can measure the degree of complexities in a given communication issue.

Functions of Communication Models

1. To clarify the scope of human interaction showing it to be a circular, complex, continuous,
dynamic, or a coding process.
2. To point out where to book and under what conditions to analyse different responses.
3. To show the variables in human communication.
4. Used as a frame work in researches.
Linear models - Linear communication models depict one-way communication & are used to
communicate with the masses. The linear communication models are:
1. Aristotle’s Model
2. Lasswell’s Model
3. Shannon-Weaver Model
Interactional models -Interactional models highlight two-way communication with indirect
feedback.
1. Osgood-Schramm Model
2. Westley And Maclean Model

https://www.academia.edu/16662535/Models_of_Communication

https://thebusinesscommunication.com/what-is-communication-model-functions-of-
communication-model/

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 Aristotle‘s Communication Model
Aristotle, a great philosopher initiative the earliest mass communication model called
―Aristotle‘s Model of Communication‖. He proposed model before 300 B.C who found the
importance of audience role in communication chain in his communication model.
This model is more focused on public speaking than interpersonal communication.
Aristotle Model of Communication is formed with 5 basic elements
(i) Speaker, (ii) Speech, (iii) Occasion, (iv) Audience and (v) Effect.
Aristotle advises speakers to build speech for different audience on different time (occasion) and
for different effects.
Speaker plays an important role in Public speaking. The speaker must prepare his speech and
analysis. audience needs before he enters into the stage. His words should influence in audience
mind and persuade their thoughts towards him.
The simple model is presented in a diagram and is still widely used in preparing seminars,
lectures and speeches to this day.

Example: Alexander gave brave speech to his soldiers in the war field to defeat Persian Empire.

Speaker – Alexander
Speech – about his invasion
Occasion – War field
Audience – Soldiers
Effect – To defeat Persia
Aristotle has given importance to a good communicator role in communication. Here are the
three elements that should be present in a good public speaker to engage his audience-

1. Ethos- Ethos is the first most important quality that should be present in a good speaker. If he
takes the credibility of his words and speech, the speech would automatically be liked and
acknowledged by the audience.
If the speaker is not taking credit for his speech, the audience might feel cheated and won’t
believe in the user.
2. Pathos -Pathos means feeling connected. If a speaker is giving a speech and the audience feels
emotional bonding with the speech, they’ll automatically be mesmerized by it. This sort of
emotional bonding with the speaker would result in high engagement from the audience.
For example, a politician visits a village and notices people are constantly complaining about the
water crisis. He automatically includes this problem in his speech and talks about the solutions
for removing the crisis. This is another well-appreciated quality of a speaker.
3. Logos- Logos means logic. The speech needs to be engaging as well as have some logic
behind it. If the content is irrelevant and has no association with the occasion and the audience,
the speech won’t be appreciated and liked.
There has to proper information backed by adequate logic and sense. Any persuasion can only
work if it has some relevance and specificity.
Another example is- A politician (the speaker) gives a speech on a market square during an
election campaign (the occasion). His goal is the win the votes of the citizens (the audience)
present as well as those of the citizens potentially watching the speech on TV. The people will
vote (the effect) for the politician if they believe in his views. At the same time, the way in which
he presents his story is crucial in convincing his audience.

The politician talks about his party’s standpoints and will probably be familiar with his audience.
In other situations, it would be more suitable to actively research the audience in advance and
determine their potential viewpoints or opinions.

Criticism of Aristotle Model of Communication

 Despite the fact that at first glance there does not seem much wrong with Aristotle’s
communication model, there are important points of criticism of the model.

 The main point of communication is that the model considers a directional process, from
speaker to receiver. In reality, it is a dynamic process in which both the speaker and receiver
are active. Evidence for this can be found, for example, in the technology of eavesdropping.

 Because of the above, the model is useless in many situations because the feedback is not
included. The phenomenon of noise is also missing from the model, these matters are
considered important components within the communication.

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https://digiaide.com/aristotle-model-of-communication/

https://medium.com/@pragyamishra_84005/aristotles-model-of-communication-254aa568fb0a
https://www.toolshero.com/communication-methods/aristotle-model-of-communication/
https://www.communicationtheory.org/aristotle%E2%80%99s-communication-model/
 Shannon-Weaver model of communication
In 1948, Shannon was an American mathematician, Electronic engineer and Weaver was an American
scientist both of them join together to write an article in “Bell System Technical Journal” called “A
Mathematical Theory of Communication” and also called as “Shannon-Weaver model of
communication”.
This model is specially designed to develop the effective communication between sender and receiver.
Also they find factors which affecting the communication process called “Noise”.
The model deals with various concepts like Information source, transmitter, Noise, channel, message,
receiver, channel, information destination, encode and decode.

Sender : The originator of message or the information source selects desire message
Encoder : The transmitter which converts the message into signals
Note: The sender’s messages converted into signals like waves or Binary data which is compactable to
transmit the messages through cables or satellites. For example: In telephone the voice is converted into
wave signals and it transmits through cables
Decoder: The reception place of the signal which converts signals into message. A reverse process of
encode
Note: The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is comfortable and
understandable for receiver. Otherwise receiver can’t receive the exact message and it will affect the
effective communication between sender and receiver
Receiver: The destination of the message from sender
Note: Based on the decoded message the receiver gives their feed back to sender. If the message
distracted by noise it will affect the communication flow between sender and receiver
Noise: The messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through channel. During this process the
messages may distracted or affected by physical noise like horn sounds, thunder and crowd noise or
encoded signals may distract in the channel during the transmission process which affect the
communication flow or the receiver may not receive the correct message
Note : The model is clearly deals with external noises only which affect the messages or signals from
external sources. For example: If there is any problems occur in network which directly affect the mobile
phone communication or distract the messages.
Practical Example of Shannon-Weaver model of communication :
Thomson made call to his assistant “come here I want to see you”. During his call, noise appeared
(transmission error) and his assistant received “I want” only. Again Assistant asked Thomson (feedback)
“what do you want Thomson”.
Sender : Thomson
Encoder : Telephone (Thomson)
Channel : Cable
Noise : Distraction in voice
Reception : Telephone (Assistant)
Receiver : Assistant.
Due to transmission error or noise, Assistant can’t able to understand Thomson’s messages.
*The noise which affect the communication flow between them.

Criticism of Shannon-Weaver model of communication:

 One of the simplest model and its general applied in various communication theories
 The model which attracts both academics of Human communication and Information theorist to
leads their further research in communication
 It’s more effective in person-to-person communication than group or mass audience
 The model based on “Sender and Receiver”. Here sender plays the primary role and receiver plays
the secondary role (receive the information or passive)
 Communication is not a one way process. If it’s behaved like that, it will lose its strength. For
example: Audience or receiver who listening a radio, reading the books or watching television is a
one way communication because absence of feedback
 Understanding Noise will helps to solve the various problems in communication

Sender: The person who wishes to communicate the message. He or she makes up the message and the
way it is communicated.
Encoder: This is the was the message is changed into signals, for example sound waves. This is done by
the sender when transmitting the message. It can also be, for example, the language used when
speaking, or the grammar used when writing. In this case, since the model was made up for technical
communication and example of encoding could be when the voice over the telephone gets coded into
wave and transmitted through cables (CommunicationTheory.org, 2010).
Decoder: Decoding is done by the receiver when he gets the message. He has to decode the message
that was coded by the receiver in order to be able to understand it.
Receiver: The recipient of the message from the sender. He usually gives feedback to the sender in
order to make sure that the message was properly received.
Noise: The message is transferred through a channel, which can be interrupted by external noise. This in
turn could result in the receiver getting an inaccurate message. This is why feedback from the receiver is
important in case the message is not properly received. Furthermore, the noise can also affect the
decoding of the message by the receiver.
Feedback: This is when the receiver asks for clarifications from the sender. Feedback is important in
order to make sure that the message has been well received.
Therefore, the sender encodes messages and transmits it to the sender via a channel. There is physical
noise through that channel which can interfere with the reception of the message.
Sender (Information source), Encoder (Transmitter), Channel, Decoder (Receiver), Receiver
(Destination) & Noise.

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 Wilbur Schramm's Model of Communication

Schramm's Model of Communication was postulated by Wilbur Schramm in 1954, where he

suggested that communication is a two way process where both sender and receiver take turns to
send and receive a message. The message is only sent after encoding so the sender is also called
Encoder and the encoded message is decoded under receipt by the receiver, making him the
Decoder. This model was adapted from the theories of another theorist Osgood, so is also known
as Osgood and Schramm Model of Communication or Encode-Decode Model of
Communication. Osgood replaced the linear model of communication with the circular process
of communication and Schramm added the concept of field of experience to it. This model is
described in Schramm's book "The Process and Effects of Communication".

Different Components of Schramm's Model

Wilbur Schramm's Model has different components for communications where
 Sender (transmitter) is the person who sends the message.
 Encoder is the person who converts the message to be sent into codes.
 Decoder is the person who gets the encoded message which has been sent by the encoder and
converts it into the language understandable by the person.
 Interpreter is the person who tries to understand and analyze the message. Message is received
after interpretation. Interpreter and receiver is the same person.
 Receiver is the person who gets the message. He/she decodes and interprets the actual
message.
 Message is the data sent by the sender and information that the receiver gets.
 Feedback is the process of responding to the received message by the receiver.
 Medium or media is the channel used to send the message.
 Noise is the interference and interruptions caused during the process. It is also created when
the intended meaning of the message sent by the sender and the meaning interpreted by the
receiver is different which is known as Semantic Noise.

How Wilbur Schramm's Model Works?

The model suggests that encoding and decoding are the two most important part of a
communication process. Encoding assumes a critical part in starting the procedure of
correspondence by converting data into information. Encoding is done by a sender (transmitter)
and sent to a receiver. When data reaches to the receiver, receiver decodes and interprets the
data. This data is called a message, and it is transmitted through a medium. This model shows
how meaning is transferred from one person or group to another. Wilbur Schramm's model of
communication is used in both Intrapersonal and Interpersonal communication.
The model takes communication as a never ending process which constitutes messages and
feedbacks. Each person is both sender and receiver, so there must be interpretation of the
message on each turn. The interpreted data is known as information. This makes communication
effective but might cause problems too as the message sent after encoding might not be the same
when decoded by the receiver. So, this model is not conventional like other models that only talk
about sender and receiver.
Feedback is also a very important component as it lets the sender know if the receiver has
interpreted the message as required or not. The message becomes useless if the receiver does not
understand it making feedback different than the expected outcome. The communication is
incomplete if there is no feedback. Deliberate articulation and passing on of message to others
ensures communication. For instance, A person is talking to someone who does not understand
English. The person codes the message and writes the message in the form of language. The
other person won't be able to decode it as the person cannot understand the language. The
feedback is immediately passed to the sender acknowledging that the receiver hasn't interpreted
the message as required making feedback an important component in the communication.
Field of experience, For example, a person who always eats with spoon is informed that that he
has to eat with hands in that place, the person will get offended because he will think it is
impolite to eat that way. Socio-cultural gap will change the way a person interprets the message.
Schramm's model of communication originated from Shannon Weaver's model of
communication. The Shannon-Weaver model is a more mathematical and technological,
whereas Schramm's model is more psychological.
Advantages of Schramm's Model of Communication
 Circular communication gives opportunity to both parties to give their opinion.
 As it is dynamic and ever changing model, it is helpful in general practice.
 Sender and receiver interchanges and both are equally active.
 Semantic noise included as a concept helps in understanding problems that can occur during
interpretation of message.
 Feedback makes it easier to know if the message is interpreted by the receiver as intended or
not.
 Concept of interpretation makes the communication effective.
 Field of experience (psychological effect) helps to understand the communication process in
many other ways than the traditional ones.
 Concept of context makes the environmental factor be included in interpretation of message
and brings change in the message value.

Disadvantages of Schramm's Model of Communication

 This model cannot deal with multiple levels of communication and complex communication
processes.
 There can only be two sources communicating, many sources complicate the process and the
model cannot be implemented.
 Message sent and received might be interpreted differently than intended.

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 Lasswell’s Communication Model

Lasswell's communication model was developed by communication theorist Harold D. Lasswell (1902-
1978) in 1948. Lasswell’s model of communication (also known as action model or linear model or one
way model of communication) is regarded as one the most influential communication models.
Components of Lasswell's Communication Model

Lasswell's communication model has 5 components which are used as an analysis tool for evaluating the
communication process and components. The components are the questions to be asked to get the
answers and keep communication going.
Components Meaning Analysis

Who the communicator or sender or source of message Control Analysis

Says What the content of the message Content Analysis

In Which Channel the medium or media Media Analysis

To Whom the receiver of the message or an audience Audience Analysis

With What Effect the feedback of the receiver to the sender Effect Analysis

Explanation of different Components of Lasswell's Model

 Control analysis helps the sender to have all the power.
 Content analysis is associated to stereotyping and representation of different groups
politically. It is also related to the purpose or the ulterior motives of the message.
 Media analysis represents which medium should be used to exercise maximum power
against the receivers.
 Audience analysis shows who are the target population to be manipulated or brain-
washed.
 Effect analysis is done before the process starts. It is used to predict the effect of
message over the target population to be exploited.
Explanation of Lasswell's Communication Model

Though Lasswell's model was developed to analyze mass communication, this model is used for
interpersonal communication or group communication to be disseminated message to various groups
in various situations. The point in Lasswell’s comment is that there must be an “Effect”, if
communication takes place. If we have communicated, we have “motivated” or produced an “Effect”.

Lasswell's model was developed to study the media propaganda of countries and businesses at that
time. Only rich people used to have communication mediums such as televisions and radios back them.
It was made to show the mass media culture.

Lasswell also brought the concept of Effective Communication Process. He talked about the relation
between presentation of facts and how it generates different effects. The use of the concept of effect
makes Lasswell's model non-linear unlike its name. It's because effect can also be taken as feedback.
Though, generally, the component of effect was made to be more about outcome of the message, the
model is applied in different Medias and fields despite being developed specifically for mass
communication.

Their model is more graphical than Lasswell's. George Gerbner, who is the founder of the cultivation
theory, expanded Lasswell's model and included the concept of reaction of the receiver.

Disadvantages and Criticisms of Lasswell's Model

The major criticism of Lasswell’s Model is that it does not include feedback and it ignores the possibility
of noise. Without feedback, a communication process cannot be fruitful.
Lasswell's model is very linear and does not consider barriers in the communication process. The model
is also criticized for being very general and only including very traditional topics.
The model is very simplistic. The model is said to be propaganda based as it is more focused on the
resulting outcome and generally used for media persuasion.

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 THEODORE M.NEWCOMB MODEL

THEODORE M.NEWCOMB (July 24, 1903) in Rock Creek, at the northeastern tip of Ohio and he was a
great pioneer in the field of social psychology. Merely 50 years he worked for the improvement of
human motivation, perception and learning to shape the deep understanding of social process. In 1929,
he started his professional career in the department of psychology at University of
Michigan. In 1931, he moved to Cleveland College, University of Western Reserve
from University of Michigan. In 1934, he got a great offer from New Bennington
College in Vermont which caused remarkable changes in his rest of his professional
career. His works “Personality and Social Change” (1943), “Social Psychology” (1950).
He published a new social approach in field of communication which is called “ABX”
system (later it became Newcomb’s model) and it’s published in the name of “An
Approach to the Study of Communicative Acts (1953)”. He published another great
work in the field of social psychology called “The Acquaintance Process” (1961).
The New Comb’s model of communication was introduced by Theodore M Newcomb
of the University of Michigan in 1953. He gives different approach to the communication process. The
main purpose of this theory is to introduce the role of communication in a social relationship (society)
and to maintain social equilibrium within the social system. He does not include the message as a
separate entity in his diagram, implying it only by use of directional arrows. He concentrates on the
social purpose of communication, showing all communication as a means of sustaining relationships
between people. Sometimes it’s called as an “ABX” model of communication.

The Newcomb’s model works in a triangular format or A-B-X system

A – Sender B – Receiver X – Matter of Concern
The relationship between A and B is like student and teacher, government and public or newspaper and
readers. Sender and Receiver may work in a same flow but the same time some factor like “X” may
affect their flow of relationship. “X” it may be third persons, issue, topic or policy.
For Example:
Teachers introduce a new policy to increase the college timing from 6 hours to 8 hours.
A – Teachers B – Students X – Policy or issue
If both students and teachers are satisfied with this policy then the communication maintains its
equilibrium status between them. Otherwise the flow of communication between “A” and “B” becomes
trouble in the social system. If “A” or “B” is not ready to accept the policy then it will directly affect the
social system and can’t maintain the equilibrium status. So Teachers ”A” can convince students “B” as
much as possible. Otherwise they have to make some adjustments in the Policy “X” and convince them
towards the policy.

wecommunication.blogspot.com/2012/01/theories-of-communication-newcombs.html

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 Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication was suggested by Bruce Westley (1915-
1990) and Malcolm S. MacLean Jr. (1913-2001) in 1957. This model was an adaptation from
Newcomb’s model of communication, which talked about co-orientation for simultaneous
orientation in a two way communication. It also consisted of some concepts from Lewin’s
model. Unlike Dance’s Helical Model of Communication, the model says that communication
does not begin when one person starts speaking, but it does when a person responds to
something from his/her surroundings. The person must first receive message from the
environment and then, he/she responds according to his/her object of orientation.

The Westley and MacLean’s model can be applied in two contexts: interpersonal and mass
communication, the point of difference being the feedback. Feedback is direct and fast in
interpersonal communication and indirect and slow in mass communication. The model also
differentiates message as purposive and non-purposive.

The major components in the communication process for the model are
Source (A) - Source is the message creator and sender.
Environment (X) - Environment is the physical and psychological situation where the message
is being created and sent.
Sensory experience (X1…) - Sensory experience is the first thing that the source sees by which
the source gets the idea for the formation of the message.
Objects of Orientation (X1, X2,…) - Objects of orientation is the person's social and cultural
reality that has formed from his/her past experiences and teachings.
Message Interpretation or Coding (X’) - Message is interpreted with the objects of orientation
of the receiver of the message.
Receiver (B) - The person who gets the message sent by the source and the person who
interprets according to his/her objects of orientation.
Object of Orientation of Receiver (X, b) - The views and ideas of the receiver or his/her social
reality is his/her object of orientation. That is how the receiver interprets the message.
Feedback (f) - The receiver forms another message after interpreting the message and sends it
back to the sender. It is known as feedback.
Gatekeeper (C) - Gatekeepers are found in mass communication. The gatekeeper is the editor
who filters the message as per the needs of the audience and media institution.
Opinion Leader - Opinion leaders are well known and recognized people who can influence
public opinions.

Concepts of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

The process of communication in Westley and MacLean's model of communication starts when
the source creates a message from his/her environment. The communicator acts and creates
the message as a response to the sensory experience with his/her own objects of orientation.
Then, the response is coded after interpreting the environmental response. The coded message is
transmitted to a second respondent who interprets the message differently according to his/her
objects of orientation and provide feedback to the sender.
Gatekeeper and opinion leader are the parts of communication process in mass communication.
They are the editors, proofreaders, etc. who chooses which message should be published and
what effect will it have on the audience. Filter of the message is dependent on many factors.

Gatekeeping is done in these levels:

1. Individual level: A person’s gender, sexual orientation, culture, likes, dislikes, etc.
2. Routine practice level: Pre-established set of rules and practices for a particular
type of work to be done
3. Communication organizations: The policies of the organization that is publishing
the work
4. Social institutions: The social systems by which the message is formed
5. Societies: Societal values and belief systems, rules and norms, etc.

Example of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

A person 'A' is going to a meeting. Thunderstorms 'X1' and heavy rains 'X2' start. The roads 'X3'
are all blocked. 'A' will have to convey the message to the people who are conducting the
meeting that he/she will not be reaching on time. 'A' can inform all others through phone. Here,
the message is conceived from the environmental message through the person’s sensory
experience. The object of orientation of the person makes him call others because he thinks that
reaching late is impolite. Sender 'A' creates the message as a courteous request. The message is
coded in a language form and is sent to the receiver 'B'. 'B' interprets according to his/her own
object of orientation like the receiver can still find reaching late to a meeting rude. The feedback
is given accordingly.
Similarly, in mass communication, ‘A’ sends a message to ‘C’ who is the editor. ‘C’ acts as a
gatekeeper and publishes the news after proper editing. There might be readers’ ‘B’ replies to
which are in the form of letters or directly face to face. The process of letter reaching the writer
takes a long time whereas direct review reaches fast.
In a website, there are many writers. They write and send the articles to get them published. But
the editor chooses the articles that are relevant. The comment box is the place where the
audience can give feedback.
Here,
1. X1 is any article
2. X2 is the audience comments
3. X3 is the website
4. f is feedback
5. A is writers
6. B is the audience
7. C is the gatekeeper or the editor
So,
 there is a feedback loop between Audience (B) and the Editor (C) after sending the article
for publishing, which is known as "fBC".
 There is a feedback loop between Editor (C) and Writer (A) giving response to the
writers, which is known as "fCA".
 There is another feedback loop between Audience (B) and the Writers (A) in the
comments, which is known as "fBA".

The message received from the environment can be accidental or abrupt, so might not be
intentional. So, the signals can be received anytime and message is formed anytime.

Advantages of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

 There is the concept of feedback.
 As the message comes from the environment, sensory field improves the message formation.
 Social and other factors are included in objects of orientation.
 The model can be applied to interpersonal, group communication as well as mass
communication.
 The model is very descriptive.

Disadvantages of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

 There are many variables even for simple communication which makes the model very
complicated.
 The model is only two-dimensional and does not explain communication which involves
multiple messages and complicated messages.
 The information can get modified while sending it from the sender to the receiver as there can
be noise. The model does not account for noise in communication.

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 George Gerbner’s Model

Mr. George Gerbner is one of the pioneers in the field of communication research. His works are
descriptive as well as very easy to understand any other before. He is working as a professor and head of
the Annenberg School of Communications in the University of Pennsylvania. In 1956, Gerbner
attempted the general purpose of communication models. He stressed the dynamic nature of
communication in his work and also the factor which affecting the reliability of communication.

(Note: This model can be best understood when read along with the diagram beginning at E – Event.)

OR
(i) Perceptual Dimension:

An ‘E’ is an event happens in the real life and the event content or message is perceived by ‘M’ (Man or
a Machine). After Perceives the message from “E” by “M” is known as “E1”. E1 is not same as like ‘E’.
Because any man or machine can’t perceives the whole event and they perceives only the part of the
event (E1). This is known as “Perceptual Dimension”.

These 3 factors are involves between ‘E’ and ‘M’

Selection
Context
Availability

M (man or machine) cannot perceive the entire content of the event “E”. So M selects the interesting or
needed content from the entire event and filtering the others. The context occurs in the event and
Availability is based on ‘M’s attitude, mood, culture and personality. (For eg. How a journalist perceives
the messages from the event and also can’t focus the whole event so they filter the unwanted or
unrelated content from the event. This filtered content is not same as like the actual event content
because the journalist edits the content based on his attitude, mood and cultural background or press
policies).

(ii) Means and Controls dimension:

E2 is the event content which is drawn or artified by M. Here M becomes the source of a message about
E to send someone else. M creates a statement or signals about the message and Gerbner termed its
Form and content as “SE2”. S (Signal or Form) it takes and E2 (Man’s content). Here Content (E2) is
structured or formed (S) by ‘M’ and it can communicate in a different ways or based on the structured
ways.
M has to use channels (or media) over to send the message which he has a greater or lesser degree of
control. The question of ‘control’ relates to M’s degree of skill in using communication channels. If using
a verbal channel, how good is he using words? If using the Internet, how good is he at using new
technology and words?

This process can be extended to infinitum by adding on other receivers (M2, M3etc.) who have further
perceptions (SE3, SE4 etc.) of the statements about perceived events.

Important Note: - Message at every level is altered or changed.

Example:- In case of news reporting, E can be any event that has happened and the reporter (M) selects
a particular part of event (E1) that may be provide his channel higher TRP ratings or the news may boost
the particular party which his channel supports. This SE2 is sent through a medium to the mass
audience. Then the audience distributed the message (SE2) and he (M1) sends to his friends with his
interpretation and the process continues.

The George Gerbner Model of Communication has the following advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages
 The George Gerbner Model of Communication approaches communication as a two-way street.
 This makes the model applicable in general communication.
 Compared to, for example, the Shannon Weaver model, this model is easy to understand.
 The role of feedback plays an important role, so that nuance can be added.
 The George Gerbner Model of Communication is applicable for both human and
telecommunication.

Disadvantages
 George Gerbner Model of Communication does not address barriers and challenges in
communication in addition to feedback.
Summary of the George Gerbner Model of Communication

The George Gerbner Model of Communication emphasises the dynamic nature of

communication in everyday life.

In addition, various factors play a role in the reliability of communication. The model is an
extension of the Laswel communication model and describes the process of communication in
two different dimensions: the perceptual dimension and the means and control dimension. Here
E is the event or situation, M the observer and S the perception variable.

Communication is important because it enables collaboration between, for example, a company

and stakeholders. Communication is a fragile process and requires tact and consistency. Errors or
other disruptions in communication can lead to large-scale (negative) consequences.

https://www.toolshero.com/communication-methods/george-gerbner-model-of-
communication/#:~:text=The%20George%20Gerbner%20Model%20of%20Communication%20
is%20an%20extension%20of,sends%20messages%20to%20the%20sender.

https://www.academia.edu/16662535/Models_of_Communication

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 Agenda setting Model (Maxwell McCombs and Donald L. Shaw)

Media influence affects the order of presentation in news reports about news events, issues in the
public mind. More importance to a news-more importance attributed by audience. Media
Priorities It says what people should think about and how people should think about.

These are the levels of agenda setting Model:

First Level: Mostly studied by researchers, media uses objects or issues to influence the people
what people should think about.

Second level: Media focuses on the characters of issues how people should think about. Agenda
setting theory used in political ad, campaigns, business news, PR (public relation) etc.

The main concept associated with the agenda setting theory is gate keeping. Gate keeping
controls over the selection of content discussed in the media; Public cares mostly about the
product of a media gate keeping. It is especially editors media itself is a gatekeeper. News media
decides ‘what’ events to admit through media ‘gates’ on ground of ‘newsworthiness’.

For e.g.: News Comes from various sources, editors choose what should appear and what should
not that‘s why they are called as gatekeepers.

Priming
Activity of the media in proposing the values and standards by which objects of the media
attention can be judged. Media‘s content will provide a lot of time and space to certain issues,
making it more vivid.

To say in simple words, Media is giving utmost importance to news so that it gives people the
impression that is the most important information. This is done every day the particular news is
carried as a heading or covered everyday for months.
Headlines, Special news features, discussions, expert opinions are used.
Media primes a news by repeating the news and giving it more importance E.g. Nuclear deal.

Framing
Framing is a process of selective control

Two Meanings
1. Way in which news content is typically shaped and contextualized within same frame of
reference.
2. Audience adopts the frames of reference and to see the world in a similar way. It is how
people attach importance to a news and perceive it context within which an issue is viewed.
Framing talks about how people attach importance to certain news for e.g. in case of attack,
defeat, win and loss, how the media frames the news such that people perceive it in a different
way.
We can take India and Pakistan war; same happening is framed in different ways in both the
countries. So depending on which media you view your perception will differ.

Criticisms of Agenda setting Model is

 Media users not ideal, people may not pay attention to details.
 Effect is weakened for people who have made up their mind.
 Media can‘t create problems. They can only alter the awareness, Priority etc.
Examples Of Agenda-Setting

Here are examples that can help you better understand the theory of agenda-setting:

Example 1: Promoting upcoming events

Media agencies sometimes highlight certain events like sporting events, musical concerts or
cultural events in a manner that generates the public's interest. The audience may not be
organically interested in the particular event, but the ongoing media reportage may influence the
group to look forward and even go to the event. Such media coverage campaigns help these
events be successful and profitable and help the media house generate revenues through
marketing them.

Example 2: Helping specific services or products gain new customers

A full-page news advertisement or a special broadcast on a certain weight loss pill can help
create curiosity among people about its effectiveness. Such media campaigns usually introduce
new products and services to the public and target audiences to try the product. This fulfils the
agenda of growth in sales by acquiring more customers when people purchase the pill after
seeing or reading about it.

Example 3: Supporting celebrities rebuild a positive public image

Celebrities and movie actors may get substantial positive coverage from the media after a public
controversy or scandal. The public relations team of celebrities generally work toward positive
image building so that the audience forgets the unpleasant things associated with the person and
remembers the favourable things said in the media about the celebrity. This helps protect the
public image and also helps build a loyal fan base for the celebrity.

https://in.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/agenda-setting-theory
https://www.communicationtheory.org/agenda-setting-theory/
http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~johnca/spch100/7-4-agenda.htm
helpfulprofessor.com/agenda-setting-theory/

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 SPIRAL OF SILENCE
(Formation of public opinion)

History and Orientation

Neumann (1974) introduced the “spiral of silence” as an attempt to explain in part how public opinion
is formed. She wondered why the Germans supported wrong political positions that led to national
defeat, humiliation and ruin in the 1930s-1940s.

Core Assumptions and Statements

The phrase "spiral of silence" actually refers to how people tend to remain silent when they feel that
their views are in the minority. The model is based on three premises: 1) people have a "quasi-
statistical organ," a sixth-sense if you will, which allows them to know the prevailing public opinion,
even without access to polls, 2) people have a fear of isolation and know what behaviors will increase
their likelihood of being socially isolated, and 3) people are reticent to express their minority views,
primarily out of fear of being isolated.

The closer a person believes the opinion held is similar to the prevailing public opinion, the more they
are willing to openly disclose that opinion in public. Then, if public sentiment changes, the person will
recognize that the opinion is less in favour and will be less willing to express that opinion publicly. As the
perceived distance between public opinion and a person's personal opinion grows, the more unlikely the
person is to express their opinion.

Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, the German political scientist contributes the famous model called “Spiral of
Silence”. In 1947 Neumann and her husband found “Public Opinion Organization” in German and also
she was a President of “World Association for Public Opinion Research” in 1978 to 1980. Through this
Spiral of Silence theory Neumann indirectly explains the Jews status during World War II under Nazi’s
control. Here, Adolf Hitler dominated the whole society and the minority Jews became silent due to the
fear of isolation or separation.
Source: Noelle-Neumann (1991).
Scope and Application
It is related to the mass media, in such a way that mass media influences public opinion. Shifts in public
opinion occur commonly and therefore this theory is used to search an explanation for behavior (speak
up or stay silent).
The theory has also been criticized for ambiguity and methodological weakness, but the idea has
persisted. Evidence of the spiral effect is usually small but significant.

Example- This example shows an effect of the theory where during the 1991 Gulf War the U.S. support
for the war was measured. Either it is a consensus view or did media coverage contribute to a spiral of
silence that dampened opposition to the war? In a survey that asked about people’s opinions,
respondents were clearly less supportive of the war than the popular support depicted by the media.
Those who watched television and perceived that the public supported the war, were more likely to
support the war themselves. This study supports the spiral of silence and suggests that people are
swayed by bandwagon effects rather than fearing social isolation.

Example:
In a company, the managing director decides to increase their working hour from 8 to 10 and
send e-mail to all employees. Majority of them accept this time changes and few employees are
not satisfied with his decision. But they cannot or ready to express their thought publicly.

Because
1. They may feel unsupported by the other employees.

2. “Fear of isolation” like transfer

3. “Fear of Rejection” By rejecting their personal opinion from the public will help to avoid
fight.

4. They may try to save their job by suppressing or avoid personal statement in public.

They frame work based on few assumptions:

1. Spiral of silence theory describe as a dynamic process, the predication about public opinion
in mass media which gives more coverage for the majorities in the society and gives very less
coverage for minorities.

2. In this social environment, People have fear of rejection to express their opinion or views
and they known well what behaviors will make a better likelihood. It’s called “fear of Isolation”.

3. Being the part of Minority. People loss their confidence and silent or mute to express their
views because of the fear of isolation or they feel alone or unsupported.
4. Sometimes the minorities withdraw their expressed opinion from public debates to secure
themselves from the majority.

5. Maximum numbers get more vocal space in the society and lesser number become less vocal
space or become silent.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

1. Spiral of Silence theory has both micro level and macro level explanatory process.

2. It works well during the public campaign, Senate and Parliament.

3. Spiral of silence theory – which helps to raise question about considering the role and
responsibility of media in the society.

4. The theory which is not considering the other explanation of silencing. In some cases the
person may feel the majority’s ideas or opinion is much better than his own view.

5. It portrait overly negative view of media influence the average people.

https://www.communicationtheory.org/the-spiral-of-silence-theory/

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