Fluid Power DME 6TH SEM

1.
0 Introduction to Fluid Power Systems:

1.1 Introduction, components and General layout of Fluid Power Systems.
1.2 Comparison of Hydraulic & Pneumatic System.
1.3 Practical applications of Fluid Power Systems.
1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Fluid Power Systems.
Introduction
In the industry we use three methods for transmitting power from one point to another.
Mechanical transmission is through shafts, gears, chains, belts, etc. Electrical transmission is through
wires, transformers, etc. Fluid power is through liquids or gas in a confined space. In this chapter,
we shall discuss a structure of hydraulic systems and pneumatic systems. We will also discuss
the advantages and disadvantages and compare hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical and mechanical
systems.
Fluid Power and Its Scope

Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation, control and transmission of forces and
movement of mechanical element or system with the use of pressurized fluids in a confined system.
Both liquids and gases are considered fluids. Fluid power system includes a hydraulic system (hydra
meaning water in Greek) and a pneumatic system (pneuma meaning air in Greek). Oil hydraulic employs
pressurized liquid petroleum oils and synthetic oils, and pneumatic employs compressed air that is released to
the atmosphere after performing the work.
Perhaps it would be in order that we clarify our thinking on one point. By the term “fluid” we refer to air
or oil, for it has been shown that water has certain drawbacks in the transmission of hydraulic power in
machine operation and control.
Commercially, pure water contains various chemicals (some deliberately included) and also foreign
matter, and unless special precautions are taken when it is used, it is nearly impossible to maintain valves and
working surfaces in satisfactory condition. In the cases where the hydraulic system is closed (i.e., the one
with a self-contained unit that serves one machine or one small group of machines), oil is commonly used,
thus providing, in addition to power transmission, benefits of lubrication not afforded by water as well as
increased life and efficiency of packings and valves. It should be mentioned that in some special cases,
soluble oil diluted with water is used for safety reasons. The application of fluid power is limited only by the
ingenuity of the designer, production engineer or plant engineer. If the application pertains to lifting, pushing,
pulling, clamping, tilting, forcing, pressing or any other straight line (and many rotary) motions, it is possible
that fluid power will meet the requirement.
Basic Components of a Hydraulic System

Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish useful work.
Figure below shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic components.
Components of a hydraulic system Components of a hydraulic

system (shown using symbols).
[FLUID POWER, CHAP-1][DME 6th SEM] [Prepared by – Dibyendu Halder ,Lect A.J.C Bose Poly] Page 1
Functions of the components shown in Figure are as follows:
1. The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical power to do useful work.
The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder) or rotary type(e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide
linear or rotary motion, respectively.
2. The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the hydraulic circuit by converting
mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
3. Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing through the circuit.
4. External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
5. Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.
6. Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
7. Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and efficient, as well as
avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
8. Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the hydraulic fluid.
The piping shown in above Figure is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred from the storage tank to
one side of the piston and returned back from the other side of the piston to the tank. Fluid is drawn from the
tank by a pump that produces fluid flow at the required level of pressure. If the fluid pressure exceeds the
required level, then the excess fluid returns back to the reservoir and remains there until the pressure acquires the
required level.
Cylinder movement is controlled by a three-position change over a control valve.
1. When the piston of the valve is changed to upper position, the pipe pressure line is connected to port A and
thus the load is raised.
2. When the position of the valve is changed to lower position, the pipe pressure line is connected to port B and
thus the load is lowered.
3. When the valve is at center position, it locks the fluid into the cylinder(thereby holding it in position) and
dead-ends the fluid line (causing all the pump output fluid to return to tank via the pressure relief).
Basic Components of a Pneumatic System

A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a fluid for transmitting
energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish useful work. Figure 1.3 shows
a simple circuit of a pneumatic system with basic components.
Components of a pneumatic system (shown using

symbols).
The functions of various components shown in Figure are as follows:

1. The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform useful work.
2. The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
3. The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
4. The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
5. External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.
6. The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.
Air is drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to required pressure by an air compressor. As
the pressure rises, the temperature also rises; hence, an air cooler is provided to cool the air with some
preliminary treatment to remove the moisture. The treated pressurized air then needs to get stored to maintain the
pressure. With the storage reservoir, a pressure switch is fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure
falls and reaches the required level, respectively.
The three-position change over the valve delivering air to the cylinder operates in a way similar to its hydraulic
circuit
ADVANTAGES OF A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
The basic advantages offered by a hydraulic system are as follows:
1. Hydraulic power is easy to produce, transmit, store, regulate and control, maintain and transform
2. Weight to power ratio of a hydraulic system is comparatively less than that for an electromechanical system.
(About 8.5 kg/kw for electrical motors and 0.5 kg/kw for a hydro system) (a 5hp hydraulic motor can be
easily hold in the palm of your hand, but a 5-hp electric motor weights around 20kg)
3. It is possible to generate high gain in force and power amplification.
4. Hydraulic systems are uniform and smooth, generate step less motion and variable speed and force to a
greater accuracy.
5. Division and distribution of hydraulic power is simpler and easier than other forms of energy.
6. Limiting and balancing of hydraulic forces are easily performed.
7. Frictional resistance is much less in a hydraulic system as compared to a mechanical movement.
8. Hydraulic elements can be located at any place and controlled reversely.
9. The noise and vibration produced by hydraulic pumps is minimal.
10. Hydraulic systems are cheaper if one considers the high efficiency -of power transmission.
1 1. Easy maintenance of hydraulic system is another advantage.
12. Hydraulics is mechanically safe, compact and is adaptable-to other forms of power and can be easily
controlled.
13. Hydraulic output can be both linear, rotational and angular. Use of flexible connection in hydraulic system
permits generation of compound motion without gears etc.
14. Hydraulics is a better over-load safe power system. This can be easily achieved by using a pressure relief valve.
15. Absolutely accurate feedback of load, position, etc. can be achieved in a hydraulic system as in electro
hydraulic and digital electronic servo system. Because of high power and accurate control possibility, in
modem engineering language hydraulics is termed as the muscle of the system and electronics its nerves.
DISADVANTAGES OF A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

In spite of all the above advantages, hydraulic systems have some drawbacks which are mentioned below.
The disadvantages are:
1. Hydraulic elements have to be machined to a high degree of precision which increases the manufacturing cost
of the system.
2. Certain hydraulic systems are exposed to unfriendly climate and dirty atmosphere as the in case of mobile
hydraulics like dumpers, loaders, etc.
3. Leakage of hydraulic oil poses a problems to hydraulic users.
4. Hydraulic elements have to be specially treated to protect them against rust, corrosion, dirt, etc.
5. Hydraulic oil may pose problems if it disintegrates due to aging and chemical deterioration.
6. Petroleum based hydraulic oil may pose fire hazards thus limiting the upper level of working
temperature. However, due to availability of synthetic fire resistant oils this problem is of academic interest
now-a-days. To combat environmental effects of petroleum and chemical based oils, efforts are on to use bio
degradable oils now.
Difference between Hydraulic System and pneumatic System
No. Hydraulic system Pneumatic system
1 Working fluid is hydraulic oil. Working fluid is compressed air

As oil is incompressible, oil can be Air is compressible; hence air can be pressurized to
2 pressurized to very high pressure. (500 bar or lesser pressure. (Only up to 10 bar approx.)
even more)
Since pressure is high, force developed is also Since pressure is very less, force
3 very high (thousands of tone). developed is very less (up to 1 ton)
Since pressure is high, components are very Components of pneumatic system are l i g h t e r i n
4 strong, made of steel and are heavy. w e i g h t , a r e m a d e o f aluminum.
As oil has more viscosity, it cannot flow fast. Air has very less viscosity, it can flow fast. Hence
5 Hence hydraulic systems are slower in pneumatic systems are quicker in operation.
operation.
Due to continuous recirculation, Harder it runs, cooler it works. Free expansion
6 temperature of oil increases. of air in cylinders and motors causes chilling
effect.
Hydraulic oils are petroleum based oils; they No chance of fire hazard. Hence pneumatic tools
7 are inflammable and there is every chance of are preferably used inside mines, where
fire hazard, if neglected. flammable gasses may present.
Leakage of oil results in dirty and slippery Very clean and dry surrounding is maintained.
8 Surroundings, may lead to accidents.
Pump used is positive displacement pump. So,

9 pressure relief valve is necessary. No need of pressure relief valve.
There is no need of separable lubrication Lubricator is necessary. Oil is mixed with the
10 System, because, hydraulic oil itself is a compressed air in lubricator and then supplied to
lubricant. the system.
Applications: Material handling

systems,
Applications: CNC. Machine tools, earth hand tools mining works, automation,
11
moving machines, automobiles. aviation etc. automobiles etc.
Practical applications of Fluid Power Systems.

Hydraulics and pneumatics have almost unlimited application in the production of goods and services in
nearly all sectors of the country. Several industries are dependent on the capabilities that fluid power affords.
Table below summarizes few applications of fluid power.
Table : More applications of fluid power

Agriculture Tractors; farm equipment such as mowers, ploughs,
chemical and water sprayers, fertilizer spreaders, harvesters
Automation Automated transfer lines, robotics
Automobiles Power steering, power brakes, suspension systems,
hydrostatic transmission
Aviation Fluid power equipment such as landing wheels in aircraft.
Helicopters, aircraft trolleys, aircraft test beds, luggage loading and unloading
systems, ailerons, aircraft servicing, flight simulators
Construction industry/ For metering and mixing of concrete rudders, excavators,
equipment lifts, bucket loaders, crawlers, post-hole diggers, road graders, road cleaners,
road maintenance vehicles, tippers
Defense Missile-launching systems, navigation controls
Entertainment Amusement park entertainment rides such as roller coasters
Fabrication industry Hand tools such as pneumatic drills, grinders, borers,
riveting machines, nut runners
Food and beverage All types of food processing equipment, wrapping, bottling,
Foundry Full and semi-automatic molding
machines, tilting of furnaces, die- casting machines
Glass industry Vacuum suction cups for handling
Instrumentation Used to create/operate complex instruments in space
rockets, gas turbines, nuclear power plants, industrial labs
Jigs and fixtures Work holding devices, clamps, stoppers, indexers
Machine tools Automated machine tools, numerically controlled(NC) machine tools
Materials handling Jacks, hoists, cranes, forklifts, conveyor systems
Medical Medical equipment such as breathing assistors, heart assist

devices, cardiac compression machines, dental drives and human patient
simulator
Movies Special-effect equipment use fluid power; movies such as
Jurassic park, Jaws, Anaconda, Titanic
Mining Rock drills, excavating equipment, ore conveyors, loaders
Newspapers and Edge trimming, stapling, pressing, bundle wrapping
periodicals
Oil industry Off-shore oil rigs
Paper and packaging Process control systems, special-purpose machines for
rolling and packing
Pharmaceuticals Process control systems such as bottle filling, tablet placement, packaging
Plastic industry Automatic injection molding

machines, raw material
feeding, jaw closing, movement of slides of blow molder
Press tools Heavy duty presses for bulk metal formation such as sheet
metal, forging, bending, punching, etc.
Printing industry For paper feeding, packaging
Robots Fluid power operated robots, pneumatic systems
Ships Stabilizing systems, unloading and loading unit, gyroscopic
instruments, movement of flat forms, lifters, subsea inspection equipment
Textiles Web tensioning devices, trolleys, process controllers

Transportation Hydraulic elevators, winches, overhead trams
Under sea Submarines, under sea research vehicles, marine drives and control of ships
Wood working Tree shearers, handling huge logs, feeding clamping and
saw operations
ADVANTAGES OF A FLUID POWER SYSTEM

Oil hydraulics stands out as the prime moving force in machinery and equipment designed to handle medium to
heavy loads. In the early stages of industrial development, mechanical linkages were used along with prime
movers such as electrical motors and engines for handling loads. But the mechanical efficiency of linkages
was very low and the linkages often failed under critical loading conditions. With the advent of fluid power
technology and associated electronics and control, it is used in every industry now.
The advantages of a fluid power system are as follows:
1. Fluid power systems are simple, easy to operate and can be controlled accurately:
Fluid power gives flexibility to equipment without requiring a complex mechanism. Using
fluid power, we can start, stop, accelerate, decelerate, reverse or position large
forces/components with great accuracy using simple levers and push buttons. For example, in earth-moving
equipment, bucket carrying load can be raised or lowered by an operator using a lever. The landing gear of an
aircraft can be retrieved to home position by the push button.
2. Multiplication and variation of forces: Linear or rotary force can be multiplied by a fraction of a
kilogram to several hundreds of tons.
3. Multifunction control: A single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power and control for
numerous machines using valve manifolds and distribution systems. The fluid power controls can be placed
at a central station so that the operator has, at all times, a complete control of the entire production line,
whether it be a multiple operation machine or a group of machines. Such a setup is more or less standard in the
steel mill industry.
4. Low-speed torque: Unlike electric motors, air or hydraulic motors can produce a large amount of torque
while operating at low speeds. Some hydraulic and pneumatic motors can even maintain torque at a very slow
speed without overheating.
5. Constant force or torque: Fluid power systems can deliver constant torque or force regardless of speed
changes.
6. Economical: Not only reduction in required manpower but also the production or elimination of
operator fatigue, as a production factor, is an important element in the use of fluid power.
7. Low weight to power ratio: The hydraulic system has a low weight to power ratio compared to
electromechanical systems. Fluid power systems are compact.
8. Fluid power systems can be used where safety is of vital importance: Safety is of vital importance in air
and space travel, in the production and operation of motor vehicles, in mining and manufacture of delicate
products. For example, hydraulic systems are responsible for the safety of take-off, landing and flight of
aeroplanes and space craft. Rapid advances in mining and tunneling are the results of the application of modern
hydraulic and pneumatic systems.
DISADVANTAGES OF A FLUID POWER SYSTEM
The following list of disadvantages applies to fluid power systems

1. Higher safety factors associated with high-pressure oil and compressed air.
2. Susceptibility to dirty environments, which can cause extreme component wear without careful filtration.
3. Fluid leakage and spills cause a slippery, messy work environment around hydraulic equipment.
4. Fire hazard with hydraulic systems using combustible oils.
5. Special handling and disposal procedures for hydraulic oil required by environmental regulations.
6. High cost of compressing and conditioning air for use in pneumatic systems.
7. Reduced accuracy in actuator speed control in pneumatic systems caused by compressibility of air.
8. Noise level of pneumatic systems when air is directly exhausted to the atmosphere from components.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Objective Type Questions
Fill in the Blanks

1. Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation,_______ and transmission of forces and movement of
mechanical elements or systems.
2. There are three basic methods of transmitting power: Electrical, mechanical and________ .
3. Only ________ are capable of providing constant force or torque regardless of speed changes.
4. The weight-to-power ratio of a hydraulic system is comparatively_______ than that of an electromechanical system.
State True or False

1. Hydraulic lines can burst and pose serious problems.
2. Power losses due to leakages are less in pneumatic systems.
3. Pneumatic system is not free from fire hazards.
4. Hydraulic power is especially useful when performing heavy work.
5. Water is a good functional hydraulic fluid.
Fluid power symbols
[FLUID POWER, FLUID POWER SYMBOLS] [DME 6th SEM] [Prepared by – Dibyendu Halder ,Lect A.J.C Bose Poly] Page 1
Components of Hydraulic Systems
2.0 Types, Construction, Working Principle and Symbols of the following Components
2.1 Pumps –Vane pump, Gear pump, and Piston pump.
2.2 Valves –
2.2.1 Pressure control valves – Pressure relief valve, Pressure reducing valve, Pressure unloading valve.
2.2.2 Direction control valves – Poppet valve, Spool valve, 3/2, 4/2 &4/3 D.C. valves, Sequence valves, valve
actuation.
2.2.3 Flow control valves – Pressure compensated, Non Pressure compensated flow control valve.
2.3 Actuators –
2.3.1 Rotary Actuators - Hydraulic motors
2.3.2 Linear Actuators – Cylinders - single acting, double acting & mountings.
2.4 Accessories –
2.4.1 Pipes, Hoses, fittings, Oil filters, Seals and gaskets, Intensifier, Accumulators.
HYDRAULIC PUMPS
A pump will have an inlet called suction and an outlet called delivery. It converts mechanical energy in to
hydraulic energy. Pump is also known as heart of hydraulic system. The basic principle is that Due to
mechanical action, the pump created partial vacuum at its inlet. This permits atmospheric pressure to force
the fluid through the inlet line and in to the pump, then pump pushes the fluid into the hydraulic system.
- These are mainly classified into two categories:
(a) Non-positive displacement pumps (Hydrodynamic/Rotodynamic)
(b) Positive displacement pumps (Hydrostatic)
(a) Non-positive displacement pumps (Hydrodynamic/Rotodynamic)

- In these pumps the fluid is pressurized by the rotation of the propeller and the fluid pressure is
proportional to the rotor speed. These pumps can not withstanding high pressures and generally used for
low-pressure and high-volume flow applications.
- The important advantages of non-positive displacement pumps are lower initial cost, less operating
maintenance because of less moving parts, simplicity of operation, higher reliability and suitability with
wide range of fluid etc. These pumps are primarily used for transporting fluids and find little use in the
hydraulic or fluid power industries. Centrifugal pump is the common example of non-positive displacement
pumps.
(b) Positive displacement pumps (Hydrostatic)
- These pumps deliver a constant volume of fluid in a cycle. The discharge quantity per revolution is fixed
in these pumps and they produce fluid flow proportional to their displacement and rotor speed. These pumps
[FLUID POWER, CHAP-2] [DME 6th SEM] [Prepared by – Dibyendu Halder ,Lect A.J.C Bose Poly] Page 1
are used in most of the industrial fluid power applications. The output fluid flow is constant and is
independent of the system pressure (load).
- The important advantage associated with these pumps is that the high-pressure and low- pressure areas
(means input and output region) are separated and hence the fluid cannot leak back due to higher pressure at
the outlets. These features make the positive displacement pump most suited and universally accepted for
hydraulic systems.
- The important advantages of positive displacement pumps over non-positive displacement pumps
include capability to generate high pressures, high volumetric efficiency, high power to weight ratio, change
in efficiency throughout the pressure range is small and wider operating range pressure and speed.
Important positive displacement pumps are gears pumps, vane pumps and piston pumps. The details of
these pumps are discussed in the following sections.
Gear Pumps
- Gear pump is a robust and simple positive displacement pump. It has two meshed gears revolving about
their respective axes. These gears are the only moving parts in the pump. They are compact, relatively
inexpensive and have few moving parts. The rigid design of the gears and houses allow for very high
pressures and the ability to pump highly viscous fluids.
These pump includes helical and herringbone gear sets (instead of spur gears), lobe shaped rotors similar to
Roots blowers (commonly used as superchargers), and mechanical designs that allow the stacking of pumps.
Based upon the design, the gear pumps are classified as:
(a) External gear pumps
(b) Lobe pumps
(c) Internal gear pumps
- Generally gear pumps are used to pump:
• Petrochemicals: Pure or filled bitumen, pitch, diesel oil, crude oil, lube oil etc.
• Chemicals: Sodium silicate, acids, plastics, mixed chemicals etc.
• Paint and ink
• Resins and adhesives
• Pulp and paper: acid, soap, lime, latex, sludge etc.
• Food: Chocolate, cacao butter, fillers, sugar, vegetable fats and oils, molasses, animal food etc.
(a) External gear pumps
- The external gear pump consists of externally meshed two gears housed in a pump case as shown in
figure 2.1 one of the gears is coupled with a prime mover and is called as driving gear and another is called
as driven gear.
- The rotating gear carries the fluid from the tank to the outlet pipe. The suction side is towards the portion
whereas the gear teeth come out of the mesh.
- When the gears rotate, volume of the chamber expands leading to pressure drop below atmospheric
value. Therefore the vacuum is created and the fluid is pushed into the void due to atmospheric pressure.
The fluid is trapped between housing and rotating teeth of the gears.
- The discharge side of pump is towards the portion where the gear teeth run into the mesh and the volume
decreases between meshing teeth.
- The clearance between gear teeth and housing and between side plate and gear face is very important and
plays an important role in preventing leakage. In general, the gap distance is less than 10 micrometres. The
amount of fluid discharge is determined by the number of gear teeth, the volume of fluid between each pair
of teeth and the speed of rotation.
- The important drawback of external gear pump is the unbalanced side load on its bearings. It is caused
due to high pressure at the outlet and low pressure at the inlet which results in slower speeds and lower
pressure ratings in addition to reducing the bearing life.
- Gear pumps are most commonly used for the hydraulic fluid power applications and are widely used in
chemical installations to pump fluid with a certain viscosity.
Figure 2.1 - External gear pump

(b) Lobe pumps
- Lobe pumps work on the similar principle of working as that of external gear pumps. However in Lobe
pumps, the lobes do not make any contact like external gear pump (see Figure 2.2).
- Lobe contact is prevented by external timing gears located in the gearbox. Similar to the external gear
pump, the lobes rotate to create expanding volume at the inlet.
- Now, the fluid flows into the cavity and is trapped by the lobes. Fluid travels around the interior of casing
in the pockets between the lobes and the casing. Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces liquid to pass
through the outlet port. The bearings are placed out of the pumped liquid. Therefore the pressure is limited
by the bearing location and shaft deflection.
- Lobe pumps are widely used in industries such as pulp and paper, chemical, food, beverage,
pharmaceutical and biotechnology etc.
- These pumps can handle solids (e.g., cherries and olives), slurries, pastes, and a variety of liquids. A
gentle pumping action minimizes product degradation.
- Lobe pumps are frequently used in food applications because they handle solids without damaging the
product. Large sized particles can be pumped much effectively than in other positive displacement types. As
the lobes do not make any direct contact therefore, the clearance is not as close as in other Positive
displacement pumps.
(c) Internal gear pumps
- Internal gear pumps are exceptionally versatile. They are often used for low or medium viscosity fluids
such as solvents and fuel oil and wide range of temperature. This is nonpulsing, self-priming and can run
dry for short periods. It is a variation of the basic gear pump.
- It comprises of an internal gear, a regular spur gear, a crescent-shaped seal and an external housing. The
schematic of internal gear pump is shown in Figure 2.3.
- Liquid enters the suction port between the rotor (large exterior gear) and idler (small interior gear) teeth.
Liquid travels through the pump between the teeth and crescent. Crescent divides the liquid and acts as a
seal between the suction and discharge ports.
- When the teeth mesh on the side opposite to the crescent seal, the fluid is forced out through the
discharge port of the pump. This clearance between gears can be adjusted to accommodate high
temperature, to handle high viscosity fluids and to accommodate the wear.
- However, these pumps are not suitable for high speed and high pressure applications. Only one bearing is
used in the pump therefore overhung load on shaft bearing reduces the life of the bearing.
Figure 2.3 - Internal gear pump
Vane Pumps
- In the previous topic we have studied the gear pumps. These pumps have a disadvantage of small leakage
due to gap between gear teeth and the pump housing. This limitation is overcome in vane pumps.
- The leakage is reduced by using spring or hydraulically loaded vanes placed in the slots of driven rotor.
- Vane pumps are available in a number of vane configurations including sliding vane, flexible vane,
swinging vane, rolling vane, and external vane etc.
- The operating range of these pumps varies from -32 °C to 260 °C.
- The schematic of vane pump working principle is shown in figure 2.4 Vane pumps generate a pumping
action by tracking of vanes along the casing wall.
- The vane pumps generally consist of a rotor, vanes, ring and a port plate with inlet and outlet ports.
Figure 2.4
- The rotor in a vane pump is connected to the prime mover through a shaft. The vanes are located on the
slotted rotor.
- The rotor is eccentrically placed inside a cam ring as shown in the figure. The rotor is sealed into the cam
by two side plates.
- When the prime mover rotates the rotor, the vanes are thrown outward due to centrifugal force. The vanes
track along the ring.
- It provides a tight hydraulic seal to the fluid which is more at the higher rotation speed due to higher
centrifugal force. This produces a suction cavity in the ring as the rotor rotates. It creates vacuum at the inlet
and therefore, the fluid is pushed into the pump through the inlet. The fluid is carried around to the outlet by
the vanes whose retraction causes the fluid to be expelled.
- The capacity of the pump depends upon the eccentricity, expansion of vanes, and width of vanes and
speed of the rotor. It can be noted that the fluid flow will not occur when the eccentricity is zero.
- These pumps can handle thin liquids (low viscosity) at relatively higher pressure.
- However, these pumps are not suitable for high speed applications and for the high viscosity fluids or
fluids carrying some abrasive particles.
- The maintenance cost is also higher due to many moving parts. This pumps have various applications for
the pumping of following fluids:
• Aerosol and Propellants
• Aviation Service - Fuel Transfer, Deicing
• Auto Industry - Fuels, Lubes, Refrigeration Coolants
• Bulk Transfer of LPG and NH3
• LPG Cylinder Filling
• Alcohols
• Refrigeration - Freons, Ammonia
• Solvents
Unbalanced Vane pump
- In practice, the vane pumps have more than one vane as shown in figure below. The rotor is offset within
the housing, and the vanes are constrained by a cam ring as they cross inlet and outlet ports.
- Although the vane tips are held against the housing, still a small amount of leakage exists between rotor
faces and body sides.
- Also, the vanes compensate to a large degree for wear at the vane tips or in the housing itself. The
pressure difference between outlet and inlet ports creates a large amount of load on the vanes and a
significant amount of side load on the rotor shaft which can lead to bearing failure. This type of pump is
called as unbalanced vane pump.
Adjustable vane pump
- The proper design of pump is important and a challenging task. In ideal condition, the capacity of a pump
should be exactly same to load requirements. A pump with larger capacity wastes energy as the excess fluid
will pass through the pressure relief valve.
- It also leads to a rise in fluid temperature due to energy conversion to the heat instead of useful work and
therefore it needs some external cooling arrangement. Therefore, the higher capacity pump increases the
power consumption and makes the system bulky and costly.
- Pumps are generally available with certain standard capacities and the user has to choose the next
available capacity of the pump. Also, the flow rate from the pump in most hydraulic applications needs to
be varying as per the requirements.
- Therefore, some vane pumps are also available with adjustable capacity as shown in figure below. This
can be achieved by adjusting a positional relationship between rotor and the inner casing by the help of an
external controlling screw.
- These pumps basically consist of a rotor, vanes, cam ring, port plate, thrust bearing for guiding the cam
ring and a discharge control screw by which the position of the cam ring relative to the rotor can be varied.
In general, the adjustable vane pumps are unbalanced pump type.
- The amount of fluid that is displaced by a vane pump running at a constant speed is determined by the
maximum extension of the vanes and the vanes width.
- However, for a pump running in operation, the width of vanes cannot be changed but the distance by
which the vanes are extended can be varied. This is possible by making a provision for changing the
position of the cam ring (adjustable inner casing) relative to the rotor as shown in figure.
- The eccentricity of rotor with respect to the cam ring is adjusted by the movement of the screw. The
delivery volume increases with increase in the eccentricity. This kind of arrangement can be used to achieve
a variable volume from the pump and is known as variable displacement vane pump.
Balanced vane pump
- Figure 2.7 shows the schematic of a balanced vane pump.
- This pump has an elliptical cam ring with two inlet and two outlet ports. Pressure loading still occurs in
the vanes but the two identical pump halves create equal but opposite forces on the rotor. It leads to the zero
net force on the shaft and bearings. Thus, lives of pump and bearing increase significantly. Also the sounds
and vibrations decrease in the running mode of the pump.
Figure 2.7 - Balanced Vane Pump
Piston Pumps
- Piston pumps are meant for the high-pressure applications. These pumps have high- efficiency and simple
design and needs lower maintenance. These pumps convert the rotary motion of the input shaft to the
reciprocating motion of the piston. These pumps work similar to the four stroke engines.
- They work on the principle that a reciprocating piston draws fluid inside the cylinder when the piston
retracts in a cylinder bore and discharge the fluid when it extends. These pumps are positive displacement
pump and can be used for both liquids and gases. Piston pumps are basically of two types:
(a) Axial piston pumps
(b) Radial piston pumps
(a) Axial piston pumps
- Axial piston pumps are positive displacement pumps which converts rotary motion of the input shaft into
an axial reciprocating motion of the pistons. These pumps have a number of pistons (usually an odd
number) in a circular array within a housing which is commonly referred to as a cylinder block, rotor or
barrel. These pumps are used in jet aircraft.
- These pumps have sub-types as:
1. Bent axis piston pump
2. Swash plate axial piston pump
1. Bent axis piston pump
- Figure 2.8 shows the schematic of bent axis piston pump. In these pumps, the reciprocating action of the
pistons is obtained by bending the axis of the cylinder block.
- The cylinder block rotates at an angle which is inclined to the drive shaft. The cylinder block is turned by
the drive shaft through a universal link.
- The cylinder block is set at an offset angle with the drive shaft. The cylinder block contains a number of
pistons along its periphery. These piston rods are connected with the drive shaft flange by ball-and-socket
joints.
- The volumetric displacement (discharge) of the pump is controlled by changing the offset angle. It makes
the system simple and inexpensive.
- These pistons are forced in and out of their bores as the distance between the drive shaft flange and the
cylinder block changes. A universal link connects the block to the drive shaft, to provide alignment and a
positive drive.
- The discharge does not occur when the cylinder block is parallel to the drive shaft. The offset angle can
vary from 0° to 40°.
Figure 2.8 Bent axis piston pump

2. Swash plate axial piston pump
- − A swash plate is a device that translates the rotary motion of a shaft into the reciprocating motion. It
consists of a disk attached to a shaft as shown in Figure 2.9. If the disk is aligned perpendicular to the shaft;
the disk will turn along with the rotating shaft without any reciprocating effect
- . − Similarly, the edge of the inclined shaft will appear to oscillate along the shaft's length. This apparent
linear motion increases with increase in the angle between disk and the shaft (offset angle). The apparent
linear motion can be converted into an actual reciprocating motion by means of a follower that does not turn
with the swash plate.
- − In swash plate axial piston pump a series of pistons are aligned coaxially with a shaft through a swash
plate to pump a fluid. The schematic of swash plate piston pump is shown in Figure 2.9. The axial
reciprocating motion of pistons is obtained by a swash plate that is either fixed or has variable degree of
angle.
- − As the piston barrel assembly rotates, the piston rotates around the shaft with the piston shoes in
contact with the swash plate. The piston shoes follow the angled surface of the swash plate and the
rotational motion of the shaft is converted into the reciprocating motion of the pistons.
- − This reciprocating motion of the piston results in the drawing in and pumping out of the fluid. Pump
capacity can be controlled by varying the swash plate angle with the help of a separate hydraulic cylinder.
The pump capacity (discharge) increases with increase in the swash plate angle and vice-versa.
(b) Radial piston pumps
- − The typical construction of radial piston pump is shown in Figure 2.10. The piston pump has pistons
aligned radially in a cylindrical block. It consists of a pintle, a cylinder barrel with pistons and a rotor
containing a reaction ring. The pintle directs the fluid in and out of the cylinder. Pistons are placed in radial
bores around the rotor.
- − The piston shoes ride on an eccentric ring which causes them to reciprocate as they rotate. The
eccentricity determines the stroke of the pumping piston. Each piston is connected to inlet port when it starts
extending while it is connected to the outlet port when start retracting. This connection to the inlet and
outlet port is performed by the timed porting arrangement in the pintle.
- − As the cylinder barrel rotates, the pistons on one side travel outward. This draws the fluid in as the
cylinder passes the suction port of the pintle. It is continued till the maximum eccentricity is reached. When
the piston passes the maximum eccentricity, pintle is forced inwards by the reaction ring. This forces the
fluid to flow out of the cylinder and enter in the discharge (outlet) port of the pintle.
CONTROL VALVES
- In a hydraulic system, the hydraulic energy available from a pump is converted into motion and force by
means of an actuator. The control of these mechanical outputs (motion and force) is one of the most
important functions in a hydraulic system. The proper selection of control selection ensures the desired
output and safe function of the system. In order to control the hydraulic outputs, different types of control
valves are required. It is important to know various types of control valves and their functions. This not only
helps to design a proper hydraulic system but also helps to discover the innovative ways to improve the
existing systems. There are basically three types of valves employed in hydraulic systems:
1. Directional control valves
2. Flow control valves
3. Pressure control valves
− These control valves contain ports that are external openings for the fluid to enter and leave. The number
of ports is usually identified by the term ‘way’. For example, a valve with four ports is named as four-way
valve.
− The fluid flow rate is responsible for the speed of actuator (motion of the output) and should controlled in
a hydraulic system. This operation can be performed by using flow control valves. The pressure may
increase gradually when the system is under operation. The pressure control valves protect the system by
maintaining the system pressure within the desired range. Also, the output force is directly proportional to
the pressure and hence, the pressure control valves ensure the desired force output at the actuator.
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE
The pressure control valves are used to protect the hydraulic components from excessive pressure. This is one of the
most important components of a hydraulic system and is essentially required for safe operation of the system. Its
primary function is to limit the system pressure within a specified range. It reduces the system pressure and as the
pressure reduces to the set limit again the valve closes. Various types of pressure control valves are discussed in the
following sections:
1. Pressure relief valve
− Schematic of direct pressure relief valve is shown in figure 2.11. This type of valves has two ports; one of which is
connected to the pump and another is connected to the tank. It consists of a spring chamber where poppet is placed
with a spring force.
− Generally, the spring is adjustable to set the maximum pressure limit of the system. The poppet is held in position
by combined effect of spring force and dead weight of spool.
− As the pressure exceeds this combined force, the poppet raises and excess fluid bypassed to the reservoir (tank).
The poppet again reseats as the pressure drops below the pre-set value. A drain is also provided in the control
chamber. It sends the fluid collected due to small leakage to the tank and thereby prevents the failure of the valve.
2. Unloading Valve
− The construction of unloading valve is shown in Figure 2.12. This valve consists of a control chamber with an
adjustable spring which pushes the spool down.
− The valve has two ports: one is connected to the tank and another is connected to the pump. The valve is operated
by movement of the spool. Normally, the valve is closed and the tank port is also closed.
− These valves are used to permit a pump to operate at the minimum load. It works on the same principle as direct
control valve that the pump delivery is diverted to the tank when sufficient pilot pressure is applied to move the spool.
The pilot pressure maintains a static pressure to hold the valve opened. The pilot pressure holds the valve until the
pump delivery is needed in the system.
− As the pressure is needed in the hydraulic circuit; the pilot pressure is relaxed and the spool moves down due to the
self-weight and the spring force. Now, the flow is diverted to the hydraulic circuit.
− The drain is provided to remove the leaked oil collected in the control chamber to prevent the valve failure. The
unloading valve reduces the heat build-up due to fluid discharge at a pre-set pressure value.
3. Pressure Reducing Valve
− Sometimes a part of the system may need a lower pressure. This can be made possible by using pressure reducing
valve as shown in Figure 2.13. These valves are used to limit the outlet pressure.
− Generally, they are used for the operation of branch circuits where the pressure may vary from the main hydraulic
pressure lines.
− These are open type valve and have a spring chamber with an adjustable spring, a movable spool as shown in
figure. A drain is provided to return the leaked fluid in the spring (control) chamber.
− A free flow passage is provided from inlet port to the outlet port until a signal from the outlet port tends to throttle
the passage through the valve. The pilot pressure opposes the spring force and when both are balanced, the
downstream is controlled at the pressure setting.
− When the pressure in the reduced pressure line exceeds the valve setting, the spool moves to reduce the flow
passage area by compressing the spring. It can be seen from the figure that if the spring force is more, the valve opens
wider and if the controlled pressure has greater force, the valves moves towards the spring and throttles the flow.
Difference between pressure relief valve and pressure reducing valve

Sr. No Pressure Relief valve Pressure Reducing Valve
1 This is NC (Normally Closed) type valve This is NO (Normally Open) tvpe valve
2 Fitted in by-pass line to reservoir tank Fitted in main line to system
3 Outlet is connected to reservoir tank Outlet is connected to system
4 Inlet pressure is system pressure. Outlet pressure is system pressure
5 Inlet pressure is the pilot pressure, Outlet pressure is pilot pressure
6 It opens when inlet pressure (system pressure or It closes when outlet pressure (System pressure or
pilot pressure) becomes more than pre-set value pilot pressure) becomes more then pre-set value
Difference between pressure relief valve and Unloading valve
Sr. No Pressure relief valve Unloading valve
1 Its inlet itself is its pilot connection. It has a separate Pilot connection
2 It is set for maximum pressure required for It is set for the minimum pressure required during idle
operation of the system. period of the system.
3 It opens when its inlet pressure (maximum system It opens when the pilot pressure (minimum idle-period
pressure) increases above pre-set value pressure) increases above pre-set value.
4 It is a safety valve which avoids damage to the It avoids over heating of working fluid, and it saves
system components due to high pressure. power to a greater extent.
DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE
− Directional control valves are used to control the distribution of energy in a fluid power system. They provide the
direction to the fluid and allow the flow in a particular direction.
− These valves are used to control the start, stop and change in direction of the fluid flow. These valves regulate the
flow direction in the hydraulic circuit.
Check Valves and Poppet valves
− These are unidirectional valves and permit the free flow in one direction only. These valves have two ports: one for
the entry of fluid and the other for the discharge.
− They are consists of a housing bore in which ball or poppet is held by a small spring force. The valve having ball as
a closing member is known as ball check valve.
− The various types of check valves are available for a range of applications. These valves are generally small sized,
simple in construction and inexpensive.
− Generally, the check valves are automatically operated. Human intervention or any external control system is not
required.
− These valves can wear out or can generate the cracks after prolonged usage and therefore they are mostly made of
plastics for easy repair and replacements. The check valve is designed for a specific cracking pressure which is the
minimum upstream pressure at which the valve operates.
− The ball is held against the valve seat by a spring force. It can be observed from the figure that the fluid flow is not
possible from the spring side but the fluid from opposite side can pass by lifting the ball against.
− However, there is some pressure drop across the valve due to restriction by the spring force. Therefore these valves
are not suitable for the application of high flow rate. When the operating pressure increases the valve becomes more
tightly seated in this design.
− When the closing member is not a ball but a poppet energized by a spring is known as poppet valve. The advantages
of the poppet valves include no leakage, long life and suitability with high pressure applications. These valves are
commonly used in liquid or gel mini-pump dispenser spigots, spray devices, some rubber bulbs for pumping air,
manual air pumps, and refillable dispensing syringes. The pressure drop is comparatively less in right angle check
valve.
Poppet Valve
Check Valves and Poppet valves
Spool valve
− The spool valves derive their name from their appearance. It consists of a shaft sliding in a bore which has large
groove around the circumference.
− This type of construction makes it look like a spool. The spool is sealed along the clearance between moving spool
and housing (valve body).
− The quality of seal or the amount of leakage depends on the amount of clearance, viscosity of fluid and the level of
the pressure.
− The grooves guide the fluid flow by interconnecting or blocking the holes (ports). The spool valves are categorized
according to the number of operating positions and the way hydraulic lines interconnections.
− One of the simplest two way spool valve is shown in Figure 2.14. The standard terms are referred as Port ‘P’ is
pressure port, Port ‘T’ is tank port and Port ‘A’ and Port ‘B’ are the actuator (or working) ports. The actuators can
move in forward or backward direction depending on the connectivity of the pressure and tank port with the actuators
port.
Three way valves (3/2 DCV)
− When a valve has one pressure port, one tank port and one actuating port as shown in Figures 2.16, it is known as
three way valve.
− In this valve, the pressure port pressurizes one port and exhausts another one. As shown in figures 2.16, only one
actuator port is opened at a time.
− In some cases a neutral position is also available when both the ports are blocked. Generally, these valves are used
to operate single acting cylinders.
Four way valves (4/3 DCV)

− It is generally used to operate the cylinders and fluid motors in both the directions. The four ways are: pump port P,
tank port T, and two working ports A and B connected to the actuator.
− The primary function of a four way valve is to pressurize and exhaust two working ports A and B alternatively.
− Figures 2.18 and show three position four way valves. These types of valves have three switching positions. They
have a variety of possible flow path configurations but have identical flow path configuration.
− When the centered path is actuated, port A and B are connected with both the ports P and T respectively. In this
case, valve is not active because all the ports are open to each other. The fluid flows to the tank at atmospheric
pressure. In this position work cannot be done by any part of the system. This configuration helps to prevent heat
build-up.
− When left end (port B) is actuated, the port P
is connected with ports B and T is connected
with port A as shown in Figure 2.18. Similarly,
when the right end is actuated the port P is
connected to A and working port B is
4/3 DCV
connected to port T as shown in Figure 2.19.
The three position valves are used when the actuator is needed to stop or hold at some intermediate position.
4/2 DCV
In a four way, two position valves there are
four inlet/outlet ports in the valve and the
spool can be located in one of two
positions. For 4/2 valve fluid is always
flowing through the valve with system
pressure supplied to one of the two outlet
ports at all times. The other port would
then be ported to return. 4/2 valves would
normally be used in hydraulic systems in
conjunction with an upstream shut valve (or 2/2 valve). In this case a 4/3 valve usually makes more sense.
Sequence valve
− The primary function of this type of valve is to divert flow in a
predetermined sequence. It is used to operate the cycle of a machine
automatically. A sequence valve may be of direct pilot or remote-
pilot operated type. Schematic of the sequence valve is shown in Figure
2.20. Its construction is similar to the direct relief valve.
− It consists of the two ports; one main port connecting the main
pressure line and another port (secondary port) is connected to the
secondary circuit. The secondary port is usually closed by the spool.
− The pressure on the spool works against the spring force. When the
pressure exceeds the pre-set value of the spring; the spool lifts and the
fluid flows from the primary port to the secondary port.
− For remote operation; the passage used for the direct operation is
closed and a separate pressure source for the spool operation is
provided in the remote operation mode.
Valve actuation
Manual actuation
In this type, the spool is operated manually. Manual actuators are hand lever, push button and pedals etc.
Mechanical actuation
− The DCV spool can be operated by using mechanical elements such as roller and cam, roller and plunger and rack
and pinion etc. In these arrangements, the spool end is of roller or a pinion gear type. The plunger or cam or rack gear
is attached to the actuator. Thus, the mechanical elements gain some motion relative to the actuator (cylinder piston)
which can be used for the actuation.
Solenoid actuation
− The solenoid actuation is also known as electrical actuation. The schematic of solenoid actuation is shown in Figure
2.21. The energized solenoid coil creates a magnetic force which pulls the armature into the coil. This movement of
armature controls the spool position. The main advantage of

solenoid actuation is its less switching time.
Hydraulic actuation
− This type actuation is usually known as pilot-actuated valve and a schematic is shown in Figure 2.22. In this type of
actuation, the hydraulic pressure is directly applied on the spool. The pilot port is located on one end of the valve.
Fluid entering from pilot port operates against the piston and forces the spool to move forward. The needle valve is
used to control the speed of the actuation.
Pneumatic actuation
− DCV can also be operated by applying compressed air against a piston at either end of the valve spool. The
construction of the system is similar to the hydraulic actuation as shown in Figure 2.22. The only difference would be
the actuation medium. The actuation medium is the compressed air in pneumatic actuation system.
Indirect actuation of directional control valve
− The direction control valve can be operated by manual, mechanical, solenoidal (electrical), hydraulic (pilot) and
pneumatic actuations. The mode of actuation does not have any influence on the basic operation of the hydraulic
circuits.
− Mostly, the direct actuation is restricted to use with smaller valves only because usually lot of force is not available.
The availability of limited force is the greatest disadvantage of the direct actuation systems. In practice, the force
required to shift the spool is quiet higher. Therefore, the larger valves are often indirectly actuated in sequence.
− First, the smaller valve is actuated directly and the flow from the smaller valve is directed to either side of the larger
valve.
− The control fluid can be supplied by the same circuit or by a separate circuit. The pilot valve pressure is usually
supplied internally.
− These two valves are often incorporated as a single unit. These valves are also called as Electro-hydraulic operated
DCV.
Flow control valves

Flow-control valves, as the name suggests, control the rate of flow of a fluid through a hydraulic circuit. Flow-control
valves accurately limit the fluid volume rate from fixed displacement pump to or from branch circuits. Their function
is to provide velocity control of linear actuators, or speed control of rotary actuators. Typical application include
regulating cutting tool speeds, spindle speeds, surface grinder speeds, and the travel rate of vertically supported loads
moved upward and downward by forklifts, and dump lifts. Flow-control valves also allow one fixed displacement
pump to supply two or more branch circuits fluid at different flow rates on a priority basis.
Functions of Flow-Control Valves

Flow-control valves have several functions, some of which are listed below:
1. Regulate the speed of linear and rotary actuators. They control the speed of piston that is dependent on the flow rate
and area of the piston:
2. Regulate the power available to the sub-circuits by controlling

the flow to them:
3. Proportionally divide or regulate the pump flow to various branches of the circuit. It transfers the power developed
by the main pump to different sectors of the circuit to manage multiple tasks, if necessary
In order to understand the function and operation of flow-control devices, one must comprehend the various factors
that determine the flow rate(Q) across an orifice or a restrictor. These are given as follows:
1. Cross-sectional area of orifice.
2. Shape of the orifice (round, square or triangular).
3. Length of the restriction.
4. Pressure difference across the orifice (∆p).
5. Viscosity of the fluid.
Thus, the law that governs the flow rate across a given orifice can be approximately defined as Q2 α ∆p
Classification of Flow-Control Valves
Flow-control valves can be classified as follows:
1. Non-pressure compensated.
2. Pressure compensated.
Non-Pressure-Compensated Valves
Non-pressure-compensated flow-control valves are used when the system pressure is relatively constant and
motoring speeds are not too critical. The operating principle behind these valves is that the flow through an orifice
remains constant if the pressure drop across it remains the same. In other words, the rate of flow through an orifice
depends on the pressure drop across it. The disadvantage of these valves is discussed below. The inlet pressure is the
pressure from the pump that remains constant. Therefore, the variation in pressure occurs at the outlet that is defined
by the work load. This implies that the flow rate depends on the work load. Hence, the speed of the piston cannot be
defined accurately using non-pressure-
compensated flow-control valves when
the working load varies. This is an
extremely important problem to be
addressed in hydraulic circuits where
the load and pressure vary constantly.
Schematic diagram of non-pressure-
compensated needle-type flow-control
valve is shown in Fig. below. It is the
simplest type of flow-control valve. It
consists of a screw (and needle) inside a tube like structure. It has an adjustable orifice that can be used to reduce the
flow in a circuit. The size of the orifice is adjusted by turning the adjustment screw that raises or lowers the needle.
For a given opening position, a needle valve behaves as an orifice. Usually, charts are available that allow quick
determination of the controlled flow rate for given valve settings and pressure drops.
Pressure-Compensated Valves
Pressure-compensated flow-control valves
overcome the difficulty caused by non-pressure
compensated valves by changing the size of the
orifice in relation to the changes in the system
pressure. This is accomplished through a spring-
loaded compensator spool that reduces the size of
the orifice when pressure drop increases. Once the
valve is set, the pressure compensator acts to keep
the pressure drop nearly constant. It works on a kind
of feedback mechanism from the outlet pressure.
This keeps the flow through the orifice nearly
constant.
Schematic diagram of a pressure compensated flow-control valve is shown in Fig below. A
pressure-compensated flow-control valve consists of a main spool and a compensator spool. The
adjustment knob controls the main spool’s position, which controls the orifice size at the outlet.
The upstream pressure is delivered to the valve by the pilot line A. Similarly, the downstream pressure is ported to the
right side of the compensator spool through the pilot line B. The compensator spring biases the spool so that it tends
toward the fully open position. If the pressure drop across the valve increases, that is, the upstream pressure increases
relative to the downstream pressure, the compensator spool moves to the right against the force of the spring. This
reduces the flow that in turn reduces the pressure drop and tries to attain an equilibrium position as far as the flow is
concerned.
Actuators
– Rotary Actuators - Hydraulic motors
− Hydraulic motors are rotary actuators. However, the name rotary actuator is reserved for a particular type of unit
that is limited in rotation to less than 360 degree.
− A hydraulic motor is a device which converts fluid power into rotary power or converts fluid pressure into torque.
− Torque is a function of pressure or, in other words, the motor input pressure level is determined by the resisting
torque at the output shaft. A hydraulic pump is a device which converts mechanical force and motion into fluid power.
− A hydraulic motor is not a hydraulic pump when run backward. A design that is completely acceptable as a motor
may operate very poorly as a pump in a certain applications.
Comparison between a hydraulic motor and an electric motor

Electric Motor Hydraulic Motor
Electric motors cannot be stopped instantly. Their Hydraulic motors can be stalled for any length of time.
direction of rotation cannot be reversed instantly. This is Their direction of rotation can be instantly reversed and
because of air gap between the rotor and stator and the their rotational speed can be infinitely varied without
weak magnetic field. affecting their torque. They can be braked instantly and
have immense torque capacities.
Electric motors are heavy and bulky. Hydraulic motors are very compact compared to electric
motors. For the same power, they occupy about 25% of
the space required by electric motors and weigh about
10% of electric motors.
Moment of inertia-to-torque ratio is nearly 100. Moment of inertia-to-torque ratio is nearly 1.
CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC MOTORS

Depending upon the mechanism employed to provide shaft rotation, hydraulic motors can be classified as follows:
1. Gear motors.
2. Vane motors.
3. Piston motors:
Gear motors are the least efficient, most dirt-tolerant and have the lowest pressure rating of 3. Piston motors are the
most efficient, least dirt-tolerant and have high pressure ratings. Vane and piston motors can be fixed or variable
displacement, but gear motors are available with only fixed displacement.
1. Gear Motors:
− A gear motor develops torque due to hydraulic pressure acting against the area of one tooth. There are two teeth
trying to move the rotor in the proper direction, while one net tooth at the center mesh tries to move it in the opposite
direction.
− In the design of a gear motor, one of the gears is keyed to an output shaft, while the other is simply an idler gear.
Pressurized oil is sent to the inlet port of the motor. Pressure is then applied to the gear teeth, causing the gears and
output shaft to rotate.
− Gear motors are normally limited to 150 bar operating pressures and 2500 RPM operating speed. They are available
with a maximum flow capacity of 600 LPM.
2. Vane Motors
− Figure below shows an unbalanced vane motor consisting
of a circular chamber in which there is an eccentric rotor
carrying several spring or pressure-loaded vanes. Because
the fluid flowing through the inlet port finds more area of
vanes exposed in the upper half of the motor, it exerts more
force on the upper vanes, and the rotor turns counter
clockwise. Close tolerances are maintained between the
vanes and ring to provide high efficiencies.
− The displacement of a vane hydraulic motor is a function
of eccentricity. The radial load on the shaft bearing of an
unbalanced vane motor is also large because all its inlet
pressure is on one side of the rotor.
3. Piston Motors
Piston motors are classified into the following types:
1. According to the piston of the cylinder block and the drive shaft, piston motors are classified as follows:
Axial piston motors.
Radial piston motors.
Axial Piston Motors
− In axial piston motors, the piston reciprocates parallel to the axis of the cylinder block. These motors are available
with both fixed-and variable-displacement
feature types. They generate torque by pressure
acting on the ends of pistons reciprocating
inside a cylinder block.
− Figure below illustrates the inline design in
which the motor, drive shaft and cylinder block
are centered on the same axis. Pressure acting
on the ends of the piston generates a force
against an angled swash plate. This causes the
cylinder block to rotate with a torque that is proportional to the area of the pistons.
− The torque is also a function of the swash-plate angle. The inline piston motor is designed either as a fixed- or a
variable-displacement unit.
− In variable-displacement units, the swash plate is mounted on the swinging yoke. The angle can be varied by
various means such as a lever, hand wheel or servo control. If the offset angel is increased, the displacement and
torque capacity increase but the speed of the drive shaft decreases. Conversely, reducing the angle reduces the torque
capability but increases the drive shaft speed.
Linear Actuators
Functionally cylinders or linear actuators are classified as:
1. Single acting cylinders
2. Double acting cylinder
3. Telescopic cylinders
4. Tandem cylinders
1. Single-Acting Cylinders
− A single-acting cylinder is simplest in design and is shown schematically in Fig below. It consists of a
piston inside a cylindrical housing called barrel. On one end of the piston there is a rod, which can
reciprocate. At the opposite end, there is a port for the entrance and exit of oil.
− Single-acting cylinders produce force in one direction by hydraulic pressure acting on the piston. The return
of the piston is not done hydraulically. In single-acting cylinders, retraction is done either by gravity or by a
spring.
Double-Acting Cylinder
There are two types of double-acting cylinders:
1. Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side.
2. Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on both sides.
Double-Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on One Side

− Figure below shows the operation of a double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side. To extend the cylinder,
the pump flow is sent to the blank-end port The fluid from the rod-end port returns to the reservoir.
− To retract the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to the rod-end port and the fluid from the blank-end port returns to the
tank .
Double-Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on
Both Sides
− A double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on
both sides is a cylinder with a rod extending from
both ends. This cylinder can be used in an
application where work can be done by both ends
of the cylinder, thereby making the cylinder more
productive.
− Double-rod cylinders can withstand higher side loads because they have an extra bearing, one on each rod, to
withstand the loading.
3. Telescopic Cylinder
− A telescopic cylinder is used when a long stroke length and a short retracted
length are required. The telescopic cylinder extends in stages, each stage
consisting of a sleeve that fits inside the previous stage.
− One application for this type of cylinder is raising a dump truck bed.
Telescopic cylinders are available in both single-acting and double-acting
models. They are more expensive than standard cylinders due to their more
complex construction.
4. Tandem Cylinder
− A tandem cylinder, shown in Figure, is used in
applications where a large amount of force is
required from a small-diameter cylinder. Pressure is
applied to both pistons, resulting in increased force
because of the larger area.
− The drawback is that these cylinders must be
longer than a standard cylinder to achieve an equal
speed because flow must go to both pistons.
Accessories
1. Pipe
Pipe is a rigid conductor that is not intended to be bent or shaped into a desired configuration. Pipe can be
manufactured and purchased in a variety of materials, such as cast iron, steel, copper, aluminum, brass, and stainless
steel. Pneumatic systems generally require corrosion-resistant pipe. Hydraulic systems use steel pipe. Galvanized pipe
is not recommended for use in hydraulic systems because the zinc coating of the pipe interacts unfavorably with oil.
The inside diameter (ID) of a pipe, or any fluid-carrying conductor, is an important consideration. For if the inside
diameter is too small, a large amount of friction results, which translates into undesirable system inefficiency and
wasted energy
2. Tubing
Tubing is a semi rigid fluid conductor which is customarily bent into a desired shape. The use of tubing gives a neat-
appearing system, a system less susceptible to leaks and vibration, and a system whose conductors can easily be
removed and replaced for maintenance purposes.
'tubing is made from a variety of materials, including steel, copper, brass, aluminum, stainless steel, and plastic.
Copper The use of copper is limited to low-pressure hydraulic systems where vibration is limited. Copper also tends
to become brittle when flared and subjected to high heat.
Aluminum. This tubing is also limited to low-pressure use, yet has good flaring and bend characteristics.
Plastic. Plastic tubing lines are made from a variety of materials; nylon is the most suitable. For use in low-pressure
hydraulic application only.
Steel. cold-drawn steel has become the accepted standard in hydraulics where high pressures are encountered.
3. Hose
Hose is a flexible fluid conductor which can adapt to machine members that move. Hose is made up of three basic
elements: inner tube, reinforcement, and cover .The inner tube is the lining of a hose, which contacts a fluid. Inner-
tube materials are designed to be compatible with the fluid being conducted. Hose reinforcement is the fabric, cord, or
metal layers that surround an inner tube. These elements give strength to the hose to withstand internal pressures and
external forces. A hose cover is the outer hose layer. It is designed to protect the inner tube and reinforcing layers
from chemical attack, mechanical damage, sunlight, and abrasions.
The cover carries a name, part number, the hose size, SAE number or rating, and date of manufacture. The Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE) has recommended Standards for the hydraulic hose industry. "1001" numbers from R1
to R11 are used to indicate hose performance capabilities and construction.
4. Oil filter
There are several sources of contamination
in and around hydraulic units. Normal
component wear, contamination in new oil,
sloppy filling practices, poor plumbing
installation, and dirt carried in on piston
rods are the main ones.
The oil enters the oil filter under pressure
through the holes on the perimeter of the
base plate.
The "dirty" oil then passes through the
filter media where it is "cleaned".
It then flows through the central tube to the pump.
5. Seals and gaskets

Any hydraulic system is associated with a major problem, that is, leakage. This reduces efficiency and increases the
power losses. Hence, sealing devices play a vital role in a hydraulic system by increasing the efficiency and
decreasing the power losses. Leakage can be overcome by proper maintenance of the system and proper selection of
seals and sealing at the design stage.
Functions of Seals
Seals are used in hydraulic systems to prevent excessive internal and external leakage and to keep out
contamination.Various functions of seals include the following:
1. They prevent leakage – both internal and external.
2. They prevent dust and other particles from entering into the system.
3. They maintain pressure.
4. They enhance the service life and reliability of the hydraulic system.
Some of the commonly used seals are given below
O-ring seal:O-ring is the most widely used seal for hydraulic systems. It is a molded synthetic rubber seal that has
a round cross-section in its free state
V-ring seal and U-ring seal: V- and U-

ring seals are compression-type seals used
in virtually in all types of reciprocating
motion applications. These include piston
rods and piston seals in pneumatic and
hydraulic cylinder, press rank, jacks and
seals on plungers and piston in
reciprocating pumps.
6. Intensifier
universal-testing machines often require high pressure for long periods of time. Other circuits might need a small
volume of high-pressure fluid for a short period while most of the cycle only needs low pressure.
When a circuit needs a small volume of high-pressure oil, it is done by using an intensifier sometimes called
a booster.
pictures the symbol for an air-oil intensifier. While the symbol shows
two pistons with different diameters, the actual intensifier consists of
a piston pushing a rod. The large-area air piston pushes a small-area
hydraulic ram against trapped oil. The difference between the two
areas gives high-pressure capability at the small ram. This capability
is indicated by the area ratio. If the air piston has a 5-in. diameter and
the oil piston has a 1-in. diameter, the area ratio is 25:1. With this
area ratio, 80 psi acting on the air piston produces 2000 psi at the
hydraulic piston.
7. Accumulator
Accumulators is used to store useable volumes of almost non-compressible hydraulic fluid under pressure. The
symbols and simplified cutaway views in Figure below show several types of accumulators used in industrial
applications
Function of hydraulic accumulators:
1. Supplement pump flow in circuits with medium to long delays between cycles.
2. Hold pressure in a cylinder while the pump is unloading or stopped.
3. Have a ready supply of pressurized fluid in case of power failure.
4. Reduce shock in high velocity flow lines or at the outlet of pulsating piston pumps.
Hydraulic Circuits:
3.1 Meter in, Meter out circuits & pump unloading cut
3.2 Bleed off circuit
3.3 Sequencing circuit
3.4 Hydraulic circuits for Milling machine, Shaper machine,
3.5 Motion Synchronization circuit.
3.1 (a) Meter in, Meter out circuits

The speed control of a hydraulic cylinder circuit can be done during the extension stroke
using a flow-control valve (FCV). This is done on a meter-in circuit and meter-out circuit
as shown in Fig below.
− Refer to Fig. 3.1 When the DCV is actuated, oil flows through the FCV to extend the
cylinder. The extending speed of the cylinder depends on the FCV setting. When the DCV is
deactivated, the cylinder retracts as oil from the cylinder passes through the check valve.
Thus, the retraction speed of a cylinder is not controlled.
− Figure 3.2 shows meter-out circuit; when DCV is actuated, oil flows through the rod end
to retract the cylinder.
Figure 3.1 Meter in Circuit Figure 3.2 meter out Circuit
Meter-In Versus Meter-Out Flow-Control Valve Systems

− In Section 3.1, the FCV is placed in the line leading to the inlet port of the cylinder. Thus, it is called the
meter-in control of speed. Meter-in flow controls the oil flow rate into the cylinder.
− A meter-out flow control system is one in which the FCV is placed in the outlet line of the hydraulic
cylinder. Thus, a meter-out flow control system controls the oil flow rate out of the cylinder.
− Meter-in systems are used primarily when the external load opposes the direction of motion of the
hydraulic cylinder. When a load is pulled downward due to gravity, a meter-out system is preferred. If a
meter-in system is used in this case, the load would drop by pulling the piston rod, even if the FCV is
completely closed.
− One drawback of a meter-out system is the excessive pressure build-up in the rod end of the cylinder while
it is extending. In addition, an excessive pressure in the rod end results in a large pressure drop across the
FCV. This produces an undesirable effect of a high heat generation rate with a resulting increase in oil
temperature.
3.1 (b) pump unloading cut

Figure 3.3 shows an application for an unloading valve. It is a circuit that uses a high pressure, low-flow
pump in conjunction with a low-pressure, high-flow pump.
− A typical application is a sheet metal punch press in which the hydraulic cylinder must extend rapidly
over a great distance with low-pressure but high-flow requirements. This occurs under no load.
− However during the punching operation for short motion, the pressure requirements are high, but the
cylinder travel is small and thus the flow requirements are low. The circuit in Fig. 3.3 eliminates the
necessity of having a very expensive high-pressure, high-flow pump.
− When the punching operation begins, the increased pressure opens the unloading valve to unload the low-
pressure pump. The purpose of relief valve is to protect the high-pressure pump from over pressure at the
end of cylinder stroke and when the DCV is in its spring centered mode.
− The check valve protects the low-pressure pump from high pressure, which occurs during punching
operation, at the ends of the cylinder stroke and when the DCV is in its spring centered mode.
Figure 3.3 - pump unloading circuit
3.2 Bleed off circuit
Compared to meter-in and meter-out circuits, a bleed-off circuit is less commonly used. Figure 3.4 shows a
bleed-off circuit with extend stroke control. In this type of flow control, an additional line is run through a
flow-control valve back to the tank. To slow down the actuator, some of the flow is bled off through the
flow-control valve into the tank before it reaches the actuator. This reduces the flow into the actuator,
thereby reducing the speed of the extend stroke. The main difference between a bleed-off circuit and a
meter-in/meter-out circuit is that in a bleed off circuit, opening the flow-control valve decreases the
speed of the actuator, whereas in the case of a meter-in/meter-out circuit, it is the other way around.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.4(a) Bleed-off circuit (Bleed-off for both directions and) Figure 3.4(b) bleed-off for inlet to the
cylinder or motor.
3.3 Sequencing circuit

- Hydraulic cylinders can be operated sequentially using a sequence valve. Figure 3.5 shows that two
sequence valves are used to sequence the operation of two double-acting cylinders.
− When the DCV is actuated to its right-envelope mode, the bending cylinder (B) retracts fully and then the
clamp cylinder (A) retracts.
− This sequence of cylinder operation is controlled by sequence valves. This hydraulic circuit can be used in
a production operation such as drilling.
− Cylinder A is used as a clamp cylinder and cylinder B as a drill cylinder.
− Cylinder A extends and clamps a work piece. Then cylinder B extends to drive a spindle to drill a hole.
Cylinder B retracts the drill spindle and then cylinder A retracts to release the work piece for removal.
Figure 3.5 - Sequencing circuit
3.4(a)
.4(a) Hydraulic circuits for Milling machine
[FLUID POWER, CHAP-3] [DME 6th SEM] [Prepared by – Dibyendu Halder

lder ,Lect A.J.C Bose Poly]
P Page 4
Figure 3.6 Hydraulic circuits for Milling machine
In figure 3.6 hydraulic circuit for Milling Machine is shown.

In Milling Machine cutter is situated at a fixed position and rotates with high speed. And the workpiece is
clamped on table, which move linearly in to & fro motion. Table movement in milling machine is
comparatively slower.
It has a main pump which is a low pressure and high discharge pump and one booster pump ,which
boost the hydraulic pressure to higher level. By using a booster pump expensive high flow and high
discharge pump is avoided.
There are two set of flow control valve and check valves, fitted in both supply and return line of the
cylinder to achieve speed control in both direction.
A manually operated spool valve decides the direction of flow to the cylinder. The stroke length of the
cylinder is adjustable through limit switches. The limit switch disconnect supply of oil to cylinder when
table reaches the set position.
3.4(b) Hydraulic circuits for Shaper machine

Hydraulic liquid is pumped by a constant discharge pump into the direction control valve. It has four ports
and three stages. If the pressure goes beyond desired limits, the same is released by the pressure relief valve.
The liquid reaches the right side of the cylinder through the inlet E and outlet A of the valve. Due to the
pressure of the liquid, the piston moves towards left. The tool head moves forward to perform the forward
cutting stroke. The liquid on the left side of the piston is sent back to the reservoir through B and P.
Due to the change of position of plunger inside the valve, the liquid reaches the left side of the cylinder
through the inlet E and outlet B. Piston moves towards right. The tool head moves in the opposite direction
and this movement is known as the return stroke. The liquid on the right side of the piston is sent back to the
reservoir through A and P.
Figure 3.7 Hydraulic circuits for Shaper machine
Quick Return of the Ram

Due to the change of stroke volume of the cylinder during forward and return stroke, the piston returns at a
faster rate. The stroke volume of the cylinder during return stroke is comparatively smaller than during
forward stroke due to the presence of the piston rod. So, the pressure increases automatically to push the
piston and the tool head at a faster speed during return stroke.
3.5 Motion Synchronization circuit

In industry, there are instances when a large mass must be moved, and it is not feasible to move it with just
one cylinder. In such cases we use two or more cylinders to prevent a moment or moments that might distort
and damage the load. For example, in press used for moulding and shearing parts, the platen used is very
heavy. If the platen is several meter wide, it has to be of very heavy construction to prevent the damage
when it is pressed down by a single cylinder in the middle. It can be designed with less material if it is
pressed down with two or more cylinders. These cylinders must be synchronized. There are two ways that
can be used to synchronize cylinders: Parallel and series.
Cylinders in Parallel
Figure 3.8 shows a hydraulic circuit in which two cylinders are arranged in parallel. When the two cylinders
are identical, the loads on the cylinders are identical, and then extension and retraction are synchronized. If
the loads are not identical, the cylinder with smaller load extends first. Thus, the two cylinders are not
synchronized. Practically, no two cylinders are identical, because of packing (seals) friction
differences. This prevents cylinder synchronization for this circuit.
Cylinders in Series
Figure 3.8 shows a hydraulic circuit in which two cylinders are arranged in series. During the extending
stroke of cylinders, fluid from the pump is delivered to the blank end of cylinder 1. As cylinder 1 extends,
fluid from its rod end is delivered to the blank end of cylinder 2 causing the extension of cylinder 2. As
cylinder 2 extends, fluid from its rod end reaches the tank.
− For two cylinders to be synchronized, the piston area of cylinder 2 must be equal to the difference between
the areas of piston and rod for cylinder 1.
Figure 3.8 - Cylinders in parallel and series
Components of Pneumatic System:
4.0 Types, Construction, Working Principle and Symbols of the following Components:
4.1 Compressor – Reciprocating & Rotary compressors.
4.2 Control Valves – Pressure regulating valves, Flow Control valves and Direction Control
Valves.
4.3 Actuators
4.3.1 Rotary actuator - Air motors.
4.3.2 Linear actuator- Cylinders- single acting, double acting.
4.4 Accessories – Pipes, Hoses, Fittings, FRL unit.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEM

Important components of a pneumatic system are shown in figure 1.
a) Air filters: These are used to filter out the contaminants from the air.
b) Compressor: Compressed air is generated by using air compressors. Air compressors are either diesel or
electrically operated. Based on the requirement of compressed air, suitable capacity compressors may be
used.
c) Air cooler: During compression operation, air temperature increases. Therefore coolers are used to
reduce the temperature of the compressed air.
d) Dryer: The water vapor or moisture in the air is separated from the air by using a dryer.
e) Control Valves: Control valves are used to regulate, control and monitor for control of direction flow,
pressure etc.
f) Air Actuator: Air cylinders and motors are used to obtain the required movements of mechanical
elements of pneumatic system.
g) Electric Motor: Transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy. It is used to drive the compressor.
h) Receiver tank: The compressed air coming from the compressor is stored in the air receiver.
Figure 1 - Components of a pneumatic system
Advantages of Pneumatic system

− Low inertia effect of pneumatic components due to low density of air.
− Pneumatic Systems are light in weight.
− Operating elements are cheaper and easy to operate
− Power losses are less due to low viscosity of air
− High output to weight ratio
− Pneumatic systems offers a safe power source in explosive environment
− Leakage is less and does not influence the systems. Moreover, leakage is not harmful
Disadvantages of Pneumatic systems
− Suitable only for low pressure and hence low force applications
− Compressed air actuators are economical up to 50 kN only.
− Generation of the compressed air is expensive compared to electricity
− Exhaust air noise is unpleasant and silence has to be used.
− Rigidity of the system is poor
− Weight to pressure ratio is large
− Less precise. It is not possible to achieve uniform speed due to compressibility of air
− Pneumatic systems is vulnerable to dirt and contamination
Receiver tank
− The air is compressed slowly in the compressor. But since the pneumatic system needs continuous supply
of air, this compressed air has to be stored. The compressed air is stored in an air receiver as shown in
Figure 2. The air receiver smoothens the pulsating flow from the compressor. It also helps the air to cool
and condense the moisture present.
− The air receiver should be large enough to hold all the air delivered by the compressor. The pressure in
the receiver is held higher than the system operating pressure to compensate pressure loss in the pipes. Also
the large surface area of the receiver helps in dissipating the heat from the compressed air.
Figure 2 - Air receiver

Compressor
− It is a mechanical device which converts mechanical energy into fluid energy. The compressor increases
the air pressure by reducing its volume which also increases the temperature of the compressed air.
− The compressor is selected based on the pressure it needs to operate and the delivery volume.
− The compressor can be classified into two main types
a. Positive displacement compressors and
b. Dynamic displacement compressor
− Positive displacement compressors include piston type, vane type, diaphragm type and screw type.
Piston compressors
− Piston compressors are commonly used in pneumatic
systems. The simplest form is single cylinder compressor. It
produces one pulse of air per piston stroke.
− As the piston moves down during the inlet stroke the inlet
valve opens and air is drawn into the cylinder. As the piston
moves up the inlet valve closes and the exhaust valve opens
which allows the air to be expelled. The valves are spring
loaded.
− The single cylinder compressor gives significant amount of pressure pulses at the outlet port. The pressure
developed is about 3-40 bar.
Double acting compressor

− The pulsation of air can be reduced by using double acting compressor as shown in Figure below. It has
two sets of valves and a crosshead.
− As the piston moves, the air is
compressed on one side whilst on the
other side of the piston, the air is sucked
in. Due to the reciprocating action of the
piston, the air is compressed and delivered
twice in one piston stroke. Pressure higher
than 30bar can be produced.
Multistage compressor
− As the pressure of the air increases,
its temperature rises. It is essential to
reduce the air temperature to avoid
damage of compressor and other
mechanical elements. The multistage
compressor with intercooler in-
between is shown in Figure.
− It is used to reduce the temperature
of compressed air during the
compression stages. The inter-cooling
reduces the volume of air which used
to increase due to heat.
− The compressed air from the first
stage enters the intercooler where it is
cooled. This air is given as input to the
second stage where it is compressed
again.
− The multistage compressor can
develop a pressure of around 50 bar.
Combined two stage compressors

− In this type, two-stage compression
is carried out by using the same
piston.Initially when the piston moves
down, air is sucked in through the inlet
valve.
− During the compression
process, the air moves out of the
exhaust valve into the
intercooler.
As the piston moves further the
stepped head provided on the
piston moves into the cavity thus
causing the compression of air.
Then, this is let out by the
exhaust port.
Diaphragm compressor
− These are small capacity compressors. In piston compressors the lubricating oil from the pistons walls
may contaminate the compressed air.
− The contamination is undesirable in food, pharmaceutical and chemical industries. For such applications
diaphragm type compressor can be used. − The piston reciprocates by a motor driven crankshaft. As the
piston moves down it pulls the hydraulic fluid down causing the diaphragm to move along and the air is
sucked in.
− When the piston moves up the fluid pushes the diaphragm up causing the ejection of air from the outlet
port. Since the flexible diaphragm is placed in between the piston and the air no contamination takes place.
Screw compressor
− Piston compressors are used when high
pressures and relatively low volume of
air is needed. The system is complex as it
has many moving parts. For medium
flow and pressure applications, screw
compressor can be used. It is simple in
construction with less number of moving
parts.
− The air delivered is steady with no
pressure pulsation. It has two meshing
screws. The air from the inlet is trapped
between the meshing screws and is
compressed. The contact between the two
meshing surface is minimum, hence no
cooling is required.
− These systems are quite in operation compared to piston type. The screws are synchronized by using
external timing gears.
Rotary vane compressors

− The principle of operation of vane
compressor is similar to the hydraulic vane
pump. The unbalanced vane compressor
consists of spring loaded vanes seating in the
slots of the rotor.
− The pumping action occurs due to
movement of the vanes along a cam ring.
The rotor is eccentric to the cam ring.
− As the rotor rotates, the vanes follow the
inner surface of the cam ring. The space
between the vanes decreases near the outlet
due to the eccentricity. This causes
compression of the air. These compressors are free from pulsation. If the eccentricity is zero no flow takes
place.
Liquid ring vane compressor

− Liquid ring vane compressor is a
variation of vane compressors. The
casing is filled with liquid up to
rotor center.
The air enters the compressor
through the distributor fixed to the
compressor.
− During the impeller rotation, the
liquid will be centrifuged along the
inner ring of the casing to form the
liquid ring.
− There are two suction and discharge ports provided in the distributor. During the first quarter of cycle, the
air is sucked in both suction chambers of the casing and during the second quarter of the cycle, the air is
compressed and pushed out through the two discharge ports.
− During the third and fourth quarters of the cycle, the process is repeated. This type of compressor has no
leakage and has minimal friction. For smooth operation, the rotation speed should be about 3000 rpm. The
delivery pressure is low (about 5 bar).
Lobe compressor
− The lobe compressor is used when high delivery volume but low
pressure is needed. It consists of two lobes with one being driven and
the other driving.
− It is similar to the Lobe pump used in hydraulic systems.
− The operating pressure is limited by leakage between rotors and
housing. As the wear increases during the operation, the efficiency
falls rapidly.
Control Valves
Control Valve are defined as devices to control or regulate the
commencement, termination and direction and also the pressure or
rate of flow of a fluid under pressure which is delivered by a compressor
Valve available for pneumatic control can be classified into four principal groups according to their
function:
1. Direction control valve
2. Non return valves
3. Flow control valves
4. Pressure control valves
DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES
Pneumatic systems like hydraulic system also require control valves to direct and regulate the flow of fluid
from the compressor to the various devices like air actuators and air motors. In order to control the
movement of air actuators, compressed air has to be regulated, controlled and reversed with a predetermined
sequence. Pressure and flow rates of the compressed air to be controlled to obtain the desired level of force
and speed of air actuators. The function of directional control valve is to control the direction of flow in the
pneumatic circuit. DCVs are used to start, stop and regulate the direction of air flow and to help in the
distribution of air in the required line.
POPPET DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES
There are two different types of poppet valves, namely ball seat valve and disc seat valve.
A. Ball seat valve.
In a poppet valve, discs, cones or balls are used to control flow. Figure below shows the construction of a
simple 2/2 normally closed valve. If the push button is pressed, ball will lift off from its seat and allows the
air to flow from port P to port B. When the push button is released, spring force and air pressure keeps the
ball back and closes air flow from port P to port B.
B. Disc seat poppet valve
Figure below shows the construction of a disc type 3/2 way DCV. When push button is released, ports 1
and 3 are connected via hollow pushbutton stem. If the push button is pressed, port 3 is first blocked by the
moving valve stem and then valve disc is pushed down so as to open the valve thus connecting port 1 and 3.
When the push button is released, spring and air pressure from port 1 closes the valve..
Advantages of poppet valves are as follows

i) Response of poppet valve is very fast- short stroke to provide maximum flow opening ii) They give
larger opening (larger flow) of valves for a small stroke iii) The valve seats are usually simple elastic seals
so wear is minimum iv) They are insensitive to dust and dirt and they are robust, seats are self cleaning v)
Maintenance is easy and economical. vi) They are inexpensive vii) They give longer service life: short
stroke and few wearing parts give minimum wear and maximum life capabilities
Disadvantages of poppet valves are as follows
i) The actuating force is relatively high, as it is necessary to overcome the force of the built in reset spring
and the air pressure. ii) They are noisy if flow fluctuation is large.
SPOOL DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES

A. Hand operated 3/2 DCV
The cross sectional views of 3/2 DCV (normally closed) based on spool design is shown below. When the
valve is not actuated, port 2 and 3 are connected and port 1 is blocked. When the valve is actuated then port
2 and 1 are connected and port 3 is blocked.
B. Pneumatically actuated 3/2 DCV
The cross – sectional views of pneumatically actuated NC type 3/2 DCV in normal position and actuated
positions are shown in the In normal position, the working port (2) is closed to the pressure port (1) and
open to the exhaust port (3). When the compressed air is applied through the pilot port (12), the spool is
moved against the spring. In the actuated position, the working port (2) is open to the pressure port(1) and
closed to the exhaust port(3). Thus, the application of the compressed air to the port 12 causes the pressure
port (1) to be connected to the working port (2).
C. Pneumatically actuated 4/2 DCV

The valve shown in Figure below is a 4/2 way valve pneumatically operated DCV. Switch over is effected
by direct application of pressure. If compressed air is applied to pilot spool through control port 12, it
connects port 1 with 2 and 4 is exhausted through port 3. If the pilot pressure is applied to port 14, then 1 is
connected with 4 and line 2 exhausted through port 3. On disconnecting the compressed air from the control
line, the pilot spool remains in its current position until spool receives a signal from the other control side.
D. Rotary valves
The rotary spool directional control valve has a round core with one or more passages or recesses in it. The
core is mounted within a stationary sleeve. As the core is rotated within the stationary sleeve, the passages
or recesses connect or block the ports in the sleeve. The ports in the sleeve are connected to the appropriate
lines of the fluid system. Figure below shows the construction of a rotary spool directional control valve.
We connect different ports by rotating the handle. By rotating the handle, core gets connected to different
holes to give the required configuration of the valve. This type of the valve can be directly mounted on
panel using bolt
NON RETURN VALVES

Non return valves permit flow of air in one direction only, the other direction through the valve being at all
times blocked to the air flow. Mostly the valves are designed so that the check is additionally loaded by the
downstream air pressure, thus supporting the non-return action. Among the various types of non-return
valves available, those preferentially employed in pneumatic controls are as follows
A. Check valve
The simplest type of non-return valve is the check valve, which completely blocks air flow in one direction
while permitting flow in the opposite direction with minimum pressure loss across the valve. As soon as the
inlet pressure in the direction of free flow develops a force greater than that of the internal spring, the check
is lifted clear of the valve seat. The check in such valve may be plug, ball, plate or diaphragm.
B. Shuttle valve
It is also known as a double control valve or double check valve. A shuttle valve has two inlets and one
outlet. At any one time, flow is shut off in the direction of whichever inlet is unloaded and is open from the
loaded inlet to the outlet A shuttle valve may be installed, for example, when a power unit (cylinder) or
control unit (valve) is to be actuated from two points, which may be remote from one other.
A typical application is given in Figure below, where a spring return cylinder is operated from either of two
manual stations. Isolation between the two stations is provided by the shuttle valve. Note a simple T-
connection cannot be used as each valve has its A port vented to the exhaust port.
C. Quick Exhaust Valves

A quick exhaust valve is a typical shuttle valve. The quick exhaust valve is used to exhaust the cylinder air
quickly to atmosphere. Schematic diagram of quick exhaust valve is shown in Figure below. In many
applications especially with single acting cylinders, it is a common practice to increase the piston speed
during retraction of the cylinder to save the cycle time. The higher speed of the piston is possible by
reducing the resistance to flow of the exhausting air during the motion of cylinder. The resistance can be
reduced by expelling the exhausting air to the atmosphere quickly by using Quick exhaust valve.
The construction and operation of a quick exhaust valve is shown in Figure above. It consist of a movable
disc (also called flexible ring) and three ports namely, Supply port 1, which is connected to the output of the
final control element (Directional control valve). The Output port, 2 of this valve is directly fitted on to the
working port of cylinder. The exhaust port, 3 is left open to the atmosphere Forward Motion: During
forward movement of piston, compressed air is directly admitted behind the piston through ports 1 and 2
Port 3 is closed due to the supply pressure acting on the diaphragm. Port 3 is usually provided with a
silencer to minimise the noise due to exhaust. Return Motion: During return movement of piston, exhaust
air from cylinder is directly exhausted to atmosphere through opening 3 (usually larger and fitted with
silencer) .Port 2 is sealed by the diaphragm. Thus exhaust air is not required to pass through long and
narrow passages in the working line and final control valve Typical applications of quick exhaust valves for
single acting and double acting cylinders are shown in Figure.
FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Function of a flow control valve is self –evident from its name. A flow control valve regulates the rate of air
flow. The control action is limited to the air flow passing through the valve when it is open, maintaining a
set volume per unit of time. Figure below shows a variable restrictor type flow control valve (manifold
type).
Flow control valve

PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE.
Compared with hydraulic systems, few pressure control valves are brought into use in pneumatics. Pressure
control valves control the pressure of the air flowing through the valve or confined in the system controlled
by the valve.
There are three types of pressure control valves
1. Pressure limiting valve
2. Pressure sequence valve
3. Pressure regulator or pressure reducing valve
A. Pressure limiting valve.

Prevents the pressure in a system from rising above a permissible maximum. Construction feature of
pressure limiting valve is shown in Figure below. It is a standard feature of compressed air production plant
but is hardly ever used in pneumatic controls. These valves perform a safety relief function by opening to
the atmosphere if a predetermined pressure is exceeded in the system, thus releasing the excess pressure. As
soon as the pressure is thus relieved to the desired figure, the valve closed again by spring force.
B. Pressure sequence valve
Pneumatic sequence valves are pilot-operated directional control valves with an adjustable spring return .It
is however used for a different purpose. Outlet of the pressure sequence valve remains closed until pressure
upstream of it builds up to a predetermined value. Only then the valve opens to permit the air from inlet to
outlet. Sequence valve must be incorporated into a pneumatic control where a certain minimum pressure
must be available for a given function and operation is not be initiated at any pressure lower than that. There
are also used in systems containing priority air consumers, when other consumers are not to be supplied
with air until ample pressure is assured
Pressure sequence valve
C. Pressure reducing valve or regulator Pressure regulators,

Air pressure regulators control the pressure in air lines used by pneumatic tools and machines. To provide
consistent pressures, they remove fluctuations in the air supply and are adjustable. The reduction in pressure
is the key characteristic of pressure regulators; outlet pressure is always less than the inlet pressure. The
applications for air pressure regulators vary considerably. Air pressure regulators are found in many
common applications such as in gas grills, propane pressure control, and in medical/dental equipment to
regulate oxygen and anesthesia gases.
The regulator restricts flow when the pressure gets too high because the pressure acts on the
diaphragm forcing it up against the spring pressure, the diaphragm has what is called a ‘poppet’ attached on
the end of it which is drawn up with the diaphragm and restricts the passing air flow.
ROTARY ACTUATOR
Gear motor : Rotary actuators convert energy of pressurized fluid into rotary motion. Rotary actuators are
similar to electric motors but are run on hydraulic or pneumatic power.
Gear motor
It consists of two inter meshing gears inside a housing with one gear attached to the drive shaft. Figure
above shows a schematic diagram of Gear motor. The air enters from the inlet, causes the rotation of the
meshing gear due to difference in the pressure and produces the torque. The air exists from the exhaust port.
Gear motors tend to leak at low speed, hence are generally used for medium speed applications.
Vane motor: A rotary vane motor consists of a

rotor with sliding vanes in the slots provided on the
rotor .The rotor is placed eccentrically with the
housing. Air enters from the inlet port, rotates the
rotor and thus torque is produced. Air is then
released from the exhaust port (outlet).
Vane motor
Limited rotation actuators
It consists of a single rotating vane connected to output shaft as shown in Figure below. It is used for double
acting operation and has a maximum angle of rotation of about 270°. These are generally used to actuate
dampers in robotics and material handling applications. Other type of limited rotation actuator is a rack and
pinion type actuator.
Semi rotary vane type actuator
LINEAR ACTUATOR –
Actuators are output devices which convert energy from pressurized hydraulic oil or compressed air into the
required type of action or motion. In general, hydraulic or pneumatic systems are used for gripping and/or
moving operations in industry. These operations are carried out by using actuators.
Actuators can be classified into three types.
1. Linear actuators: These devices convert hydraulic/pneumatic energy into linear motion.
2. Rotary actuators: These devices convert hydraulic/pneumatic energy into rotary motion.
3. Actuators to operate flow control valves: these are used to control the flow and pressure of fluids such as
gases, steam or liquid.
The construction of hydraulic and pneumatic linear actuators is similar. However they differ at their
operating pressure ranges. Typical pressure of hydraulic cylinders is about 100 bar and of pneumatic system
is around 10 bar.
1. Single acting cylinder
Single acting cylinder
These cylinders produce work in one direction of motion hence they are named as single acting cylinders.
Figure above shows the construction of a single acting cylinder. The compressed air pushes the piston
located in the cylindrical barrel causing the desired motion. The return stroke takes place by the action of a
spring. Generally the spring is provided on the rod side of the cylinder.
2. Double acting cylinder
Double acting cylinder

The main parts of a hydraulic double acting cylinder are: piston, piston rod, cylinder tube, and end caps.
These are shown in Figure above. The piston rod is connected to piston head and the other end extends out
of the cylinder. The piston divides the cylinder into two chambers namely the rod end side and piston end
side. The seals prevent the leakage of oil between these two chambers. The cylindrical tube is fitted with
end caps. The pressurized oil, air enters the cylinder chamber through the ports provided. In the rod end
cover plate, a wiper seal is provided to prevent the leakage of oil and entry of the contaminants into the
cylinder. The combination of wiper seal, bearing and sealing ring is called as cartridge assembly. The end
caps may be attached to the tube by threaded connection, welded connection or tie rod connection. The
piston seal prevents metal to metal contact and wear of piston head and the tube. These seals are
replaceable. End cushioning is also provided to prevent the impact with end caps.
Filter, regulator and lubrication (FRL) unit

Air leaving a compressor is hot, dirty, and wet—which can damage and shorten the life of downstream
equipment, such as valves and cylinders. Before air can be used it needs to be filtered, regulated and
lubricated.
An air line filter cleans compressed air. It strains the air and traps solid particles (dust, dirt, rust) and
separates liquids (water, oil) entrained in the compressed air. Filters are installed in the air line upstream of
regulators, lubricators, directional control valves, and air driven devices such as cylinders and air motors.
Filter
− To prevent any damage to the compressor, the contaminants present in the air need to be filtered out. This
is done by using inlet filters. These can be dry or wet filters.
Figure below shows a simple air filter . Air enters at the left and is channeled into the bowl with a
downward circular motion. The centrifugal force of this swirling action slings water droplets outward. They
collect and fall to the bottom of the bowl below the baffle into a quiet zone for draining either manually or
automatically. The air then flows through a porous filter element to the outlet. These units typically remove
particles of 40-micron (40-µ) size or larger but they also are available for particles as small as 5 µ if
required.
− Dry filters use disposable cartridges. In the wet filter, the incoming air is passed through an oil bath and
then through a fine wire mesh filter.
− Dirt particles cling to the oil drops during bubbling and are removed by wire mesh as they pass through it.
In the dry filter the cartridges are replaced during servicing. The wet filters are cleaned using detergent
solution.
Lubricators
− The compressed air is first filtered and then passed through a lubricator in order to form a mist of oil and
air to provide lubrication to the mating components. Figure below shows the schematic of a typical
lubricator. The principle of working of venture meter is followed in the operation of lubricator.
− The compressed air from the dryer enters in the lubricator. Its velocity increases due to a pressure
differential between the upper and lower changer (oil reservoir). Due to the low pressure in the upper
chamber the oil is pushed into the upper chamber from the oil reservoir through a siphon tube with check
valve.
− The main function of the valve is to control the amount of oil passing through it. The oil drops inside the
throttled zone where the velocity of air is much higher and this high velocity air breaks the oil drops into
tiny particles. Thus a mist of air and oil is generated.
− The pressure differential across chambers is adjusted by a needle valve. It is difficult to hold an oil mixed
air in the air receiver as oil may settle down. Thus air is lubricated during secondary air treatment process.
− Low viscosity oil forms better mist than high viscosity oil and hence ensures that oil is always present in
the air.
Air lubricator
Pressure regulator
In pneumatic systems, during high velocity compressed air flow, there is flow-dependent pressure drop
between the receiver and load (application). Therefore the pressure in the receiver is always kept higher than
the system pressure. At the application site, the pressure is regulated to keep it constant
Outlet pressure is sensed by a diaphragm preloaded with a adjustable pressure setting spring. The
compressed air , which flows through a controlled cross section at the valve seat, acts on the other side of
the diaphragm. The diaphragm has large surface area exposed to secondary (outlet) pressure and is quite
sensitive to its fluctuations. The movement of diaphragm regulates the pressure.
Pressure regulator
If the outlet pressure is low: whenever the more compressed air is consumed on secondary side or load
side, then load pressure reduces. Therefore less force acts on diaphragm. The opposing higher spring force
pushes the diaphragm in such a way as to move the valve disc more and permitting more air to flow to
secondary side and thus increasing the pressure again.
If the outlet pressure is high: whenever the less compressed air is consumed on secondary side or load
side, then load pressure increases. Therefore more force acts on diaphragm. The opposing higher spring
force pulls down the diaphragm in such a way as to move the valve disc less and permitting air to flow to
vent hole and thus decreasing the pressure again
Pneumatic Circuits:
5.1 Speed control circuits
5.2 Sequencing circuits.
5.1 Speed control circuits.

Speed control of Pneumatic Cylinders can be conveniently achieved by regulating the flow rate supply or
exhaust air. The volume flow rate of air can be controlled by using flow control valves which can be either
two way flow control valve or one way flow control valve There are two types of throttling circuits for
double acting cylinders:
i) Supply air throttling
ii) Exhaust air throttling
Supply air throttling.

This method of speed control of double acting cylinders is also
called meter –in circuit (Figure a). For supply air throttling, one
way flow control valves are installed so that air entering the
cylinder is throttled. The exhaust air can escape freely through the
check valve of the throttle valve on the outlet side of the cylinder.
There is no air cushion on the exhaust side of the cylinder piston
with this throttling arrangement. As a result, considerable
differences in stroking velocity may be obtained even with very
small variations of load on the piston rod. Any load in the
direction of operating motion will accelerate the piston above the
set velocity. Therefore supply air throttling can be used for single
acting and small volume cylinders.
Exhaust air throttling.

This method of speed control of double acting cylinders is also
called meter-out (Figure b). In exhaust air throttling throttle
relief valves are installed between the cylinder and the main
valve in such a way that the exhaust air leaving the cylinder is
throttled in both directions of the motion of the cylinder. The
supply air can pass freely through the corresponding check
valves in each case. In this case, the piston is loaded between
two cushions of air while the cylinder is in motion and hence
a smooth motion of the cylinder can be obtained. The first
cushion effect is due to supply air entering the cylinder through
check valve, and second cushion effect is due to the exhaust air
leaving the cylinder through the throttle valve at a slower rate.
Therefore, exhaust air throttling is practically used for the
speed control of double acting cylinders. Arranging throttle
valves in this way contributes substantially to the improvement
of feed behavior.
5.2 Sequencing Circuits
In process control applications such as sequencing, the Pneumatics systems are generally employed.
Electrical components such as relays, programmable logic controllers are used to control the operations of
Pneumatic systems. A simple example of a pneumatic sequencing is shown in Figure 1
Fig. 1 Cylinder sequencing- Oscillating cylinder
Components used
The components used in the circuit are: double acting cylinder, 3/2 roller lever valve, 5/3 pilot operated
direction control valve and a 3/2 push button valve. By using this circuit, a continuous to and fro motion of
the actuator is obtained.
Working
When the 3/2 push button is actuated, the air flows from the source through the push button valve to the 3/2
roller valve (S1). The roller valve is already actuated by the cylinder when the piston rod hits the lever of
S1. Therefore, there is continuous flow to the 5/3 pilot operated direction control valve (DCV). The flow
given to the pilot line 14 actuates the first position of DCV. The air flows from port 1-4 pushes the piston
head which causes the extension of the cylinder. As the cylinder fully extends it actuates the 3/2 roller lever
valve (S2). The roller valve is actuated and air flows through the valve to the 5/3 DCV. The air enters the
DCV through pilot port 12 actuating the second position. Hence the air flows from port 1-2 to the actuator
rod end, causing its retraction. The cylinder reciprocates till the supply is stopped. In this way, we can
achieve the sequencing operation by controlled actuation of various valves in a pneumatic system.

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1.

0 Introduction to Fluid Power Systems:

Fluid Power and Its Scope

Basic Components of a Hydraulic System

Components of a hydraulic system Components of a hydraulic

Basic Components of a Pneumatic System

Components of a pneumatic system (shown using

The functions of various components shown in Figure are as follows:

DISADVANTAGES OF A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

1 Working fluid is hydraulic oil. Working fluid is compressed air

Pump used is positive displacement pump. So,

Applications: Material handling

Practical applications of Fluid Power Systems.

Table : More applications of fluid power

Materials handling Jacks, hoists, cranes, forklifts, conveyor systems

Medical Medical equipment such as breathing assistors, heart assist

Plastic industry Automatic injection molding

Textiles Web tensioning devices, trolleys, process controllers

ADVANTAGES OF A FLUID POWER SYSTEM

DISADVANTAGES OF A FLUID POWER SYSTEM

The following list of disadvantages applies to fluid power systems

Objective Type Questions

Fill in the Blanks

State True or False

(a) Non-positive displacement pumps (Hydrodynamic/Rotodynamic)

Figure 2.1 - External gear pump

Figure 2.3 - Internal gear pump

Figure 2.8 Bent axis piston pump

Difference between pressure relief valve and pressure reducing valve

Check Valves and Poppet valves

Four way valves (4/3 DCV)

armature controls the spool position. The main advantage of

Flow control valves

Functions of Flow-Control Valves

2. Regulate the power available to the sub-circuits by controlling

Comparison between a hydraulic motor and an electric motor

CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC MOTORS

Double-Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on One Side

5. Seals and gaskets

V-ring seal and U-ring seal: V- and U-

3.1 (a) Meter in, Meter out circuits

Figure 3.1 Meter in Circuit Figure 3.2 meter out Circuit

Meter-In Versus Meter-Out Flow-Control Valve Systems

3.1 (b) pump unloading cut

Figure 3.3 - pump unloading circuit

3.3 Sequencing circuit

[FLUID POWER, CHAP-3] [DME 6th SEM] [Prepared by – Dibyendu Halder

In figure 3.6 hydraulic circuit for Milling Machine is shown.

3.4(b) Hydraulic circuits for Shaper machine

Figure 3.7 Hydraulic circuits for Shaper machine

Quick Return of the Ram

3.5 Motion Synchronization circuit

Figure 3.8 - Cylinders in parallel and series

BASIC COMPONENTS OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEM

Figure 1 - Components of a pneumatic system

Advantages of Pneumatic system

Figure 2 - Air receiver

Double acting compressor

Combined two stage compressors