Chemistry

Solutions and Colloids Search

Solubility

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe the effects of temperature and pressure on solubility

State Henry’s law and use it in calculations involving the solubility of a gas in a liquid

Explain the degrees of solubility possible for liquid-liquid solutions

Imagine adding a small amount of salt to a glass of water, stirring until all the salt has dissolved, and
then adding a bit more. You can repeat this process until the salt concentration of the solution
reaches its natural limit, a limit determined primarily by the relative strengths of the solute-solute,
solute-solvent, and solvent-solvent attractive forces discussed in the previous two modules of this
chapter. You can be certain that you have reached this limit because, no matter how long you stir the
solution, undissolved salt remains. The concentration of salt in the solution at this point is known as its
solubility.

The solubility of a solute in a particular solvent is the maximum concentration that may be achieved
under given conditions when the dissolution process is at equilibrium. Referring to the example of salt
in water:

NaCl (s) ⇌Na+ (aq ) + Cl− (aq ) .

When a solute’s concentration is equal to its solubility, the solution is said to be saturated with that
solute. If the solute’s concentration is less than its solubility, the solution is said to be unsaturated. A
solution that contains a relatively low concentration of solute is called dilute, and one with a relatively
high concentration is called concentrated.

If we add more salt to a saturated solution of salt, we see it fall to the bottom and no more seems to
dissolve. In fact, the added salt does dissolve, as represented by the forward direction of the
dissolution equation. Accompanying this process, dissolved salt will precipitate, as depicted by the
reverse direction of the equation. The system is said to be at equilibrium when these two reciprocal
processes are occurring at equal rates, and so the amount of undissolved and dissolved salt remains
constant. Support for the simultaneous occurrence of the dissolution and precipitation processes is
provided by noting that the number and sizes of the undissolved salt crystals will change over time,
though their combined mass will remain the same.

Use this PhET interactive simulation on Salts and Solubility to prepare various saturated
solutions.

Solutions may be prepared in which a solute concentration exceeds its solubility. Such solutions are
said to be supersaturated, and they are interesting examples of nonequilibrium states. For example,
the carbonated beverage in an open container that has not yet “gone flat” is supersaturated with
carbon dioxide gas; given time, the CO2 concentration will decrease until it reaches its equilibrium
value.

Watch this impressive video showing the precipitation of sodium acetate from a supersaturated
solution.

crystallization of sodium acetate (v2)

Solutions of Gases in Liquids

In an earlier module of this chapter, the effect of intermolecular attractive forces on solution formation
was discussed. The chemical structures of the solute and solvent dictate the types of forces possible
and, consequently, are important factors in determining solubility. For example, under similar
conditions, the water solubility of oxygen is approximately three times greater than that of helium, but
100 times less than the solubility of chloromethane, CHCl3. Considering the role of the solvent’s
chemical structure, note that the solubility of oxygen in the liquid hydrocarbon hexane, C6H14, is
approximately 20 times greater than it is in water.

Other factors also affect the solubility of a given substance in a given solvent. Temperature is one
such factor, with gas solubility typically decreasing as temperature increases (Figure 1). This is one of
the major impacts resulting from the thermal pollution of natural bodies of water.

Figure 1. The solubilities of these gases in water decrease as the temperature increases. All solubilities were
measured with a constant pressure of 101.3 kPa (1 atm) of gas above the solutions.

When the temperature of a river, lake, or stream is raised abnormally high, usually due to the
discharge of hot water from some industrial process, the solubility of oxygen in the water is
decreased. Decreased levels of dissolved oxygen may have serious consequences for the health of
the water’s ecosystems and, in severe cases, can result in large-scale fish kills (Figure 2).

Figure 2. (a) The small bubbles of air in this glass of chilled water formed when the water warmed to room temperature
and the solubility of its dissolved air decreased. (b) The decreased solubility of oxygen in natural waters subjected to
thermal pollution can result in large-scale fish kills. (credit a: modification of work by Liz West; credit b: modification of
work by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

The solubility of a gaseous solute is also affected by the partial pressure of solute in the gas to which
the solution is exposed. Gas solubility increases as the pressure of the gas increases. Carbonated
beverages provide a nice illustration of this relationship. The carbonation process involves exposing
the beverage to a relatively high pressure of carbon dioxide gas and then sealing the beverage
container, thus saturating the beverage with CO2 at this pressure. When the beverage container is
opened, a familiar hiss is heard as the carbon dioxide gas pressure is released, and some of the
dissolved carbon dioxide is typically seen leaving solution in the form of small bubbles (Figure 3). At
this point, the beverage is supersaturated with carbon dioxide and, with time, the dissolved carbon
dioxide concentration will decrease to its equilibrium value and the beverage will become “flat.”

Figure 3. Opening the bottle of carbonated beverage reduces the pressure of the gaseous carbon dioxide above the
beverage. The solubility of CO2 is thus lowered, and some dissolved carbon dioxide may be seen leaving the solution as
small gas bubbles. (credit: modification of work by Derrick Coetzee)

For many gaseous solutes, the relation between solubility, Cg, and partial pressure, Pg, is a
proportional one:

C g = kP g
where k is a proportionality constant that depends on the identities of the gaseous solute and solvent,
and on the solution temperature. This is a mathematical statement of Henry’s law: The quantity of an
ideal gas that dissolves in a definite volume of liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the
gas.

EXAMPLE 1

Application of Henry’s Law

At 20 °C, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water exposed to gaseous oxygen at a partial
pressure of 101.3 kPa (760 torr) is 1.38 × 10-3 mol L-1. Use Henry’s law to determine the solubility of
oxygen when its partial pressure is 20.7 kPa (155 torr), the approximate pressure of oxygen in
earth’s atmosphere.

Solution

According to Henry’s law, for an ideal solution the solubility, Cg, of a gas (1.38 × 10-3 mol L-1, in this
case) is directly proportional to the pressure, Pg, of the undissolved gas above the solution (101.3
kPa, or 760 torr, in this case). Because we know both Cg and Pg, we can rearrange this expression
to solve for k.
\(\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill {C}_{\text{g}}& =& k{P}_{\text{g}}\hfill \\ \hfill k& =& \frac{{C}_{\text{g}}}{{P}_{\text{g}}}\hfill \\ &
=& \frac{1.38\times {10}^{-3}\text{mol}{\text{L}}^{-1}}{101.3\text{kPa}}\hfill \\ & =& 1.36\times {10}^{-5}\text{mol}
{\text{L}}^{-1}{\text{kPa}}^{-1}\hfill \\ & & \left(1.82\times {10}^{-6}\text{mol}{\text{L}}^{-1}{\text{torr}}^{-1}\right)\hfill
\end{array}\)
Now we can use k to find the solubility at the lower pressure.
C g = kP g

1.36 × 10−5 molL−1 kPa−1 × 20.7kPa

(or1.82 × 10−6 molL−1 torr−1 × 155torr)
= 2.82 × 10−4 molL−1
Note that various units may be used to express the quantities involved in these sorts of
computations. Any combination of units that yield to the constraints of dimensional analysis are
acceptable.

Check Your Learning

Exposing a 100.0 mL sample of water at 0 °C to an atmosphere containing a gaseous solute at

20.26 kPa (152 torr) resulted in the dissolution of 1.45 × 10-3 g of the solute. Use Henry’s law to
determine the solubility of this gaseous solute when its pressure is 101.3 kPa (760 torr).
Answer: 7.25 × 10-3 g

DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS OR “THE BENDS”

Decompression sickness (DCS), or “the bends,” is an effect of the increased pressure of the air
inhaled by scuba divers when swimming underwater at considerable depths. In addition to the
pressure exerted by the atmosphere, divers are subjected to additional pressure due to the water
above them, experiencing an increase of approximately 1 atm for each 10 m of depth. Therefore,
the air inhaled by a diver while submerged contains gases at the corresponding higher ambient
pressure, and the concentrations of the gases dissolved in the diver’s blood are proportionally
higher per Henry’s law.

As the diver ascends to the surface of the water, the ambient pressure decreases and the
dissolved gases becomes less soluble. If the ascent is too rapid, the gases escaping from the
diver’s blood may form bubbles that can cause a variety of symptoms ranging from rashes and
joint pain to paralysis and death. To avoid DCS, divers must ascend from depths at relatively slow
speeds (10 or 20 m/min) or otherwise make several decompression stops, pausing for several
minutes at given depths during the ascent. When these preventive measures are unsuccessful,
divers with DCS are often provided hyperbaric oxygen therapy in pressurized vessels called
decompression (or recompression) chambers (Figure 4).

Figure 4. (a) US Navy divers undergo training in a recompression chamber. (b) Divers receive hyperbaric oxygen therapy.

Deviations from Henry’s law are observed when a chemical reaction takes place between the
gaseous solute and the solvent. Thus, for example, the solubility of ammonia in water does not
increase as rapidly with increasing pressure as predicted by the law, because ammonia, being a base,
reacts to some extent with water to form ammonium ions and hydroxide ions.

Gases can form supersaturated solutions. If a solution of a gas in a liquid is prepared either at low
temperature or under pressure (or both), then as the solution warms or as the gas pressure is
reduced, the solution may become supersaturated. In 1986, more than 1700 people in Cameroon
were killed when a cloud of gas, almost certainly carbon dioxide, bubbled from Lake Nyos (Figure 5),
a deep lake in a volcanic crater. The water at the bottom of Lake Nyos is saturated with carbon
dioxide by volcanic activity beneath the lake. It is believed that the lake underwent a turnover due to
gradual heating from below the lake, and the warmer, less-dense water saturated with carbon dioxide
reached the surface. Consequently, tremendous quantities of dissolved CO2 were released, and the
colorless gas, which is denser than air, flowed down the valley below the lake and suffocated humans
and animals living in the valley.

Figure 5. (a) It is believed that the 1986 disaster that killed more than 1700 people near Lake Nyos in Cameroon resulted
when a large volume of carbon dioxide gas was released from the lake. (b) A CO2 vent has since been installed to help
outgas the lake in a slow, controlled fashion and prevent a similar catastrophe from happening in the future. (credit a:
modification of work by Jack Lockwood; credit b: modification of work by Bill Evans)

Solutions of Liquids in Liquids

We know that some liquids mix with each other

in all proportions; in other words, they have
infinite mutual solubility and are said to be
miscible. Ethanol, sulfuric acid, and ethylene
glycol (popular for use as antifreeze, pictured in
Figure 6) are examples of liquids that are
completely miscible with water. Two-cycle motor
oil is miscible with gasoline.

Liquids that mix with water in all proportions are

usually polar substances or substances that
form hydrogen bonds. For such liquids, the
dipole-dipole attractions (or hydrogen bonding)
of the solute molecules with the solvent
molecules are at least as strong as those
between molecules in the pure solute or in the
pure solvent. Hence, the two kinds of molecules
mix easily. Likewise, nonpolar liquids are
miscible with each other because there is no Figure 6. Water and antifreeze are miscible; mixtures of the
two are homogeneous in all proportions. (credit:”
appreciable difference in the strengths of dno1967”/Wikimedia commons)
solute-solute, solvent-solvent, and solute-
solvent intermolecular attractions. The solubility
of polar molecules in polar solvents and of nonpolar molecules in nonpolar solvents is, again, an
illustration of the chemical axiom “like dissolves like.”

Two liquids that do not mix to an appreciable

extent are called immiscible. Layers are formed
when we pour immiscible liquids into the same
container. Gasoline, oil (Figure 7), benzene,
carbon tetrachloride, some paints, and many
other nonpolar liquids are immiscible with water.
The attraction between the molecules of such
nonpolar liquids and polar water molecules is
ineffectively weak. The only strong attractions in
such a mixture are between the water
molecules, so they effectively squeeze out the
molecules of the nonpolar liquid. The distinction
between immiscibility and miscibility is really
one of degrees, so that miscible liquids are of
infinite mutual solubility, while liquids said to be
immiscible are of very low (though not zero)
mutual solubility.

Two liquids, such as bromine and water, that are

of moderate mutual solubility are said to be
partially miscible. Two partially miscible liquids
usually form two layers when mixed. In the case Figure 7. Water and oil are immiscible. Mixtures of these
of the bromine and water mixture, the upper two substances will form two separate layers with the less
dense oil floating on top of the water. (credit: “Yortw”/Flickr)
layer is water, saturated with bromine, and the
lower layer is bromine saturated with water.
Since bromine is nonpolar, and, thus, not very soluble in water, the water layer is only slightly
discolored by the bright orange bromine dissolved in it. Since the solubility of water in bromine is very
low, there is no noticeable effect on the dark color of the bromine layer (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Bromine (the deep orange liquid on the left) and water (middle) are partially
miscible. (right) The top layer in this mixture is a saturated solution of bromine in
water; the bottom layer is a saturated solution of water in bromine. (credit: Paul
Flowers)

Solutions of Solids in Liquids

The dependence of solubility on temperature for a number of inorganic solids in water is shown by
the solubility curves in Figure 9. Reviewing these data indicate a general trend of increasing solubility
with temperature, although there are exceptions, as illustrated by the ionic compound cerium sulfate.

Figure 9 This graph shows how the solubility of several solids changes with temperature.

The temperature dependence of solubility can be exploited to prepare supersaturated solutions of

certain compounds. A solution may be saturated with the compound at an elevated temperature
(where the solute is more soluble) and subsequently cooled to a lower temperature without
precipitating the solute. The resultant solution contains solute at a concentration greater than its
equilibrium solubility at the lower temperature (i.e., it is supersaturated) and is relatively stable.
Precipitation of the excess solute can be initiated by adding a seed crystal (see the video in the Link
to Learning earlier in this module) or by mechanically agitating the solution. Some hand warmers, such
as the one pictured in Figure 10, take advantage of this behavior.

Figure 10. This hand warmer produces heat when the sodium acetate in a supersaturated solution precipitates.
Precipitation of the solute is initiated by a mechanical shockwave generated when the flexible metal disk within the
solution is “clicked.” (credit: modification of work by “Velela”/Wikipedia)

This Wikimedia video shows the crystallization process occurring in a hand warmer.

Key Concepts and Summary

The extent to which one substance will dissolve in another is determined by several factors,
including the types and relative strengths of intermolecular attractive forces that may exist
between the substances’ atoms, ions, or molecules. This tendency to dissolve is quantified as
substance’s solubility, its maximum concentration in a solution at equilibrium under specified
conditions. A saturated solution contains solute at a concentration equal to its solubility. A
supersaturated solution is one in which a solute’s concentration exceeds its solubility—a
nonequilibrium (unstable) condition that will result in solute precipitation when the solution is
appropriately perturbed. Miscible liquids are soluble in all proportions, and immiscible liquids
exhibit very low mutual solubility. Solubilities for gaseous solutes decrease with increasing
temperature, while those for most, but not all, solid solutes increase with temperature. The
concentration of a gaseous solute in a solution is proportional to the partial pressure of the
gas to which the solution is exposed, a relation known as Henry’s law.

KEY EQUATIONS

C g = kP g

CHEMISTRY END OF CHAPTER EXERCISES

1. Suppose you are presented with a clear solution of sodium thiosulfate, Na2S2O3. How
could you determine whether the solution is unsaturated, saturated, or
supersaturated?

2. Supersaturated solutions of most solids in water are prepared by cooling saturated

solutions. Supersaturated solutions of most gases in water are prepared by heating
saturated solutions. Explain the reasons for the difference in the two procedures.

3. Suggest an explanation for the observations that ethanol, C2H5OH, is completely

miscible with water and that ethanethiol, C2H5SH, is soluble only to the extent of 1.5 g
per 100 mL of water.

4. Calculate the percent by mass of KBr in a saturated solution of KBr in water at 10 °C.
See Figure 9 for useful data, and report the computed percentage to one significant
digit.

5. Which of the following gases is expected to be most soluble in water? Explain your
reasoning.

1. CH4

2. CCl4

3. CHCl3

6. At 0 °C and 1.00 atm, as much as 0.70 g of O2 can dissolve in 1 L of water. At 0 °C and

4.00 atm, how many grams of O2 dissolve in 1 L of water?

7. Refer to Figure 3.

1. How did the concentration of dissolved CO2 in the beverage change when the
bottle was opened?

2. What caused this change?

3. Is the beverage unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated with CO2?

8. The Henry’s law constant for CO2 is 3.4 × 10-2M/atm at 25 °C. What pressure of carbon
dioxide is needed to maintain a CO2 concentration of 0.10 M in a can of lemon-lime
soda?

9. The Henry’s law constant for O2 is 1.3 × 10-3M/atm at 25 °C. What mass of oxygen
would be dissolved in a 40-L aquarium at 25 °C, assuming an atmospheric pressure of
1.00 atm, and that the partial pressure of O2 is 0.21 atm?

10. How many liters of HCl gas, measured at 30.0 °C and 745 torr, are required to prepare
1.25 L of a 3.20-M solution of hydrochloric acid?

Selected Answers

2. The solubility of solids usually decreases upon cooling a solution, while the solubility of
gases usually decreases upon heating.

4. At 10 °C, the solubility of KBr in water is approximately 60 g per 100 g of water.

60 g KBr
%KBr = = 40%
(60 + 100) g solution
6. This problem requires the application of Henry’s law. The governing equation is Cg = kPg.
Cg 0.70g
k= = = 0.70gatm−1
P g 1.00atm
Under the new conditions, Cg = 0.70 g atm-1 × 4.00 atm = 2.80 g.
Cg 0.10M
8. P g = = = 2.9atm
k 3.4 × 10 M /atm
−2

10. First, calculate the moles of HCl needed. Then use the ideal gas law to find the volume
required. M = mol L-1
xmol
3.20M =
1.25L
x = 4.00 mol HCl

Before using the ideal gas law, change pressure to atmospheres and convert temperature
from °C to kelvins.
1atm 760torr
=
x 745torr
x = 0.9803 atm

\(V=\frac{nRT}
{P}=\frac{\left(4.000\cancel{\text{mol}}\text{HCl}\right)\left(0.08206\text{L}\cancel{\text{atm}}\ca
ncel{{\text{K}}^{-1}}\cancel{{\text{mol}}^{-1}}\right)\left(303.15\cancel{\text{K}}\right)}
{0.9803\cancel{\text{atm}}}=\text{102 L HCl}\)

GLOSSARY

Henry’s law
law stating the proportional relationship between the concentration of dissolved gas in a
solution and the partial pressure of the gas in contact with the solution

immiscible
of negligible mutual solubility; typically refers to liquid substances

miscible
mutually soluble in all proportions; typically refers to liquid substances

partially miscible
of moderate mutual solubility; typically refers to liquid substances

saturated
of concentration equal to solubility; containing the maximum concentration of solute possible
for a given temperature and pressure

solubility
maximum concentration of a solute that may be achieved at a given temperature and
pressure

supersaturated
of concentration that exceeds solubility; a nonequilibrium state

unsaturated
of concentration less than solubility

LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS

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