Set Theory BS 1st Semester

Propositions:-

A proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, a sentence that declares a fact)

that is eithertrue or false, but not both. It is also called a statement.

Remember! Questions, exclamations and commands are not propositions.

Example 1:- All the following declarative sentences are propositions.

1. Washington is the capital of the United States of
America.2 . Toronto is the capital of Canada.
3. 1 + 1 = 2.
4. 2 + 2 = 3.
5. The sun rises in the east.
6. We shall have a meeting tomorrow.
7. Ali is a name.

Propositions 1,3,5,6 and 7 are true, whereas 2 and 4 are false.

Some sentences that are not propositions are given in Example 2.

Example 2:- Consider the following sentences.

1. What time is it?
2. Read this carefully.
3. x + 1 = 2.
4. x + y = z.
Sentences 1 and 2 are not propositions because they are not declarative sentences.
Sentences 3 and 4 are not propositions because they are neither true nor false.
Note that each of sentences 3 and 4 can be turned into a proposition if we assign
values to the variables.
Notation:-
the conventional letters used for propositional variables are p, q, r, s etc. The
truth value of a proposition is true, denoted by T, if it is a true proposition, and the truth
value of a propositionis false, denoted by F, if it is a false proposition.

Truth table:-

A method to show the relationship of propositions is called truth table.

Negation:
Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by ¬p (also denoted by p), is the
statement “It is not the case that p.” The proposition ¬pis read “not p.” The truth value
of thenegation of p, ¬p, is the opposite of the truth value of p.
For example,

Statement Negation
 Set Theory BS 1st Semester
¬p: Today is not Friday. Or
p: Today is Friday.
¬p: it is not the case that today is Friday.

q: banana is a vegetable. ¬q: banana is not a vegetable.

r: Paris is in France. ¬r: Paris is not in France.
s: All students are good. ¬s: Some students are good.
t: No student is intelligent. ¬t: Some students are intelligent.
u: Some fruits are not good for health. ¬u: All fruits are good for health.
v: Some animals can fly. ¬v: No animal can fly.
w: 5+4=9 ¬w: 5+4 ≠ 9
z: 3 > 2 ¬z: 3  2

Note:
The Truth Table for
the Negation of a
o All  Some + Not (change in negation case) Proposition.
o All + Not / No / no one  Some or Some one
p ¬p
T F
F T

Logical operators: (connectors)

They are used to form new compound propositions from two or

more existingpropositions. The logical operators are also called
connectives.
For example, p: today is Friday.
q: it is raining today.
Compound proposition is,
r: today is Friday and it is raining today.

Logical operators ( connectives)

 Conjunction (AND)
 Disjunction (OR)
 Exclusive or (XOR)
 Implication (if- then)
 Biconditional (if and only if)

Conjunction:-
 Set Theory BS 1st Semester
Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q is the compound
proposition. It is denoted by p ∧ q and read as “p and q.” The conjunction p ∧ q is
true when both p and q aretrue and is false otherwise.

For example, The Truth Table for the Conjunction

of Two Propositions.
p: “it is cold.”
q: “it is raining.” p q p∧q

p∧ q: “it is cold and it is raining.” T T T

T F F
F T F
F F F
Disjunction:-
Let p and q be two statements. The disjunction of p and q is the compound
proposition.it is denoted by p ∨ q and read as “p or q.” The disjunction p ∨ q is false
when both p and q are false and is true otherwise.
The Truth Table for the Disjunction of
For example,
Two Propositions.
P: “it is cold.”
Q: “it is raining.” p q p∨q
p ∨ q: “it is cold or it is raining.” T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Implication: (Conditional statement)

Let p and q be propositions. The compound proposition “if p then q” denoted by p → q
is called implication or conditional statement. The conditional statement p → q is false
when p is true and q is false, and true otherwise. In the conditional statement p → q, p
is called the hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and q is called the conclusion (or
consequence).

In English sentences, following ways to express the conditional statement.

“if p, then q” “p implies q”

“if p, q” “p only if q”
“p is sufficient for q” “a sufficient condition for q is p”
“q if p” “q whenever p”
“q when p” “q is necessary for
p”“a necessary condition for p is q” “q follows from p”
“q unless ¬p
 Set Theory BS 1st Semester
Example 1
p → q: “If the earth is round then the travels round the sun.”

Solution: - p: “the earth is round.”

q: “the earth travels round the sun.”

in example 1 p is true, q is true and the conditional statement is also true.

Example 2 The Truth Table for the

Conditional Statement p → q.
p→ q: “if i am elected, then I will lower the

taxes.”P: “I am elected.” p q p→q

T T T
q: “ I will lower the taxes.” T F F
F T T
Biconditional Proposition: F F T
Let p and q be propositons. The biconditional proposition “p if and only if q” denoted
by p ↔ q biconditional proposition. The biconditional statement p ↔ q is true when p and q
have the same truth values, and is false otherwise. Biconditional statements are also called bi-
implications. The Truth Table for the
There are some common ways to express p ↔ q: Biconditional p ↔ q.
“p is necessary and sufficient for q”
p q p↔q
“if p then q, and conversely”
T T T
“p if and only if q” Or “p iff q.”
T F F
F T F
Note that p ↔ q has exactly the same truth value as F F T

(p → q) ∧ (q → p).

Example: Let p be the statement “You can take the flight,” and let q be the statement
“You buy a ticket.” Then p ↔ q is the statement
“You can take the flight if and only if you buy a ticket.”
This statement is true if p and q are either both true or both false.
Negation of The Conditional Statement
Change of conditional statement into negation (p→ q).
(if p, then q) change in negation (p and ¬ q)
 Write the negation of the following statement

Statement (if p then q) Negation (p 𝖠 ¬q)

1. If she studies, she will pass the 1. She studies and she will not pass
exam. theexam.
2. If it rains then they will not go for 2. It rains and they will go for picnic.
picnic.
3. If Mohan is a singer then he will be 3. Mohan is a singer and he will not
poor. bepoor.
4. If he walks then he will be healthy. 4. He walks and he will not be healthy.
5. Only if she works hard, she will pass 5. She will pass the exam and she does
thetest. notwork hard.

Converse, Contrapositive, And Inverse of implication

statements:
Let p and q are any statement. p→ q is called
implication andq → p is called converse,
¬p→¬q is called inverse,
¬q→¬p is called contrapositive of p → q.
Note: conditional statement and its contrapositive are equivalent.
i.e. p→q ≡¬q→ ¬p

Example:-
What are the contrapositive, the converse, and the inverse of the conditional statement
“The home team wins whenever it is raining?”
Solution: Because “q whenever p” is one of the ways to express the
conditional statement p → q, the original statement can be rewritten as
“If it is raining, then the home team wins.”
The contrapositive is “If the home team does not win, then it is not raining.”
The converse is “If the home team wins, then it is raining.”
The inverse is “If it is not raining, then the home team does not win.”

Exercise 1.1
1. Which of these sentences are propositions? What are the truth values of those that are
propositions?
a) Boston is the capital of Massachusetts.
Yes, T
b) Miami is the capital of Florida.
Yes, F
c) 2 + 3 = 5.
Yes, T
d) 5 + 7 = 10.
Yes, F
e) x + 2 = 11.
No.
f ) Answer this question.
No.
3. What is the negation of each of these propositions?
a) Today is Thursday.
Today is not Thursday.
b) There is no pollution in New Jersey.
There pollution in New Jersey.
c) 2 + 1 = 3.
2 + 1 ≠ 3.
d) The summer in Maine is hot and sunny.
The summer in Maine is not hot or it is not sunny.
4. Let p and q be the propositions
p : I bought a lottery ticket this week.
q : I won the million dollar jackpot.
Express each of these propositions as an English sentence.
a) ¬p
I did not buy a lottery ticket this week.
b) p ∨ q
I bought a lottery ticket this week or I won the million dollar jackpot.
c) p → q
I bought a lottery ticket this week then I won the million dollar jackpot.
d) p ∧ q
I bought a lottery ticket this week and I won the million dollar jackpot.
e) p ↔ q
I bought a lottery ticket this week if only if I won the million dollar jackpot.
f ) ¬p → ¬q
I did not buy a lottery ticket this week then I did not win the million dollar jackpot.
g) ¬p ∧ ¬q
I did not buy a lottery ticket this week and I did not win the million dollar jackpot.
h) ¬p ∨ (p ∧ q)
I did not buy a lottery ticket this week or I bought a lottery ticket this week and I won
the million dollar jackpot.
8. Let p and q be the propositions
p : It is below freezing.
q : It is snowing.
Write these propositions using p and q and logical connectives (including negations).
a) It is below freezing and snowing.
p∧q
b) It is below freezing but not snowing.
p ∧ ¬q
c) It is not below freezing and it is not snowing.
¬p ∧ ¬q
d) It is either snowing or below freezing (or both).
p∨q
e) If it is below freezing, it is also snowing.
p→q
f ) Either it is below freezing or it is snowing, but it is not snowing if it is below
freezing.
(p ∨ q) ∧ (p →¬q)
g) That it is below freezing is necessary and sufficient for it to be snowing.
)q↔p
21 State the converse, contrapositive, and inverse of each of these conditional
statements.
a) If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.
Converse: “I will ski tomorrow only if it snows today.”
Contrapositive: “If I do not ski tomorrow, then it will not have snowed today.”
Inverse: “If it does not snow today, then I will not ski tomorrow.”
b) I come to class whenever there is going to be a quiz.
Converse: “If I come to class, then there will be a quiz.”
Contrapositive: “If I do not come to class, then there will not be a quiz.”
Inverse: “If there is not going to be a quiz, then I don’t come to class.”
c) A positive integer is a prime only if it has no divisors other than 1 and
itself.
Converse: “A positive integer is a prime if it has no divisors other than 1 and itself.”
Contrapositive: “If a positive integer has a divisor other than 1 and itself, then it is
not prime.”
Inverse: “If a positive integer is not prime, then it has a divisor other than 1 and
itself.”
31. Construct a truth table for each of these compound propositions.
a) p ∧ ¬p
p ¬p p ∧ ¬p
T F F
F T F

b) p ∨ ¬p
p ¬p p ∨ ¬p
T F T
F T T

c) (p ∨ ¬q) → q
p q ¬q p ∨ ¬q (p ∨ ¬q) → q
T T F T T
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T T F

d) (p ∨ q) → (p ∧ q)
p q p∨q p∧q (p ∨ q) → (p ∧ q)
T T T T T
T F T F F
F T T F F
F F F F T
e) (p → q) ↔ (¬q → ¬p)
p q ¬p ¬q p→q ¬q → ¬p (p → q) ↔ (¬q → ¬p)
T T F F T T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

f ) (p → q) → (q → p)
p q p→q q→p (p → q) → (q → p)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T T F F
F F T T T

Propositional Equivalences:-
Taotology:-
A compound proposition that is always true, no matter what the truth values of the
propositional variables that occur in it.
Contradiction:-
A compound proposition that is always false.
Contigency:-
A compound proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

Example of Tautology and Contradiction

p ¬p p ∨ ¬p p ∧ ¬p
T F T F
F T T F

Logically Equivalence:-
Compound proposition that have same truth values in the all possible cases are
called Logically Equivalent.It is denoted by ≡ the symbole is not a logical connective.

The compound propositions p and q are called logically equivalent if p ↔ q is a

tautology. The notation p ≡ q denotes that p and q are logically equivalent.

EXAMPLE :- Show that p → q and ¬p ∨ q are logically equivalent.

p q ¬p p→q ¬p ∨ q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

The above table shows that p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q .

Laws of Logically Equivalence:-
Laws of Eqivalence
Logically
(i) p∧T≡p Identity laws
(ii) p∨F≡p
(i) p∨T≡T Domination laws
(ii) p∧F≡F
(i) p∨p≡p Idempotent laws
(ii) p∧p≡p
¬(¬p) ≡ p Double negation law
(i) p∨q≡q∨p Commutative laws
(ii) p∧q≡q∧p
(i) (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r) Associative laws
(ii) (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r)
(i) p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) Distributive laws
(ii) p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)
(i) ¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q De Morgan’s laws
(ii) ¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q
(i) p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ p Absorption laws
(ii) p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p
(i) p ∨ ¬p ≡ T Negation laws
(ii) p ∧ ¬p ≡ F

EXAMPLE:- Show that ¬(p ∨ (¬p ∧ q)) and ¬p ∧ ¬q are logically equivalent.
¬(p ∨ (¬p ∧ q)) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬(¬p ∧ q) by the second De Morgan law
≡ ¬p ∧ [¬(¬p) ∨ ¬q] by the first De Morgan law
≡ ¬p ∧ (p ∨ ¬q) by the double negation law
≡ (¬p ∧ p) ∨ (¬p ∧ ¬q) by the second distributive law
≡ F ∨ (¬p ∧ ¬q) by Second negation law
≡ (¬p ∧ ¬q) ∨ F by the commutative law for disjunction
≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q by the Second identity law

Consequently ¬(p ∨ (¬p ∧ q)) and ¬p ∧ ¬q are logically equivalent.

Logical Equivalences Involving
Conditional Statements
p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q
p → q ≡ ¬q → ¬p
p ∨ q ≡ ¬p → q
p ∧ q ≡ ¬(p → ¬q)
¬(p → q) ≡ p ∧ ¬q
(p → q) ∧ (p → r) ≡ p → (q ∧ r)
(p → r) ∧ (q → r) ≡ (p ∨ q) → r
(p → q) ∨ (p → r) ≡ p → (q ∨ r)
p → r) ∨ (q → r) ≡ (p ∧ q) → r
Logical Equivalences Involving
Biconditional Statements
p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
↔ q ≡ ¬p ↔ ¬q
p ↔ q ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (¬p ∧ ¬q)
¬(p ↔ q) ≡ p ↔ ¬q

EXAMPLE:- Show that Show that (p ∧ q) → (p ∨ q).

(p ∧ q) → (p ∨ q) ≡ ¬(p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∨ q) by p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q
≡ (¬p ∨ ¬q) ∨ (p ∨ q) by the first De Morgan law
≡ (¬p ∨ p) ∨ (¬q ∨ q) by the associative and commutative laws
for disjunction
≡T∨T by Negation Law for Disjunction and
the commutative law for disjunction
≡T by the domination law

Exercise 1.3
1. Use truth tables to verify these equivalences.
a) p ∧ T ≡ p
b) p ∨ F ≡ p
c) p ∧ F ≡ F
d) p ∨ T ≡ T
e) p ∨ p ≡ p
f)p∧p≡p
p p∧T p∨F p∧F p∨T p∨p p∧p
T T T F T T T
F F F F T F F

2. Show that ¬(¬p) and p are logically equivalent.

3. Use truth tables to verify the commutative laws.
a) p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p.
p q p∨q q∨p
T T T T
T F T T
F T T T
F F F F

b) p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p.

P q p∧q q∧p
T T T T
T F F F
F T F F
F F F F

4. Use truth tables to verify the associative laws

a) (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r).
b) (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r).
5. Use a truth table to verify the distributive law.
p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r).
p q r q∨r p ∧ (q ∨ r) p∧q p∧r (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r).
T T T T T T T T
T T F T T T F T
T F T T T F T T
T F F F F F F F
F T T T F F F F
F T F T F F F F
F F T T F F F F
F F F F F F F F

6. Use a truth table to verify the first De Morgan law ¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q.
7. Show that each of these conditional statements is a tautology by using truth tables.
a) (p ∧ q) → p
p q p∧q (p ∧ q) → p
T T T T
T F F T
F T F T
F F F T

b) p → (p ∨ q)
p q p∨q p → (p ∨ q)
T T T T
T F T T
F T T T
F F F T

c) ¬p → (p → q)
p q ¬p (p → q ¬p → (p → q)
T T F T T
T F T F T
F T F T T
F F T T T

d) (p ∧ q) → (p → q)
p q p∧q p→q (p ∧ q) → (p → q)
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T F T T
F F F T T

e) ¬(p → q) → p
p q p→q ¬(p → q) ¬(p → q) → p
T T T F T
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T F T
f ) ¬(p → q) → ¬q
p q p→q ¬(p → q) ¬q ¬(p → q) → ¬q
T T T F F T
T F F T T T
F T T F F T
F F T F T T

8. Show that each of these conditional statements is a tautology by using truth tables.
a) [¬p ∧ (p ∨ q)] → q
b) [(p → q) ∧ (q → r)] → (p → r)
c) [p ∧ (p → q)] → q
d) [(p ∨ q) ∧ (p → r) ∧ (q → r)] → r
9.. Show that each conditional statement in Exercise 7 is a tautology without using truth
tables.
10. Show that each conditional statement in Exercise 8 is a tautology without using truth
tables.
11. Use truth tables to verify the absorption laws.
a) p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ p
b) p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p
12. Determine whether (¬p ∧ (p → q)) → ¬q is a tautology.
13. Determine whether (¬q ∧ (p → q)) → ¬p is a tautology.
14. Show that p ↔ q and (p ∧ q) ∨ (¬p ∧ ¬q) are logically equivalent.
16. Show that p → q and ¬q → ¬p are logically equivalent.
17. Show that ¬p ↔ q and p ↔ ¬q are logically equivalent.
19. Show that ¬(p ↔ q) and ¬p ↔ q are logically equivalent.
20. Show that(p → q) ∧ (p → r) and p → (q ∧ r) are logically equivalent.

Predicates :-
Consider,
x>3
x=y+3
x is even number.
The statement “x is greater than 3” has two parts. The first part, the variable x, is the
subject of the statement. The second part—the predicate, “is greater than 3”

P(x) = x is even number. T

P(x) = 2 is even number. T
P(x) = 5 is even number.F
Quantifiers:-
When the variables in a propositional function are assigned values, the resulting statement
becomes a proposition with a certain truth value. However, there is another important way,
called quantification, to create a proposition from a propositional function.
Quantification expresses the extent to which a predicate is true over a range of elements. In
English, the words all, some, many, none, and few are used in quantifications.
Types of quantification:-
THE UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIER:-
Many mathematical statements assert that a property is true for all values of a variable in a
particular domain, called the domain of discourse (or the universe of discourse).
The universal quantification of P (x) is the statement
“P (x) for all values of x in the domain.”
Notation:- ∃xP (x)
“P (x) for all values of x in the domain.”

THE EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER:-

The existential quantification of P (x) is the proposition.
“There exists a value of x for which p(x) is true in the domain.”
Or “p(x) is true for at least one value of variable x in the domain.”
Notation:- ∃xP (x)
“There is an x such that P (x),”
“There is at least one x such that P (x),”
Example:- P (x) : x > 3
X∈R
The truth value of Quantification ∃xP (x) is true for some values of x in domain p(x) is
true. i.e:- x=4 => x > 3 is true.
Example:- ∃xP (x) {x1,x2,x3,x4}
P(x1) P(x2) P(x3) P(x4)
∃xP (x) p(x) x2 > 10 +ve integers not excding 4.
{1,2,3,4}
p(1) = 12 > 10 => F
p(2) = 22 > 10 => F
p(3) = 32 > 10 => F
p(4) = 42 > 10 => T
Since universe dispources is {1,2,3,4} the proposition ∃xP (x) is same as the disjunction
p(1),p(2),p(3),and p(4).
Since p(4) which is the statement 42 > 10 is true.
Therefore ∃xP (x) is true.
Quantifeirs
Statement When True? When False?
∀xP (x) P (x) is true for every x There is an x for which P (x) is false.
∃xP (x) There is an x for which P (x) is true. P (x) is false for every x.

Bindindg Rariables:-
When a quantifier is used on the variable x or assigned a value to this variable, we say that
this occurrence of the variable is bound.
Free Variable:-
An occurrence of a variable that is not bound by a quantifier or set equal to a particular
value is said to be free.
Scope:-
The part of a logical expression to which a quantifier is applied is called the scope of this
quantifier.
Example:- ∀x(P (x) ∧ Q(x)) ∨ ∃yR(y)
∀x ∃y
Negation of Quantifeirs:-
Example:- Every student in your class has taken a course in calculus.
∀xP (x)
Every Students x in the class, x has taken a course in calculus.
Negation:-
It is not the case that every student in your class has taken a course in calculus ≡ (This is
equivalent to) There is a student in your class who has not taken a course in calculus.
∃x ¬P (x).
Existential:-
There is a student in this class who has taken a course in calculus.
∃x p(x).
Negation of Existential:-
It is not the case that there is a student in this class who has taken a course in calculus.
∀x ¬p(x) ≡ (This is equivalent to) Every student in this class has not taken calculus.
∃x ¬P (x) ≡ ∀x ¬p(x).

Truth Table.
Negation Equivalent When Is Negation When False?
Statement True?
¬∃x p(x) ∀x p(x) For every x, P (x) is There is an x for
false which P (x) is true
¬∀x p(x) ∃x p(x) There is an x for P (x) is true for every
which P (x) is false. x

Translating from English into Logical Expressions:-

Every student in this class has studied calculus.
We introduce a variable x such that “Every student x in this class, x has studied calculus.”
C(x) : x has studied calculus.
∀x C(x) where the universe of discourse is all students.
If universe of discourse consist of all people.
“For every person x, if person x is a student in this class then x has studied calculus.”
S(x) : x is a student.
C(x) : x has studied calculus.
∀x (S(x) → C(x)).
Exercise 1.4
Q:- Let Q(x) be the statement “x + 1 > 2x.” If the domain consists of all integers, what are
these truth values?
i) Q(0)
ii) Q(−1)
iii) ∃x Q(x)
∃x (x+1 > 2x) where x belongs to Z
Solution:-
Since for some values of x the Q(x) x+1 > 2x is True particularly for x=0.
0+1>2(0) is True.
Therefore ∃x Q(x) is True.
iv) ∀x Q(x)

v) ∃x (3x = 2x)
True.
vi) ∃x (x = −x)
True.
vii) ∀n(n2 ≥ n)
Solution:-
Since for all integers the proposition function n2 ≥ n is True.
Therefor ∀n(n2 ≥ n) is True.

Set:-
Collection of distinct and well-defined objects(elements or members of the set). A set is said
to contain its elements. We write a ∈ A to denote that a is an element of the set A. The
notation a ∈ A denotes that a is not an element of the set A.
Example:- The set V of all vowels in the English alphabet,
O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
Representation of Set:-
Tabular/roster form:-
V = {a, e, i, o, u}.
O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
Descriptive form:-
The set V of all vowels in the English alphabet.
The set O of odd positive integers less than 10
Set builder form:-

{x | x ∈ N ∧ x≤5}
{ x | x ∈ N ∧ 10>x>4}
Finite Set:-
Aset having limited elements.
{ a,b,c,d}.
{ 1,3,5,7,9}.
Infinite Set:-
A set having unlimited elements.
{ 1,2,3,4,5,6…}.
A set of even numbers.
Empty Set:-
A set containing no element.
It is represented by ∅ or { }.
Singleton set:-
A set having 1 element.
A={ 1}.
Equal Set:-
Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements. Therefore, if A and B are
sets, then A and B are equal if and only if ∀x(x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B). We write A = B if A and B are
equal sets.
A={a,b,c }
B={ b,c,a}
Subset:-
The set A is a subset of B if and only if every element of A is also an element of B.
We use the notation A ⊆ B to indicate that A is a subset of the set B.
We see that
A ⊆ B if and only if the quantification ∀x(x ∈ A → x ∈ B).
Example:- A={1,2,3,4 },B={1,2,3,4,5}
Superset:-
If A is the subset of B, then set B is called Superset of set.
Proper Subset:-
A set A is said to be a proper subset of set B if every element of set A is also in set B and
there exist at least one element in set B that is not in set A.
It is denoted by A ⊂ B
∀x(x ∈ A → x ∈ B) ∧ ∃x(x ∈ B ∧ x ∈ A).
Example:- A={1,2,3,4 },B={1,2,3,4,5}
Improper subset:-
A subset B consisting of all elements of set A, then it is called improper subset.
It is denoted by A ⊆ B
Example:- A={1,2,3,4},B={1,2,3,4}
Power set:-
Let a set consisting of all possible subset of set A.
It is denoted by P(A).If n is a number of elements in set A, then possible subset of A can be
find by 2n.
Example:- Let A={1,2,3}
Possible subset of set A are 23 = 8.
∅ , { },{1},{2},{3},{1,2},{1,3},{2,3},{1,2,3}.
P(A) = {∅ , { },{1},{2},{3},{1,2},{1,3},{2,3},{1,2,3}}
Operations on Set:-
Union:-
Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set that
contains those elements that are either in A or in B, or in both.
Symbolically:- A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}.
Example:-A={1, 3, 5},B={1, 2, 3}
A∪B={1, 3, 5}∪{1, 2, 3}
={1, 2, 3, 5}
Intersection:-
Let A and B be sets. The intersection of the sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set
containing those elements in both A and B.
Symbolically:- A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}.
Example:-A={1, 3, 5},B={1, 2, 3}
A∩B={1, 3, 5}∩{1, 2, 3}
={1,3}
Disjoint set:-
Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.
Example:-A={1, 3, 5},B={2,4,6}
A∩B={1, 3, 5}∩{2,4,6}
={ }
Overlapping set:-
Two sets are called Overlapping if their intersection is the non-empty set.
Example:-A={1, 3, 5},B={1, 2, 3}
A∩B={1, 3, 5}∩{1, 2, 3}
={1,3}
Difference of Set:-
Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B, denoted by A − B, is the set containing those
elements that are in A but not in B. The difference of A and B is also called the complement
of B with respect to A.
Symbolically:- A − B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B}.
Example:- A={1, 3, 5},B={1, 2, 3}
A − B ={1, 3, 5}− {1, 2, 3}
={5}
Complement of set:-
Let U be the universal set. The complement of the set A, denoted by ̅A or A′, is the
complement of A with respect to U. Therefore, the complement of the set A is U − A.
Symbolically:- A′= U – A={ x | x ∉ A }
Example:- U= {1,2,3,4,5,6,…}, B={1,3,5,7,9}
U – A={1,2,3,4,5,6,…} – {1,3,5,7,9}
{2,4,6,8,10,…}.

A Δ B = { x | x ∈ A/B ∧ B/A }

Cartesian product:-
Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by A × B, is the set of all
ordered pairs (a, b), where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.
Symbolically :- A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B}.
EXAMPLE:- A = {1, 2} , B = {a, b, c}.
Cardinality of A × B = Cardinality of A × Cardinality of B
A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}.

Laws of Set:-
Laws of Set
Identity Name
A∩U=A Identity laws
A ∪∅= A
A∪U=U Domination laws
A ∩∅=∅
A∪A=A Idempotent laws
A∩A=A
(A′)′ = A Complementation law
A∪B=B∪A Commutative laws
A∩B=B∩A
A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C Associative laws
A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) Distributive laws
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
(A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′ De Morgan’s laws
(A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′
A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A Absorption laws
 A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A
A ∪ A′ = U Complement laws
A∩A=∅

Prove following laws:-

(1) (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′
(A ∪ B)′ = {x | x ∉ A ∩ B} by definition of complement
= {x | ¬(x ∈ (A ∩ B))} by definition of does not belong symbol
= {x | ¬(x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B)} by definition of intersection
= {x | ¬(x ∈ A) ∨ ¬(x ∈ B)} by the first De Morgan law for logical equivalences
= {x | x ∉ A ∨ x ∉ B} by definition of does not belong symbol
= {x | x ∈ A′ ∨ x ∈ B′} by definition of complement
= {x | x ∈ A′ ∪ B′} by definition of union
= A′ ∩ B′
(2) (A ∪ (B ∩ C))′ = (C′ ∪ B′) ∩ A′
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = A′ ∩ (B ∩ C)′ by the first De Morgan law
= A′ ∩ (B′ ∪ C′) by the second De Morgan law
= (B′ ∪ C′) ∩ A′ by the commutative law for intersections
= (C′ ∪ B′) ∩ A′ by the commutative law for unions.
(3) A ∪ B = B ∪ A
Proof:- A ∪ B = { x | x ∈ A ∨ ∈ B}
= { x | x ∈ B ∨ ∈ A}
=B∪A
(4) A ∩ B = B ∩ A
Proof:- A ∩ B = { x | x ∈ A ∧ ∈ B}
= { x | x ∈ B ∧ ∈ A}
=B∩A
(5) A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
(6) A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C
(7) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

Prove that by using membership table, A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A

∩ C).
A Membership Table For The Distributed Property Union
A B C B∪C A∩B A∩C A ∩ (B ∪ C) (A ∩ B) ∪
(A ∩ C)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Function:-
Let A and B be sets. A function f from A to B is an assignment of exactly one element of B to
each element of A. We write f (a) = b if b is the unique element of B assigned by the function
f to the element a of A. If f is a function from A to B, we write f : A → B.
“Or”
If f is a function from A to B, we say that A is the domain of f and B is the codomain of f. If f
(a) = b, we say that b is the image of a and a is a preimage of b. The range, or image, of f is
the set of all images of elements of A.
Example:- f : R→ R,

One-to-One/Injection Function:-
one-to-one, or an injunction, f (a) = f (b)implies that a = b for all a and b in the domain of f.
“OR”
A function is said to be one-to-one function if every element of set A has different image in
Set B.
Example:- f:{a,b,c,d}→{1,2,3,4,5} with f (a) = 5, f (b) = 4, f (c) = 1, and f (d) = 3 is one-to-
one.

a 1
b 2
c 3
d 4
5

Example:- f : R→R f(x)=x3

F(x1)=f(x2)
(x1)=(x2)
Taking Cube root on both sides.
x1=x2
f is one-to-one.
Since +3≠-3
Onto Function:-
A function f from A to B is called onto, or a surjection, if and only if for every element b ∈ B
there is an element a ∈ A with f (a) = b.
∀b ∃a (f(a)=b)
∀y ∃x (f(y)=x)
f(x)=y
Example:- f:{a,b,c,d}→{1,2,3}
f(a)=3
f(b)=2
f(c)=1
f(d)=2

a 1
b 2
c 3
d

Example:- f : N→R
f(x)=2x+3
f(x)=y
2x+3=y
2x=y-3
𝒚−𝟑
x= 𝟐
x= -1 ∉ N
f(x) is not an onto function because codomain ≠ Rang.

Examples to prove are they one-to-one or onto function :-

1. f : R→R
f(x)=x2+2x
2. f : N→N
f(x)=x2
3. f : N→N
𝒙
f(x)= 𝟑
4. f: [0,∞ ]→[0,∞ ]
f(x)=√𝒙
Cardinality of function:-
f : A→B
f

A B
a1 b1
a2 b2
a3 b3
. .
. .
. .
an bm
|A|=m
|B|=n
Cardinality of total function = nm.