Pain and Headache

Gulf
Medical University
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DiPiro: Pharmacotherapy A Pathophysiologic Approach, 12e
Chapter e10: Pain and Headache
Ryan C. Costantino; Krista B. Highland; Laura Tilley
KEY CONCEPTS
KEY CONCEPTS
A comprehensive pain symptom analysis should be performed on each individual reporting pain to determine the type of pain condition.
A patient’s selfreport of pain impact, across a variety of biopsychosocial domains, is important to tailor and monitor treatment.
Appropriateness of selfcare options to treat pain must be determined after careful review of red flag indicators.
The topical route of administration is preferred to oral analgesics whenever feasible.
Goals focused on quality of life and function in addition to traditional pain scores are preferred.
PATIENT CARE PROCESS
Patient Care Process for Pain SelfCare
Collect
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Pain Symptom Analysis (ie, PQRSTU, see Table e103)
Chapter e10: Pain and Headache, Ryan C. Costantino; Krista B. Highland; Laura Tilley Page 1 / 16
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Patient characteristics (eg, age, allergies, pregnancy status)
Medical history including cardiopulmonary, renal or hepatic disease, psychiatric and sleep disorders
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Collect
Pain Symptom Analysis (ie, PQRSTU, see Table e103)
Patient characteristics (eg, age, allergies, pregnancy status)
Medical history including cardiopulmonary, renal or hepatic disease, psychiatric and sleep disorders
Social history (eg, tobacco/ethanol/illicit drug use), dietary habits, occupation
Current medications including overthecounter (OTC) aspirin, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), acetaminophen, herbal
products, and dietary supplements
Objective data
Physical examination: Temperature, blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR), oxygen saturation, height, weight,
diaphoresis, pallor, and visual inspection of the area of pain if possible (Note: Changes in vital signs are NOT diagnostic for pain and may
not be present in patients with chronic pain. Changes may also be due to pathology other than pain (eg, tachycardia due to hemorrhagic
shock).
There are no labs specific for pain assessment. Lab result abnormalities should be evaluated in light of a patient’s chronic conditions (ie,
elevated uric acid as an indicator of gout) or in evaluation of other suspected pathology.
Pain can be categorized based on patient description and medical history
Assess
Presence of risk factors that require medical referral (See Table e102)
Classifications of pain
Nociceptive (visceral vs somatic)
Neuropathic (peripheral vs central)
Duration of pain (acute vs chronic)
Accessibility, ability, and motivation to adopt lifestyle modifications (eg, sleep hygiene, exercise) and mindbody techniques (eg, biofeedback,
relaxation) as part of a comprehensive approach to pain
Access to treatment options including medications, physical therapy, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, and injectable epidurals
Coexisting psychological disorders/issues/stresses (eg, presence of anxiety, depression, sleep disorder)
Contextual factors that affect pain experience, engagement in treatment plan, and patientprovider relationship (eg, discrimination, structural
racism, transportation, and work schedule)
Plan*
For many pain conditions, use a multimodal approach incorporating nonpharmacologic therapy if appropriate (Chapter 77, “Pain
Management,” section on Nonpharmacologic Therapy)
Drug therapy regimen including dose, route, frequency, and duration (see Chapter 77, Table 775)
Referrals to other providers when appropriate (eg, primary care, rheumatology, orthopedics, behavioral health, gynecology, gastroenterology,
dentistry)
Followup plan (eg, primary care provider, specialist)
Provide strict return precautions (ie, red flags, worsening or new symptoms)
Ensure updated list of referrals, including providers who take a variety of types of insurance or provide services on a sliding fee scale for
individuals without insurance or who are unable to afford copayments.
Referrals to other providers when appropriate (eg, primary care, rheumatology, orthopedics, behavioral health, gynecology, gastroenterology,
dentistry) Access Provided by:
Followup plan (eg, primary care provider, specialist)
Provide strict return precautions (ie, red flags, worsening or new symptoms)
Ensure updated list of referrals, including providers who take a variety of types of insurance or provide services on a sliding fee scale for
individuals without insurance or who are unable to afford copayments.
Implement*
Engage in a dynamic discussion with the patient, including patient education regarding all elements of the treatment plan (eg, purpose of
multimodal treatment including lifestyle and dietary modification, medication administration, adherence), barrier mitigation, and functional
treatment goals
Use motivational interviewing and coaching strategies if the patient’s confidence to engage in the treatment plan could reduce engagement
Engage in collaborative problemsolving that acknowledges and adjusts for immovable structural, financial, occupational, and other barriers
Schedule followup (eg, improved mobility, pain score, prevention of longterm use of OTC pain medications)
Followup: Monitor and Evaluate
Selfmonitoring for progress toward functional goal, meaningful reduction of pain symptoms, frequency and duration of pain, ability to cope
with pain, and when to seek emergency medical attention
Monitoring parameters related to efficacy (eg, mobility, pain score, missed days of activity such as work, or social events)
Presence of adverse effects (eg, gastrointestinal issues such as ulcers or bleeding, rash)
Patient adherence to treatment plan using multiple sources of information
Frequency of reassessment should be dictated by the type and duration of pain
*
Collaborate with patient, caregivers, and other healthcare professionals.
BEYOND THE BOOK
BEYOND THE BOOK
Ask a friend or colleague to recall a painful experience from their past. Perform a pain symptom analysis with them using the PQRSTU method
described in the chapter. Be sure to analyze each pain report if the pain experience involved multiple sources of pain. The goal of the interview
should be to COLLECT information about their painful experience, ASSESS the pain, and classify it appropriately (eg, nociceptive somatic,
nociceptive visceral, neuropathic). Ask yourself, could this patient be managed through selfcare or is a referral required? This activity is intended to
build pain symptom assessment skills and ability to identify pain etiology and pathogenesis.
INTRODUCTION
The International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) defines pain as: “an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or
potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage.”1 Despite being a top reason patients access the medical system, many patients will
attempt to manage their pain with nonprescription medications.2,3 This gives unique opportunities for health professionals to improve the health,
wellness, and medication use among patients experiencing pain.
EPIDEMIOLOGY AND ETIOLOGY
In 2016, approximately one in five people experienced chronic pain, with an estimated 8% of the US population experiencing highimpact chronic
pain.4 While the true incidence and prevalence is difficult to determine, painful disorders have a significant burden on our society. Chronic pain alone
is estimated to cost the United States more than US$600 billion each year in medical treatment and lost productivity.5 Unfortunately, our healthcare
system has historically struggled to provide medical professionals with adequate education and training to sufficiently diagnose and treat people with
attempt to manage their pain with nonprescription medications.2,3 This gives unique opportunities for health professionals to improve the health,
wellness, and medication use among patients experiencing pain.
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EPIDEMIOLOGY AND ETIOLOGY
In 2016, approximately one in five people experienced chronic pain, with an estimated 8% of the US population experiencing highimpact chronic
pain.4 While the true incidence and prevalence is difficult to determine, painful disorders have a significant burden on our society. Chronic pain alone
is estimated to cost the United States more than US$600 billion each year in medical treatment and lost productivity.5 Unfortunately, our healthcare
system has historically struggled to provide medical professionals with adequate education and training to sufficiently diagnose and treat people with
pain.6,7
Headache and musculoskeletal disorders are two common etiologies of pain for which there are overthecounter (OTC) treatment options available
for patients. Globally, almost half of people with headache selftreat without a formal diagnosis.8 This is concerning, as many of the medications
commonly used to treat painful conditions carry serious side effects (ie, bleeding with nonsteriodal antiinflammatory drugs [NSAIDs]). Furthermore,
one study demonstrated approximately half of patients may not be aware of the potential side effects of their medication. Many patients are under the
impression that OTC medications are safer or carry less risk than their equivalent prescription product.9
All healthcare professionals have a role to play in educating and assisting with the care of patients with painful disorders by screening for red flag
symptoms (see Table e101) and referring patients to a primary care physician or specialist when appropriate. If a patient’s presentation is appropriate
to selftreat, health professionals can provide guidance on the most appropriate drug based on the patient’s symptoms and encourage safe use (eg,
dosing, duration of use, and monitoring parameters).
TABLE e101
Universal Red F l a g Symptoms with Report of Pain
R e d F l a g Symptomsa
New onset numbness, weakness, vision changes, dizziness, or syncope
Sudden severe onset of pain
Persistent pain >3 days
Pain worsening despite treatment
Chest pain
Shortness of breath
Worsening pain with exertion
Bleeding disorder
Severe pain that diminishes ability to perform activity of daily living
Fever, nausea, vomiting, unintentional weight loss, or unexplained signs of systemic disorder
Suspected fracture
Pregnant
aRed flags are not a substitute for clinical judgment.
ANATOMY AND MECHANISM OF DISEASE
While pain can create much patient discomfort and disability, it also serves as an essential protective mechanism used to maintain homeostasis in the
body. For a detailed review of the pathogenesis of pain, see Chapter 79, Pain Management. For the purposes of selfcare, it is helpful to classify pain
into subcategories to align treatment modalities.
Pregnant
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aRed flags are not a substitute for clinical judgment.
ANATOMY AND MECHANISM OF DISEASE
While pain can create much patient discomfort and disability, it also serves as an essential protective mechanism used to maintain homeostasis in the
body. For a detailed review of the pathogenesis of pain, see Chapter 79, Pain Management. For the purposes of selfcare, it is helpful to classify pain
into subcategories to align treatment modalities.
Pain is often classified as nociceptive, neuropathic, or mixed (see Table e102). Nociceptive pain occurs in response to harmful or potentially harmful
stimuli when signals are sent to the brain through the process of transduction, conduction, transmission, perception, and modulation. It is typically
characterized as either somatic or visceral in nature. Somatic and visceral pain often respond to primary analgesics available OTC (eg, acetaminophen
or NSAIDs), whereas neuropathic pain will often require a referral and evaluation for prescription analgesics. However, OTC products containing
capsaicin or lidocaine are available and may be beneficial in the initial treatment of patients experiencing neuropathic pain (see Table e102).
TABLE e102
Classifications of Pain
Types of Patient Anatomy and Mechanism Common Analgesics

Pain Descriptions Etiologies
Nociceptive Sharp, dull, Occurs in response to harmful or potentially harmful Traumatic pain Typically

somatic aching, worse stimuli. Signals are sent to the brain through the process (cuts, scrapes, responds well
pain with movement of transduction, conduction, transmission, perception, strains) to OTC
Welllocalized and modulation. Arthritis pain analgesics such
patients can Involves the skin, bone, joint, or soft tissue. Musculoskeletal as
often point pain acetaminophen
directly to the Hemorrhoids or NSAIDs.
location of pain. May require
prescription
analgesics
Nociceptive Diffuse, gnawing, Occurs in response to harmful or potentially harmful Menstrual May respond to

visceral pain cramping, stimuli. Signals are sent to the brain through the process cramps OTC analgesics
squeezing, of transduction, conduction, transmission, perception, Constipation such as
pressure and modulation. Gallstones acetaminophen,
Difficult for Can occur as a result of direct stimulation of afferent Kidney stones or NSAIDs.
patients to nerves due to tumor infiltration, distension of hollow Gastritis May require
localize the pain. viscus, infarct, or damage to soft tissue or viscera (ie, Appendicitis prescription
cardiac, gastrointestinal tract, genitourinary tract, lung). Cardiac analgesics
conditions (ie,
ischemia)
Neuropathic Burning, Characterized by dysfunction or damage to the peripheral or Diabetic Referral for

pain numbness, pins central nervous system. neuropathy medical
and needles, Postherpetic evaluation.
tingling, neuralgia May respond to
stabbing, OTC
shooting, medications
electrical such as topical
Pain often starts capsaicin or
in one area and lidocaine.
radiates to Prescription
another medications
including
antidepressants
stimuli when signals are sent to the brain through the process of transduction, conduction, transmission, perception, and modulation. It is typically
characterized as either somatic or visceral in nature. Somatic and visceral pain often respond to primary analgesics available OTC (eg, acetaminophen
Access Provided by:
or NSAIDs), whereas neuropathic pain will often require a referral and evaluation for prescription analgesics. However, OTC products containing
capsaicin or lidocaine are available and may be beneficial in the initial treatment of patients experiencing neuropathic pain (see Table e102).
TABLE e102
Classifications of Pain
Types of Patient Anatomy and Mechanism Common Analgesics

Pain Descriptions Etiologies
Nociceptive Sharp, dull, Occurs in response to harmful or potentially harmful Traumatic pain Typically

somatic aching, worse stimuli. Signals are sent to the brain through the process (cuts, scrapes, responds well
pain with movement of transduction, conduction, transmission, perception, strains) to OTC
Welllocalized and modulation. Arthritis pain analgesics such
patients can Involves the skin, bone, joint, or soft tissue. Musculoskeletal as
often point pain acetaminophen
directly to the Hemorrhoids or NSAIDs.
location of pain. May require
prescription
analgesics
Nociceptive Diffuse, gnawing, Occurs in response to harmful or potentially harmful Menstrual May respond to

visceral pain cramping, stimuli. Signals are sent to the brain through the process cramps OTC analgesics
squeezing, of transduction, conduction, transmission, perception, Constipation such as
pressure and modulation. Gallstones acetaminophen,
Difficult for Can occur as a result of direct stimulation of afferent Kidney stones or NSAIDs.
patients to nerves due to tumor infiltration, distension of hollow Gastritis May require
localize the pain. viscus, infarct, or damage to soft tissue or viscera (ie, Appendicitis prescription
cardiac, gastrointestinal tract, genitourinary tract, lung). Cardiac analgesics
conditions (ie,
ischemia)
Neuropathic Burning, Characterized by dysfunction or damage to the peripheral or Diabetic Referral for

pain numbness, pins central nervous system. neuropathy medical
and needles, Postherpetic evaluation.
tingling, neuralgia May respond to
stabbing, OTC
shooting, medications
electrical such as topical
Pain often starts capsaicin or
in one area and lidocaine.
radiates to Prescription
another medications
including
antidepressants
and
anticonvulsants
are firstline
treatment.
Collect Information
are firstline
treatment.
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Collect Information
The clinician must collect information to characterize the pain, attempt to determine the etiology, and develop a treatment plan. If a patient has
multiple sources of pain (ie, oral pain and headache), a pain symptom analysis should be conducted on each source of pain. A comprehensive
symptom analysis utilizing the PQRSTU method is outlined in Table e103. Given that pain is subjective, information gathered from the patient will
serve as the foundation for developing an appropriate treatment plan.10
TABLE e103
PQRSTU Pain Assessment
Letters Descriptions Assessment Questions Examples
P Precipitating What brings on the pain or makes it – Position changes (standing, lying down, rolling over)

factors worse? – Activities (walking, playing with children)
– Change in the weather
– Stress
Palliative What helps relieve the pain? – Heat, cold application

factors – Position change (standing, lying down, rolling over)
– Coping strategies (yoga, meditation, social activities)
– Rest
Previous What have you tried in the past or – History: Is it the same type of pain you have had before but more severe or

treatment(s) present to manage the pain? totally new?
– Medications (nonprescription, prescription, herbal, natural products)
Q Quality What does the pain feel like? – See Table e102
R Region Where is the pain? – Lower back

– Jaw
– Head
Radiation To where does the pain move? – Moves from lower back down the leg

– Moves from tooth to jaw
S Severity How much does the pain hurt? – Ask the patient to rate their pain intensity on a scale of 0 to 10 with 0

equaling no pain and 10 equaling the worst pain imaginable
T Temporal When does the pain occur? – Onset: Immediate or delayed?

– Time of day: Morning or afternoon?
Has it changed over time? – Frequency: Intermittent or persistent?
U You How is the pain affecting you? – Impact on patient’s mood, work, relationships

– Activities of daily living
Data from Reference 11.
The clinician must collect information to characterize the pain, attempt to determine the etiology, and develop a treatment plan. If a patient has
multiple sources of pain (ie, oral pain and headache), a pain symptom analysis should be conducted on each source of pain. A comprehensive
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symptom analysis utilizing the PQRSTU method is outlined in Table e103. Given that pain is subjective, information gathered from the patient will
serve as the foundation for developing an appropriate treatment plan.10
TABLE e103
PQRSTU Pain Assessment
Letters Descriptions Assessment Questions Examples
P Precipitating What brings on the pain or makes it – Position changes (standing, lying down, rolling over)

factors worse? – Activities (walking, playing with children)
– Change in the weather
– Stress
Palliative What helps relieve the pain? – Heat, cold application

factors – Position change (standing, lying down, rolling over)
– Coping strategies (yoga, meditation, social activities)
– Rest
Previous What have you tried in the past or – History: Is it the same type of pain you have had before but more severe or

treatment(s) present to manage the pain? totally new?
– Medications (nonprescription, prescription, herbal, natural products)
Q Quality What does the pain feel like? – See Table e102
R Region Where is the pain? – Lower back

– Jaw
– Head
Radiation To where does the pain move? – Moves from lower back down the leg

– Moves from tooth to jaw
S Severity How much does the pain hurt? – Ask the patient to rate their pain intensity on a scale of 0 to 10 with 0

equaling no pain and 10 equaling the worst pain imaginable
T Temporal When does the pain occur? – Onset: Immediate or delayed?

– Time of day: Morning or afternoon?
Has it changed over time? – Frequency: Intermittent or persistent?
U You How is the pain affecting you? – Impact on patient’s mood, work, relationships

– Activities of daily living
Data from Reference 11.
While a comprehensive symptom analysis collects most of the necessary information to assess a report of pain, other patientrelated variables should
be collected including current medications, vitamins, minerals, and herbal supplements. Information such as age and medical conditions (eg, renal or
hepatic insufficiency, diabetes, immunosuppression, and pregnancy status) are essential to avoid potential medicationrelated issues in patients at
elevated risk for adverse events.
Assess the Patient
The information gathered from the patient’s selfreport is considered the most reliable indicator of the presence, intensity, and impact of pain.
General inspection of the pain site may be useful in determining the etiology (eg, swelling may indicate an inflammatory process) and appropriate
While a comprehensive symptom analysis collects most of the necessary information to assess a report of pain, other patientrelated variables should
be collected including current medications, vitamins, minerals, and herbal supplements. Information such as age and medical conditions (eg, renal or
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hepatic insufficiency, diabetes, immunosuppression, and pregnancy status) are essential to avoid potential medicationrelated issues in patients at
elevated risk for adverse events.
Assess the Patient
The information gathered from the patient’s selfreport is considered the most reliable indicator of the presence, intensity, and impact of pain.
General inspection of the pain site may be useful in determining the etiology (eg, swelling may indicate an inflammatory process) and appropriate
treatment. Always keep in mind the absence of physical signs of pain does not exclude the possibility that the patient is experiencing pain. Other
objective data such as physiologic or laboratory tests are unlikely to be available in the selfcare setting and may not be useful in guiding treatment.
An attempt to determine the type of pain and its duration (acute vs chronic) should begin by assessing the patient’s description of their painful
condition. For the purposes of selfcare, the clinician often needs to efficiently classify the pain, determine selfcare eligibility, and consider what self
care treatments are available, accessible, and through discussion with the patient, a good fit (see Table 796 in Chapter 79, “Pain Management”; note
that some products are available in both OTC and prescription formulations).
Three common examples of pain conditions that are frequently evaluated for selfcare are headache, musculoskeletal disorders, and abdominal pain
(eg, dysmenorrhea). Nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic treatment options are available for most painful conditions including headache (see
Chapter 80, “Headache Disorders”), musculoskeletal disorders, and menstruationrelated disorders (see Chapter 100, “MenstrualRelated Disorders”).
A thorough discussion of the classification and management of pain is in Chapter 79.
Headache
When assessing a patient with a headache, the clinician must assess the information collected to determine if there are any red flag symptoms that may
suggest a serious underlying disorder that would necessitate a medical referral (see Table e103). Headache disorders are discussed indepth in
Chapter 80.
Musculoskeletal Pain
The musculoskeletal system encompasses muscles, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and bone. If possible, clinicians should assess the location (eg,
lower back), signs, symptoms, and onset of the pain because these factors can allow further differentiation and classification of musculoskeletal
disorders such as myalgias, tendonitis, bursitis, sprain, strains, or osteoarthritis (which is covered in detail in Chapter 110, “Osteoarthritis”).
Recognizing that pain often serves as a protective mechanism within the body, the most important characteristic to assess with musculoskeletal
injuries is whether the pain is acute or chronic in nature. A majority of minor acute musculoskeletal pain disorders will resolve with nonpharmacologic
interventions and OTC analgesics. However, patients with musculoskeletal pain that persists for several days or worsens despite treatment should be
referred to their primary care provider for further workup along with any patients experiencing red flag symptoms (see Table e101). Low back pain
and osteoarthritis are common disorders that can be chronic in nature. These disorders are often complex and often require multiple treatment
modalities including pharmacologic, physical, and/or interventional therapy.
Chest Pain
Although chest pain can be related to either a gastrointestinal or musculoskeletal etiology, it is also a symptom of serious and potentially fatal medical
issues including cardiac conditions (eg, acute coronary syndrome) (see Chapter 34, “Acute Coronary Syndromes”) or pulmonary disorders (eg,
pulmonary embolism) (see Chapter 38, “Venous Thromboembolism”). Concern for cardiac, pulmonary, or other lifethreatening issues should prompt
immediate referral to the emergency department for full evaluation.
Abdominal Pain
Abdominal pain can be attributed to relatively benign causes such as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) (see Chapter 50, “Gastroesophageal
Reflux Disease”) or constipation (see Chapter 54, “Diarrhea, Constipation, and Irritable Bowel Syndrome”). However, due to the difficulty of
differentiating between these conditions in the community or ambulatory setting, these reports will often require referral for a full evaluation.
However, abdominal pain related to dysmenorrhea can often be appropriately treated through selfcare in the absence of red flags (see Table e101).
Patients who are pregnant should consult with their obstetrician or primary care provider for evaluation and treatment of their pain. Dysmenorrhea
amenable to selfcare will often present as a cyclical pattern following the onset of menstruation and typically lasts several days. Menstruationrelated
disorders are discussed indepth in Chapter 100.
Plan for Treatment or Referral
For most pain amenable to selfcare, an attempt to maximize nonpharmacologic treatment prior to considering pharmacologic therapies should be
made. An important tenet of medication decisionmaking for pain management is matching the mechanism of the medication to the type of pain (see
differentiating between these conditions in the community or ambulatory setting, these reports will often require referral for a full evaluation.
However, abdominal pain related to dysmenorrhea can often be appropriately treated through selfcare in the absence of red flags (see Table e101).
Patients who are pregnant should consult with their obstetrician or primary care provider for evaluation and treatment of their pain. Dysmenorrhea
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amenable to selfcare will often present as a cyclical pattern following the onset of menstruation and typically lasts several days. Menstruationrelated
disorders are discussed indepth in Chapter 100.
Plan for Treatment or Referral
For most pain amenable to selfcare, an attempt to maximize nonpharmacologic treatment prior to considering pharmacologic therapies should be
made. An important tenet of medication decisionmaking for pain management is matching the mechanism of the medication to the type of pain (see
Table e102). Often, this may require multimodal approaches to achieve optimal therapeutic benefit.
When considering drug therapy, clinicians should attempt to minimize the systemic exposure to medications by using topical agents containing
ingredients such as methyl salicylate, menthol, lidocaine, or capsaicin when appropriate. The greatest opportunity to use these agents for selfcare
would be in the treatment of acute pain related to musculoskeletal disorders. If referrals are made, the clinician should attempt to followup with the
patient and their provider to support the continuity of care.
Implement by Working With the Patient
Selfcare encounters provide as an opportunity to engage in important discussions with the patient about the management of their pain. The
practitioner should give the patient clear information about selfcare strategies and instructions for the selected strategies in a format they can easily
understand. Avoid using medical or advanced terminology. It can help to have templated infographics as well as worksheets that can be completed
collaboratively with the patient during the encounter. Writing down the treatment plan and asking the patient to repeat back the information are two
ways to ensure patients have the information needed to apply the plan. Be sure to address any administration, engagement, or cost barriers and
discuss common adverse effects with the patient. Set clear and realistic “SMART” goals (eg, Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and anchored
within a Time Frame) to ensure that the patient has appropriate expectations about when to expect improvement.
One key aspect of education is how long a patient should be advised to selftreat for pain. In general, medications to treat pain should be used at the
lowest effective dose for the shortest duration possible to minimize the risk of adverse reactions. While many patients believe the risks with
medications such as NSAIDs only occur with longterm use, some studies have demonstrated that the cardiovascular and gastrointestinal risks
associated with these agents may be elevated even within the first days to weeks of use.11,12 If possible, pharmacists providing selfcare
recommendations should document these interventions in a patient’s profile and followup as appropriate.
Patient education should include the discussion of realistic functional pain goals and any potential activity and behavioral modifications. Several meta
analyses have indicated that exercisebased programs (eg, walking, strength training) could reduce pain and improve function for individuals with hip
osteoarthritis,13 general musculoskeletal pain,14 and chronic back pain.15,16 One study found that for every pound (0.45 kg) of body weight lost, the
load on the knee is reduced fourfold.17 Furthermore, adequate sleep and maintaining a consistent exercise routine decrease the frequency of
headaches.
Followup by Monitoring and Evaluating Outcomes
Followup with a patient selftreating for pain should focus on the improvement of pain symptoms, functional outcomes, mobility, and participation in
daily activities that are important to the patient. Patient selfmonitoring and treatment can be enhanced by encouraging the patient to keep a pain
diary to track symptoms, frequency, duration of pain, activities that reduced pain, and if and how the pain is affecting their daily life. Patients should be
advised to seek emergency medical attention if symptoms progress or persist despite selfcare. A key role of the pharmacist would also include
monitoring for any adverse reactions if pharmacologic therapy was involved in the treatment plan.
It is important to recognize that historically, pain management has largely focused on resolving the intensity of pain (ie, What is your pain on a scale of
010?). While this has proved to be a simple and straightforward way to measure and track pain, it has the tendency to oversimplify a patient’s pain
experience. Rather than focusing solely on a pain score, the best practice would be to also incorporate validated functional scales and the patient’s
personal goals. Monitoring parameters for painful conditions should include function, mobility, pain score, missed days of activities such as work or
social events, and impact of pain on physical function and mood. For example, behavioral goals evaluating a patient’s social engagement, such as
attending family events or engaging in activities with friends, indicate how a patient may be coping with their disease. By focusing on functional and
behavioral outcomes along with pain intensity, pharmacists and other primarycare professionals can better care for patients experiencing pain and
make referral decisions based on solid evidence.
In most selfcare situations, the frequency of reassessment will be dictated by the type and duration of pain. Ideally a patient’s pain should improve
after treatment and resolve over several days. If a patient’s pain does not improve despite treatment the patient should be referred to an appropriate
clinician to have their condition fully evaluated.
CONCLUSION
attending family events or engaging in activities with friends, indicate how a patient may be coping with their disease. By focusing on functional and
behavioral outcomes along with pain intensity, pharmacists and other primarycare professionals can better care for patients experiencing pain and
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make referral decisions based on solid evidence.
In most selfcare situations, the frequency of reassessment will be dictated by the type and duration of pain. Ideally a patient’s pain should improve
after treatment and resolve over several days. If a patient’s pain does not improve despite treatment the patient should be referred to an appropriate
clinician to have their condition fully evaluated.
CONCLUSION
Many patients experiencing pain seek to selftreat their condition. Clinicians can provide valuable care to these patients by performing a
comprehensive pain symptom analysis. In the absence of red flags, an appropriate selfcare plan can be developed, implemented, and monitored.
ABBREVIATIONS
GERD gastroesophageal reflux disease
IASP International Association for the Study of Pain
NSAIDs nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs
OTC overthecounter
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11. Garcia Rodriguez LA, HernandezDiaz S. Relative risk of upper gastrointestinal complications among users of acetaminophen and nonsteroidal
antiinflammatory drugs. Epidemiology . 2001;12:570–576. [PubMed: 11505178]
12. Fransen M, McConnell S, HernandezMolina G, et al. Exercise for osteoarthritis of the hip. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 20144):CD007912–
CD007912. 10.1002/14651858.CD007912.pub2
[PubMed: 24756895] .
10. Garcia Rodriguez LA, Tacconelli S, Patrignani P. Role of dose potency in the prediction of risk of myocardial infarction associated with
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nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in the general population. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008:52:1628–1636. [PubMed: 18992652]
11. Garcia Rodriguez LA, HernandezDiaz S. Relative risk of upper gastrointestinal complications among users of acetaminophen and nonsteroidal
antiinflammatory drugs. Epidemiology . 2001;12:570–576. [PubMed: 11505178]
12. Fransen M, McConnell S, HernandezMolina G, et al. Exercise for osteoarthritis of the hip. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 20144):CD007912–
CD007912. 10.1002/14651858.CD007912.pub2
[PubMed: 24756895] .
13. O’Connor SR, Tully MA, Ryan B, et al. Walking exercise for chronic musculoskeletal pain: systematic review and metaanalysis. Arch Phys Med
Rehabil 2015;96(4):724–734.e3. 10.1016/j.apmr.2014.12.003
[PubMed: 25529265] .
14. Pocovi NC, de Campos TF, Christine Lin CW, et al. Walking, cycling, and swimming for nonspecific low back pain: Asystematic review with meta
analysis. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2022;52(2):85–99. 10.2519/jospt.2022.10612
[PubMed: 34783263] .
15. Tataryn Nicholas, Simas Vini, Catterall Tailah, et al. Posteriorchain resistance training compared to general exercise and walking programmes for
the treatment of chronic low back pain in the general population: A systematic review and metaanalysis. Sports Medicine Open 2021;7
10.1186/s4079802100306w.
16. Messier S, Gutekunst DJ, Davis C, et al. Weight loss reduces knee‐joint loads in overweight and obese older adults with knee osteoarthritis. Arthr
Rheum. 2005;52:2026–2032.
17. Adams G, Barbery CW. Lui: Complementary and alternative medicine use for headache and migraine: A critical review of the literature. Headache .
2013;53(3):459–473. [PubMed: 23078346]
SELFASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. A clinician should COLLECT which of the following before assessing a patient’s report of pain?
A. Pain symptom analysis (ie, PQRSTU)
B. The patient’s past medical history
C. Physical examination findings
D. All of the above
2. What is considered to be the most reliable indicator of the presence and intensity of pain?
A. Vital signs
B. Functional ability
C. Patient’s selfreport of pain
D. Caregiver assessment/report of pain
3. A patient’s pain severity rating, such as “current pain is 4/10,” should be placed in which of the following sections of a medical note?
A. Subjective
B. Objective
C. Assessment
D. Plan
4. Asking a patient, “Describe what your pain feels like?” addresses which aspect of a PQRSTU Pain Assessment?
A. Q—Quantitative
A. Subjective Gulf Medical University
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B. Objective
C. Assessment
D. Plan
4. Asking a patient, “Describe what your pain feels like?” addresses which aspect of a PQRSTU Pain Assessment?
A. Q—Quantitative
B. Q—Quality
C. S—Severity
D. Y—You (Associated Symptoms)
5. Asking a patient, “What brings on your pain or makes it worse?” addresses which aspect of a PQRSTU Pain Assessment?
A. P—Precipitating
B. P—Palliative factors
C. P—Previous treatment(s)
D. None of the above
6. Which of the following statements is incorrect for the parameter of “PQRSTU” with which it is matched?
A. Temporal: “The pain comes and goes, lasts about 15 minutes, and occurs about four times a day.”
B. Severity: “My pain is currently a 5 on a 0 to 10 scale.”
C. Precipitating events: “Whenever I sit down, my pain skyrockets.”
D. You (Associated Symptoms): “My pain has taken over my life and ruined all my relationships!”
E. Quality: “The pain started in my lower back, but now it hurt all over.”
7. Which of the following is not a universal “red flag” symptom with a report of pain?
A. Shortness of breath
B. Pain improving with treatment
C. Fever with nausea
D. Headache for 4 days
8. A 30yearold man reports pain in his back that moves down their leg and states, “It feels like it’s on fire!” is most likely experiencing which type of
pain?
A. Nociceptive somatic pain
B. Nociceptive visceral pain
C. Neuropathic pain
D. Conductive pain
9. A 52yearold woman reporting aching pain in both her knees that is worse when she walks is most likely experiencing which type of pain?
C. Neuropathic pain
D. Conductive pain
D. Conductive pain Gulf Medical University
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9. A 52yearold woman reporting aching pain in both her knees that is worse when she walks is most likely experiencing which type of pain?
C. Neuropathic pain
D. Conductive pain
10. A 23yearold woman reporting cramping that typically occurs the same time every month following the onset of menstruation is most likely
experiencing which type of pain?
C. Neuropathic pain
D. Conductive pain
11. A person is reporting severe, diffuse right flank pain that you suspect could be appendicitis. If true, he/she is most likely experiencing which type of
pain?
B. Nociceptive Visceral pain
C. Neuropathic pain
D. Conductive pain
12. Which of the following OTC medications may benefit a patient experiencing mild, localized neuropathic pain related to postherpetic neuralgia
treated over a year ago?
A. Ibuprofen
B. Acetaminophen
C. Aspirin
D. Lidocaine
13. LS is a 56yearold man who presents to your pharmacy today asking what medication he can take to relieve his newonset chest pain. What would
be the best plan for LS?
A. Educate the patient that the pain is likely selflimiting and will resolve in a few hours.
B. Refer the patient to the nearest emergency department for further evaluation.
C. Recommend ibuprofen 200 mg every 4 to 6 hours as needed for pain.
D. Advise the patient to call his primary care provider.
14. A 19yearold woman presents to your pharmacy reporting mild cramping in her abdomen that typically occurs following the onset of
menstruation. She asks the pharmacist what medication she can take to help with the pain. She reports no known drug allergies, and the only
medication she takes regularly is an estrogen and progestin combination oral contraceptive pill (ethinyl estradiol and norgestimate). What would
be the best plan for treatment or referral for her?
A. Refer the patient to her primary care physician for treatment
B. Recommend she apply a thin film of capsaicin 0.1% cream to the affected areas three to four times daily
C. Recommend ibuprofen 200 mg every 4 to 6 hours as needed for pain
D. Refer the patient to the nearest emergency department for immediate evaluation
menstruation. She asks the pharmacist what medication she can take to help with the pain. She reports no known drug allergies, and the only
medication she takes regularly is an estrogen and progestin combination oral contraceptive pill (ethinyl estradiol and norgestimate). What would
be the best plan for treatment or referral for her? Access Provided by:
A. Refer the patient to her primary care physician for treatment
B. Recommend she apply a thin film of capsaicin 0.1% cream to the affected areas three to four times daily
C. Recommend ibuprofen 200 mg every 4 to 6 hours as needed for pain
D. Refer the patient to the nearest emergency department for immediate evaluation
15. US is a 62yearold woman experiencing stiffness in her hips and knees over the past several months. She plans to exercise and hopes to lose
weight but calls your pharmacy asking if there is medication available overthecounter that may improve her pain. She reports having an
anaphylactic reaction to aspirin. What would be the best plan for treatment or referral for US?
A. Refer the patient to the nearest emergency department for further evaluation
B. Recommend ibuprofen 200 mg every 4 to 6 hours as needed for pain
C. Recommend acetaminophen 1,000 mg every 4 hours as needed for pain
D. Recommend acetaminophen 1,000 mg every 6 hours as needed for pain
SELFASSESSMENT QUESTIONANSWERS
1. D . It is necessary to gather patient information from a pain symptom analysis, medical history, and physical examination to properly assess a report
of pain. See the “Collect Information” section for more information.
2. C . The information gathered from the patient’s selfreport is considered the most reliable indicator of the presence and intensity of pain. See the
“Assess the Patient” section for more information.
3. A . Given that pain is always subjective, the most appropriate place in a medical note would be the subjective section. See the “Collect Information”
section for more information.
4. B . Asking the patient what their pain feels like is describing the quality of their pain. See Table e103 for more information.
5. A . Asking the patient what brings on their pain or makes it worse is identifying precipitating factors related to their pain. See Table e103 for more
information.
6. E. The patient’s statement that their pain started in their back but is now all over best describes the region and radiation of their pain. Therefore,
matching quality to this statement would be incorrect. See Table e103 for more information.
7. B . Pain improving with treatment is not a universal “red flag” listed in Table e101. All of the other options are correct “red flag” symptoms.
8. C . The patient is describing a burning sensation, which is likely indicative of neuropathic pain. See Table e102 for more information.
9. A . The patient is describing aching in both knees, which likely involves the bone, joint, or soft tissue. This pain would be best classified as nociceptive
somatic pain. See Table e102 for more information.
10. B . The patient is describing pain that is likely related to menstrual cramps given that it occurs at the same time every month following the onset of
menstruation. This pain is best classified as nociceptive visceral pain. See Table e102 for more information.
11. B . The patient is describing pain that is highly suspicious for appendicitis and likely nociceptive visceral pain. See Table e102 for more information.
12. D . Neuropathic pain may respond to medications such as topical capsaicin or lidocaine, which are available overthecounter. See Table e102 for
more information.
13. B . Newonset chest pain is a “red flag” symptom with report of pain. The concern for cardiac issues requires referral to the emergency department
for evaluation. See the “Assess the Patient” section for more information.
14. C . Pain caused by menstrual cramps may respond to OTC analgesics such as acetaminophen or NSAIDs such as ibuprofen. Choices A and D are not
the best plan as the patient does not have any “red flag” symptoms that would preclude selfcare. Choice B is not correct as capsaicin is not the most
efficacious medication for this type of pain and often takes days to weeks to provide pain relief when used appropriately. See Table e102 for more
information.
15. D . The patient is likely describing pain caused by osteoarthritis. This pain typically responds well to OTC analgesics such as acetaminophen. Choice
more information.
13. B . Newonset chest pain is a “red flag” symptom with report of pain. The concern for cardiac issues requires referral to the emergency department
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for evaluation. See the “Assess the Patient” section for more information.
14. C . Pain caused by menstrual cramps may respond to OTC analgesics such as acetaminophen or NSAIDs such as ibuprofen. Choices A and D are not
the best plan as the patient does not have any “red flag” symptoms that would preclude selfcare. Choice B is not correct as capsaicin is not the most
efficacious medication for this type of pain and often takes days to weeks to provide pain relief when used appropriately. See Table e102 for more
information.
15. D . The patient is likely describing pain caused by osteoarthritis. This pain typically responds well to OTC analgesics such as acetaminophen. Choice
A is not the best plan as the patient does not have any “red flag” symptoms that would preclude you from providing care. Choice B is incorrect as the
patient reported an anaphylactic reaction to aspirin. Patients with a history of aspirin intolerance should be advised to avoid all aspirin and NSAID
containing products. Choice C is incorrect given that the dose exceeds 4 g/d of acetaminophen and is, therefore, potentially hepatotoxic. See the
“Collect Information and Plan” section of the Patient Care Process box for more information.

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Types of Patient Anatomy and Mechanism Common Analgesics

Nociceptive Sharp, dull, Occurs in response to harmful or potentially harmful Traumatic pain Typically

Nociceptive Diffuse, gnawing, Occurs in response to harmful or potentially harmful Menstrual May respond to

Neuropathic Burning, Characterized by dysfunction or damage to the peripheral or Diabetic Referral for

Types of Patient Anatomy and Mechanism Common Analgesics

Nociceptive Sharp, dull, Occurs in response to harmful or potentially harmful Traumatic pain Typically

Nociceptive Diffuse, gnawing, Occurs in response to harmful or potentially harmful Menstrual May respond to

Neuropathic Burning, Characterized by dysfunction or damage to the peripheral or Diabetic Referral for

Letters Descriptions Assessment Questions Examples

P Precipitating What brings on the pain or makes it – Position changes (standing, lying down, rolling over)

Palliative What helps relieve the pain? – Heat, cold application

Previous What have you tried in the past or – History: Is it the same type of pain you have had before but more severe or

Q Quality What does the pain feel like? – See Table e10­2

R Region Where is the pain? – Lower back

Radiation To where does the pain move? – Moves from lower back down the leg

S Severity How much does the pain hurt? – Ask the patient to rate their pain intensity on a scale of 0 to 10 with 0

T Temporal When does the pain occur? – Onset: Immediate or delayed?

U You How is the pain affecting you? – Impact on patient’s mood, work, relationships

Letters Descriptions Assessment Questions Examples

P Precipitating What brings on the pain or makes it – Position changes (standing, lying down, rolling over)

Palliative What helps relieve the pain? – Heat, cold application

Previous What have you tried in the past or – History: Is it the same type of pain you have had before but more severe or

Q Quality What does the pain feel like? – See Table e10­2

R Region Where is the pain? – Lower back

Radiation To where does the pain move? – Moves from lower back down the leg

S Severity How much does the pain hurt? – Ask the patient to rate their pain intensity on a scale of 0 to 10 with 0

T Temporal When does the pain occur? – Onset: Immediate or delayed?

U You How is the pain affecting you? – Impact on patient’s mood, work, relationships

1. Blackwell DL, Lucas JW, Clarke TC. Summary health statistics for U.S. adults: National Health Interview Survey, 2012. Vital Health Stat. 10 . 2014;

3. Nahin RL. Estimates of pain prevalence and severity in adults: United States, 2012. J Pain . 2015;16(8):769–780. [PubMed: 26028573]

4. Gaskin DJ, Richard P. The economic costs of pain in the United States. J Pain . 2012;13(8):715–724. [PubMed: 22607834]

6. Mezei L, Murinson BB. Pain education in North American medical schools. J Pain . 2011;12(12):1199–208. [PubMed: 21945594]

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Q Quality What does the pain feel like? – See Table e102

Q Quality What does the pain feel like? – See Table e102