The Case For Space Exploration

AMERICA S VISION:
AMERICA’S
The Case for

Space
Space
Exploration
Failure Is Not an Option
www.spacefoundation.org
w.spacefoundation.org
“Nations aspiring to global
leadership in the 21st century
must be space-faring. Freedom,
mobility, quality of life and the
ability to do the difficult things
that define leadership will be
enhanced and discovered on
the space frontier.”
~ Walker Commission, 2002
America’s Vision: The Case for Space Exploration
Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1
By: Elliot G. Pulham and Jay DeFrank, Ph.D.
Space Exploration: The Power of the Vision ............................................................................ 2-7

Author: Neil deGrasse Tyson, Ph.D.
The Vision for Space Exploration ........................................................................................ 8-11

Author: Jim Banke
The Global Space Economy ............................................................................................... 12-17

Author: the Space Foundation
A Day Without Space ...................................................................................................... 18-21

Author: Elliot G. Pulham
Technology Trends in Space: Meeting the Challenges of Space and Exploration .................................. 22-23
Author: John Mankins
Educating Tomorrow’s Workforce ....................................................................................... 24-25

Author: Patricia Arnold, Ph.D.
A Consistent Theme: Support for Space Exploration .................................................................. 26-29

Author: John M. Logsdon, Ph.D.
Public Strongly Endorses Space Exploration — A Gallup Poll ....................................................... 30-31

Commissioned by the Space Foundation, on behalf of the Coalition for Space Exploration
American Strategic Leadership and Manned Spaceflight ............................................................ 32-33

Author: Joan Johnson-Freese, Ph.D.
Amazing True Tales of Space Exploration .............................................................................. 34-35

Author: James Cameron
An Advocate for the Next Giant Leap for Mankind ................................................................... 36-37
Author: Neil Armstrong
Risk is Our Business ....................................................................................................... 38-39

Author: Col Steven W. Lindsey, USAF
Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 40-41

By: the Space Foundation
Biographies of Authors .................................................................................................... 42-44
The Space Foundation ..................................................................................................... 45
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ 46
AMERICA S VISION:
AMERICA’S
The Case for

Space
Exploration
1
Introduction
With a mission “to vigorously advance civil, commercial and national security space endeavors and educational
excellence,” it will surprise no one that the Space Foundation strenuously supports the exploration and
development of space, particularly the nation’s new policy for NASA, the Vision for Space Exploration. What may
surprise most readers — critics and supporters alike — is that the vast majority of Americans also support this
vision. What, then, is the need for this publication?
In our view, the benefits of space exploration and development that permeate our daily lives have become so
ubiquitous and transparent that most of us have forgotten where they originated. We take for granted that the
United States has the most advanced technology and highest standard of living on the planet, without pausing to
think about the history of investment in space research and development that has driven us forward for the past
40 years. The United States did not cement its position of world leadership by accident. It required thoughtful,
and sometimes politically difficult, commitment to our national investment in the future — space exploration and
development. Nor will the decades ahead naturally unfold in a manner that serendipitously assures the United
States remains a leader among nations. Already, United States leadership is challenged by emerging space-faring
nations around the globe. The time for a serious, renewed investment in our future is at hand.
Fortunately, the Case for Space Exploration is neither difficult to make nor to grasp. It is in that most rare category
of endeavors that speaks both to our hearts and our minds. At an emotional level, every atom of every cell of
every being on the planet came into existence in that one remote and ancient instant we call the Big Bang. We are
the dust of the stars and the cosmos, and our yearning to understand the questions of our own existence pulls us
inexorably toward the heavens. Exploration is the most sublime expression of what it is to be human, and space
exploration is the ultimate expression of this humanity.
But the business of space exploration is hard, very hard. Thus, it demands the greatest effort we can put forward;
the greatest minds, the greatest talents, the most inventive and innovative solutions to challenges — the stuff of
which new knowledge, understanding, technology, and human capability is made. Here is where the economic
and technology payoff is spawned. Our investments in conquering “the hard stuff” result in vast returns —
the tools, knowledge, capabilities, and even new industries that ultimately benefit every human being on the
home planet.
Whether you are a committed supporter of space exploration, a skeptic, or just someone who wants to understand
better why more than 70 percent of the citizens of the United States support a more robust program of space
exploration, this publication is for you. We hope that you will conclude, as we have, that the time to extend
human presence throughout our entire solar system, as called for in the Vision for Space Exploration, is now.
_______________________________________ _______________________________________
Elliot G. Pulham James “Jay” DeFrank, Ph.D.

President and Chief Executive Officer Executive Director, Research and Analysis
Space Foundation Space Foundation
2 ~ Space Exploration: The Power of the Vision
Space Exploration: The Power of the Vision
Abstracted,… excerpted,… and adapted… from a keynote address by Astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, Ph.D.
Editor's Note: There is widespread belief that the space program is a good thing for our nation. But ask
why and you’ll get as many different types of answers as there are people. • According to astrophysicist
Neil DeGrasse Tyson, the rationale for our space program has as much to do with national security and the
economy as it does with the intangible, indefinable spirit of exploration that is written into our DNA. • The
key point, Tyson argues, is that we can enjoy the many benefits of a robust space exploration
program and afford to pay for it. In fact, we should probably spend a lot more on something that
is so important to our culture but is all too often taken for granted. • In the following, Tyson
True innovation requires a bold
vision supported by audacious explains why it is imperative we support the space program.
investments in human capital.
Some will say, why rely on
spinoffs for new products and As a scientist, I’m a bit outside of the traditional aerospace club. I’ve spent quality
technologies? Why not just time within the space community, but, fundamentally, I’m an academic. This means
invest in the product itself
instead of waiting for it to I don’t wield power over person, place, or thing. I don’t command armies. I don’t
happen as a spinoff of some command labor unions. All I have is the power of thought.
larger effort?
So I knew the power of vision. While in graduate school, I was invited by Columbia
Press to write a chapter for the Columbia History of the 20th Century. My chapter was
Problem is, innovation just called “Paths to Discovery,” and I stumbled onto something that shocked me. My
doesn’t always work that way.
For example, if you’re the research began with this question: “How do cultures do great things? How did we go
world’s expert on to the Moon? How do we go to Mars? How did they build the pyramids or the Great
thermodynamics, and I say,
"Build me a better oven,” you Wall? How do we accomplish these great, expensive, high-investment projects? How
might invent a convection oven do cultures enable these periods of greatness?”
or one that’s more insulated or
one that’s got better access to its
contents. But no matter how So I began to list all the “drivers” that had propelled people to do these great things
much money I give you, you will
not invent a microwave oven, throughout human history. I expected to compile a whole book of all the ways people
because that comes from found to justify doing these great things. But there wasn’t a whole book’s worth. There
another place.
were just three. Three drivers. No more, no less.
We can list without much controversy the most expensive or audacious things people
It came from investments in have ever done: the Apollo project, the Manhattan project, the pyramids, the Great
communications, in radar. The Wall of China, the Taj Mahal, the great cathedrals of Europe. Make the list as long as
klystron in microwave ovens is
traceable to the war effort, not we like, and every item on the list will have one of three things in common:
to some oven expert. • National Security,
• Economics,
• The praise of deity or royalty.
I wasn’t able to find a single case in human history that didn’t fall into one of those three drivers.
So, an inescapable conclusion was that if America wants to go to Mars or beyond, and if that’s
going to be expensive, if it doesn’t satisfy one of these three criteria, then we’re not going.
So there it was. I published it. And it got some limited attention in the media. But there I was,
spring 2001, minding my own business, when the phone rings, and it’s the White House. They
said, “We’d like you to join a commission to study the health of the aerospace industry.” I said,
Space Exploration: The Power of the Vision ~ 3
“Are you sure you’ve got the right guy? I don’t know how to fly airplanes.” But someone there
had read my writings. And, when I read up on on the subject, I learned that the aerospace
industry had lost half a million jobs in the last 14 years. Something bad was going on. And so I
agreed to serve, but more out of duty than out of passion. Our first meeting would be the end
of September.
Then September 11 came. I live, then and now, four blocks from ground zero in lower
Manhattan. I was home that morning. The first plane hit. Then the second. Then the Towers
collapse in full view from my dining room window. I won’t recount all the details. But at that
point, any indifference I might have felt toward the aerospace commission had vanished. I was a
changed person. “Yes!” I shouted, “I’m ready for this aerospace commission. Yes! I’m mad as
hell!” Not only was the nation attacked, so too was my backyard.
This commission was loaded with strong, independent, powerful, and patriotic Americans, and
we were mightily concerned about the state of America’s aerospace industry and its vital
importance to our national defense, to our economy, and to our mobility in this pivotal moment
in history.
One of our research strategies as a commission

was to explore the world aerospace climate
because, clearly, what goes on in the world
influences what goes on at home in America.
First stop, China — before they put a man in

space. Like many Americans, I held the
stereotypic view of China as a place where
everybody is on bicycles in the big boulevards. Nope. We get to China, and everybody’s driving
Audis and Mercedes Benz and Volkswagens. Something’s changed. Then we toured the Great
Wall (driver: national security) and after looking far and wide and not seeing any evidence of
technology at all, I pulled out my cell phone, called my mother in Westchester, and she said,
“Oh, Neil, you’re home so soon?” That’s the best connection I’ve ever made with her with my
cell phone. Nobody in China is yelling into his or her cell phone “Can you hear me now? Can
you hear me now?” And when I got home, I peeked at the labels on things, only to learn that
half of the stuff in my house was made in China.
So when China said, “We’re going to put somebody in orbit,” I knew it was going to happen. We
all knew. China now says, “We’re going to put somebody on the moon,” and I have no doubts. If
they say they intend to put somebody on Mars, I will have no doubts about that, either.
Of course we went to Star City, Russia, and other places you’d expect. But the visit that really
made the hair rise on the back of my neck was in Brussels, with a group of European aerospace
leaders. They had just released the European Union’s multi-decade space vision, and they were
moving ahead on their Galileo satellite navigation system — which will compete directly with
America’s GPS (Global Positioning System). We became worried. What if they finish their
Galileo system, equip all their European airplanes with it, and then mandate that all airlines
America’s Vision: The Case For Space Exploration
must use this system to fly within European airspace? We have an ailing United States
aerospace industry. So, we’re trying to understand this, and they’re sitting at the table very
smug. That’s when I became livid. Why? It was all clear to me as never before. We were at that
table talking about aerospace products as though they were soybeans! What are the tariffs?
What are your restrictions? Will you do this if we do that? All I could think was: something’s
wrong here! Aerospace is the leading edge of America’s technological prowess. And if you’re on
the cutting edge of the frontier, you don’t sit at a table negotiating usage rights!
Our high-tech leadership is something we all took for

granted for most of the 20th century. Every airplane
that landed in your city was made in America. Every
airline in the world wanted to fly American aircraft.
Today, we only build half the new airplanes, and
substantial parts of those “U.S.” airplanes are built
overseas and shipped to the United States for assembly.
I started to get angry again. Not at the smug Europeans
sitting across from me. I got angry at us. I got angry at
America because we have stopped advancing. Keeping
your lead is not just something you do incrementally. You want innovation that leads not to
incremental but revolutionary advances. You want to be able to take a day trip to Tokyo — that’s
a 45-minute ride, if you do it right (you go suborbital, re-entering the atmosphere on the other
side of the planet.) How come we’re not doing that now? If we were, I wouldn’t have been
sitting at that table with the smug guys talking to me about their Galileo satellites — because
we would have already developed some other navigation system, and we just wouldn’t worry
about other countries, because we’d be too far ahead.
So I’m angry that aerospace, the crown jewel that gives us our technological edge, has become
a bargaining commodity.
And, of course, I’m an educator. When I stand in front of students, it is totally demoralizing if
I say, “Become an aerospace engineer so you can build an airplane that’s 20 percent more fuel
efficient than the one your parents flew.” Of course that has no hope of exciting them. But if
I say, “Become an aerospace engineer so you can design the first piloted craft in the rarefied
atmosphere of the planet Mars,” the effect is totally different. “Become a biologist and help us
look for life in the subsurface soils on Mars, or beneath the ice sheets on Europa, or elsewhere in
the solar system. Become a chemist because we need to understand better the chemistry of the
Saturnian astmosphere.”
When you put that vision out there, it makes my job as an educator easy.
With that kind of vision, all I have to do is point my students toward it,
flames of ambition get lit, and a new generation of innovators rises up.
We have such a Vision for Space Exploration before us. There has been some controversy about
how to implement it, but we all know it’s fundamentally a sound vision. Unfortunately, not
enough of our citizens know about or understand its details. Within the available resources, our
exploration of the local and distant universe will proceed at a stately pace, taking us back to the
Moon, on to Mars, and beyond over the next 30 years. With some reshaping of NASA, this plan
is entirely within reach.
But I have an idea. Let’s get serious about putting America clearly in the lead again.
Let’s double NASA’s budget.
What would that take? It would take another $16 billion per year, making NASA a $32 billion
per year enterprise capable of moving faster, farther, higher — inspiring the nation and driving
innovation as it did 40 years ago. It would take NASA’s budget from its current level of seven-
tenths of one percent of the federal budget to 1.4 percent — still far below the Apollo heyday
when NASA got four to five percent of the federal budget, but
enough to get the nation moving again.
Double NASA’s budget and what happens? The vision becomes We all know that emergent
markets in the 21st century
big, and it becomes alive, and everyone at all levels of schooling
are going to be
and adulthood can taste it. This will attract generations of scientifically and
students into science and engineering professions, leading to technologically driven.
spinoff inventions that will transform how we live.
True innovation requires a
bold vision supported by
We all know that emergent markets in the 21st century are going audacious investments in
to be scientifically and technologically driven. The sustenance of human capital.
our economy will require it. But if we no longer innovate, what ~ Neil deGrasse Tyson
happens? Everybody catches up, and our jobs go overseas. And
then we complain that “they’re paying them less over there; the
playing field is not level.” Well, it’s time to stop whining! It’s
time to reclaim the lead that we have all taken for granted these past 50 years.
True innovation requires a bold vision supported by audacious investments in human capital.
Some will ask, why we should rely on spinoff products and technologies when we could just
invest in the product itself. The problem is, innovation doesn’t always work that way. For
example, if you’re the world’s expert on thermodynamics, and I say, “Build me a better oven,”
you might invent a convection oven or one that’s more insulated or one that’s got better access to
its contents. But no matter how much money I give you, you will not invent a microwave oven,
because that comes from another place. It came from investments in communications, in radar.
The klystron in microwave ovens is traceable to the war effort, not to some oven expert.
And what about the Hubble telescope? When it was first launched, it had a bad mirror,
remember? We still took fuzzy data, awaiting the repair mission. Better than nothing. But what
were we going to do with the data? Then along came a computer science guy who wrote an
algorithm that maximizes the information we can extract from the fuzzy Hubble pictures.
We used it for years. But then, somebody else said, “Hey, this is a good algorithm. We could use
it for the early detection of breast cancer on mammograms.” So right now, lives are being saved,
simply because of the mistake in the Hubble mirror and the solution to try to minimize the
consequences. We cannot neglect this fundamental way that invention and discovery take place
every time we tackle the hard challenges laid before us by audacious visions.
Let me conclude with the following observation.
I claim that space is part of our culture. Many people within this industry complain that nobody
knows the names of the astronauts, nobody gets excited by a space shuttle mission or by what’s
going on at the International Space Station — and so there’s this lament that nobody cares
anymore. I don’t believe it for a minute. You know why? Because I have glow-in-the dark
cosmic BAND-AIDS®. I have Hubble telescope refrigerator magnets. I have a can of Dole®
pineapple slices that are prepared and sold as shapes of comets, moons, and stars. Four of the
top ten grossing motion pictures of all time are about space. And when the announcement came
that the Hubble might not be fixed, the loudest voices were not
from NASA or the astrophysics community but from the public.
The public took ownership of the Hubble telescope. When was
the last time you heard of the public rallying behind a scientific
instrument? That has never happened before. Ever.
America’s culture? Well, consider this. If you go to a grocery store

in Italy, one of the aisles will be completely lined with pasta. You
can’t help but notice it; they’ve got pasta we’ve never even seen
over here. Do you think Italians notice that they have an entire
aisle of pasta? Of course not. Go to the Far East. There’s the rice
aisle. We’ve never seen so many kinds of rice. Then go to an
American supermarket. Nobody else in the world has an entire aisle of soda. But to us it’s just
the “soda aisle.” Or look at the ready-to-eat breakfast cereal aisle. No other country has it. But
we don’t notice it. The fact that you don’t notice it means it’s a fully integrated part of your own
culture.
Columbia gets launched. Nobody notices. Nobody can recite the names of the astronauts.
Columbia breaks up on reentry, and the nation comes to a screeching halt. The nation mourns.
The nation reaffirms its commitment to space exploration. This is not the behavior of a country
that does not care. It’s simply the behavior of a country that doesn’t take special notice when it’s
there, but sure as hell takes notice when it’s not there. That’s the definition of culture.
Americans care deeply about space and not just in times of tragedy. This can be demonstrated in
many ways, but allow me to share with you a brief story. I took a short taxi ride recently with a
driver who was probably in his early twenties. He was one of those talkie drivers. In the five
minutes I was in the cab, I learned that he’s married and has a kid. And as we’re chatting away,
he stops and says, “Wait a minute, I think I recognize your voice. Are you an expert on the
galaxy?” So I said, “Uh, yeah, I suppose.” And he said, “Wow, I saw this program, and you
were on it. It was the best, it was....” Blah, blah.
But here’s what’s interesting. The driver was not

interested in me as any kind of celebrity, that’s a
different kind of encounter. That’s “where do you live,
and what’s your favorite color?” No. He started asking
questions: “Tell me more about black holes. Tell me
more about the galaxy. Tell me more about the search
for life.“ We get to my destination, I’m ready to hand
him the money, and he won’t take it! This guy’s got a
kid. I mean, he’s twenty-something years old with a kid
at home, driving a taxi. I’m trying to pay him for the
I recently received the following note via
e-mail. “There are lots of things I have to
ride, and he won’t take the money. That’s how excited
do to become an astronaut. But first I have he is that he could learn about the universe.
to go to kindergarten.”
It was sent to me via the mother of a child
who is fanatical about space. If we double NASA’s budget, whole legions of students
will fill the pipeline. Even if they don’t become
aerospace engineers, we will have a new
generation of scientifically literate people coming
up through the ranks. People who will invent Going to Saturn on a Chapstick® budget
Americans expect great things out of their space program because the cultural
things that become the foundation of tomorrow’s connection runs deep. How deep does this go? It goes deep.
I was on the Today Show, July 1, 2005. The Cassini spacecraft had pulled into orbit
economy.
around Saturn. There was nothing particularly scientific about it; it just pulled into
orbit. But the Today Show figured that was newsworthy enough to put, not in their
second hour with the recipes and shopping hints, but in the first 20 minutes of the first
On the other side of this path, suppose the next hour, among all the lead news stories.
terrorist attack invokes biological warfare. Who So they call me in to the studio, and first they talk to the Cassini mission team — you
know, the engineers — and they’re jumping up and down and celebrating. Then they
are you going to call? You want the best biologists turn the cameras on me, offer congratulations, and ask what it all will mean. I replied
in the world. Well, we’re going to have them that we’re going to study Saturn, and execute large and targeted loops to study several
of Saturn’s many moons. But then Matt Lauer wanted to be hard-hitting, and he said
because they’re working on the biology of life on something like, “But Dr. Tyson, this is a $3.2 billion mission. Given all the problems we
have in the world today, how can you justify that expenditure?”
Mars or Europa. We will have attracted that So I replied: “Pause. First of all, it’s $3.2 billion divided by 12. It’s a 12-year mission.
person because the space vision had been in place. So now we’ve got the real number, which is what? Less than $300 million per year.”
Then I said, “Three hundred million dollars. Americans spend more than that each year
Or maybe it’s chemical warfare. We will want the on lip balm.”
best chemists in the world. Because of the vision, When I uttered those words, the cameras shook and the lights flickered, and Matt
had no reply. He practically stuttered and said, “Uh, over to you, Katie.” And I realized
we know we’ll have them. And they will not have in that instant that people just don’t understand how inexpensive this space exploration
left the path to become lawyers and investment really is, when you place it within the context of what we, as a nation, spend money on.
So I walked off the Today Show set and headed out to the street. On the Today Show,
bankers, as what happened in the ‘80s and ‘90s. as you may know, bystanders gather in front of the studio, and watch through the glass.
I did not know that they pipe the audio signal to them as well. So on my way out of the
And once this kind of intellectual capability takes studio, from all the people hanging around outside the door, up came this spontaneous
its place in society, a $32 billion per year budget for applause. And everyone held up their Chapstick® and said, “We want to go to Saturn!”
So I said, “Yes!” And deep down, I thought to myself that I should start the
NASA looks pretty cheap. It becomes an Chapstick® movement for space exploration.
investment in tomorrow’s economy and an
investment in our national security. You start
counting not just how many missiles are on alert, but how many scientists and engineers are
there, too. This, by the way, makes the Vision for Space Exploration one of the most rare of great
works — it fulfills not just one but two of the forces that drive nations to do great things: the
national security driver and the economic driver.
I think we should marshal all of our resources to support this vision — to embrace it, and to
cherish it, and to be champions for it. Our most precious asset is our enthusiasm for what we
can do as a nation.
8 ~ The Vision for Space Exploration
The Vision for Space Exploration
Jim Banke, Vice President, Florida Operations, Space Foundation
Editor’s Note: The centerpiece of the nation’s 21st century civilian space policy is the Vision for Space
Exploration. • The vision directs NASA to finish its current space shuttle and International Space
Station programs, return humans to the Moon and later send them on to Mars and beyond. This will be
done on a step-by-step basis, spending only what is available each year. • Put another way: This isn’t your
father’s space program anymore. It’s better, it makes sense and, at less than one percent of the federal
budget, it’s affordable. • In the following, veteran aerospace writer Jim Banke, now with the Space
Foundation at Cape Canaveral, explains the basic plan that is the Vision for Space Exploration.
The Vision for Space Exploration is a common sense plan for the nation’s civilian
space program that will allow human and robotic explorers to maintain a presence in
The vision is a stepping stone
low Earth orbit, return to the Moon, and continue on to Mars and points beyond.
approach that is affordable
and can be sustained through
the years without significant
Engaging the vision will ensure the United States remains a world superpower, provide
additions to its budget or by
sacrificing programs in science the necessary resources to maintain our national security, and result in a significant
and aeronautics.
economic return on our investment.
All of this will be accomplished by using a stepping stone approach that is affordable
The vision is open ended and and can be sustained through the years to come by spending no more money than the
speaks to establishing a new nation otherwise would have spent on its space endeavors.
transportation infrastructure
that allows humans to
continue moving out into the Space Policy Shift
solar system and the stars.
The vision marks a significant shift in the way the nation previously approached
spaceflight, particularly the early Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs of the 1960s.
Instead of a large-scale, crash program to realize a specific goal by a set deadline with almost no
limit on the cost — which is what the original Moon race
was — the vision calls for living within its means and taking
the time needed to do it right and safely.
While goals will be stated and schedules determined, if

there are technical problems or budget challenges in a
particular year then the program will be stretched out. Of
course, additional funding, if made available, would help to
accelerate the program.
Another facet of the vision that separates it from programs

such as Apollo is that it doesn’t end at the next destination, such as the Moon or Mars, but will
continue to push beyond.
The vision is open ended and speaks more to establishing a new transportation infrastructure
that allows humans to continue moving out into the solar system and, one day, the stars.
The Vision for Space Exploration ~ 9
What we do along the way in terms of science, engineering, national security, education, or
commerce can be determined later, because we can’t explore new horizons if we can’t get there
in the first place.
First Stop: Low Earth Orbit

The first major step in the vision took place on July 26, 2005, when Space Shuttle Discovery
lifted off from the Kennedy Space Center on the first return to flight mission following the 2003
Columbia disaster.
NASA is to continue flying as many shuttle missions as it safely can until Sept. 30, 2010, when
the fleet of winged spaceships will be permanently grounded and retired.
All but one of those missions will be dedicated to completing assembly of the
International Space Station and meeting United States obligations to its
international partners. The exact configuration of the station will depend on
the number of shuttle missions flown.
A final shuttle mission to service the Hubble Space Telescope also remains
under consideration.
Assembly missions to the station will be complemented by Russian Soyuz

and Progress launches of humans and cargo, respectively. A new European
cargo carrier launched on an Ariane 5 rocket will soon be available as well.
Aboard the station, crew members will live and work as normal but concentrating on learning
how to operate and survive in space for long periods of time – skills that will be needed when
establishing bases on the Moon or traveling to Mars.
Also, NASA will consider procuring cargo and crew delivery services from the commercial
space sector as soon as a private company can demonstrate they have the ability to do so safely.
A New Spaceship
In the meantime, work is pressing ahead with the design and development of the new
spacecraft and rockets that will replace the space shuttle after 2010.
The centerpiece of the new transportation system will be the Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV)
in which astronauts fly to and from low Earth orbit. An unmanned cargo-only version will be
built as well.
The CEV will be the same shape as the Apollo command module, only three times bigger.
It will descend to Earth relying on a trio of parachutes, and be capable of landing on the water
or the ground.
Each copy of the CEV is designed for reuse at least 10 times.

10 ~ The Vision for Space Exploration
When in space, the CEV will have an attached cylindrical service module that will sport a pair
of electricity-generating solar arrays and a propulsion system powered by liquid oxygen and
liquid methane.
Crew safety and survivability is a major feature of the CEV. In addition to the capsule’s having a
heat shield, when the spacecraft is atop its launch vehicle an attached escape tower can safely
pull the CEV away from an exploding rocket.
By attaching other modules to the CEV, the reconfigurable spacecraft will be able to carry
astronauts back to the Moon for the first time since 1972, and eventually serve as the backbone
of a Mars-bound spacecraft.
There is a strong desire to minimize the time between the final shuttle mission in 2010 and the
operational availability of the CEV. First flight of a crewed CEV could come as early as 2012,
with a lunar landing targeted for 2018.
Shuttle-derived Spaceflights
Two new rockets are on NASA’s drawing boards to support the CEV and the Vision for Space
Exploration. Both will rely heavily on the use of the solid rocket booster, space shuttle main
Heavy Lift Vehicle (left) and
Crew Launch Vehicle (right) engine and external tank hardware designed for the space shuttle.
Using shuttle-derived hardware is expected to save money and make it possible to fly sooner
than waiting for a new rocket or launch pad to be built. Existing factories, workforce, and
launch facilities can still be used.
The Crew Exploration Vehicle Targeted first to fly is the Crew Launch Vehicle (CLV). Its primary job will be to launch CEVs
atop the CLV Launcher, from
Kennedy Space Center carrying crew or cargo into Earth orbit, and it will be a two-stage rocket with a CEV and
attached escape tower on top.
Called the “single stick” in some circles, the CLV first stage will be a
single solid rocket booster made up of four segments like the booster
currently used on the shuttle. A five-segment booster may be used to
increase the lifting capability from 25 metric tons to 32 metric tons.
The CEV second stage will be powered by a single space shuttle main
engine, which burns liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen.
Initial test launches from Florida could begin as early as 2008. That
would be in plenty of time to support deployment of the CEV, as soon
as possible after the shuttle is retired in 2010, perhaps in the 2012
timeframe.
Heavy Lifter
When the time comes to return to the Moon, a heavy-lift rocket will be
required to loft into orbit the hardware needed to make the trip,
The Vision for Space Exploration ~ 11
including an Earth Departure Stage that will send a CEV beyond

Earth orbit.
The massive rocket, capable of lifting between 106 and 125 metric tons to
to Earth orbit, will look something like a cross between a space shuttle
and Apollo Saturn 5 rocket. Five shuttle main engines that are attached to
to the base of an external tank will power the first stage. Bolted to the
external tank will be a pair of five-segment solid rocket boosters. An
upper stage powered by J-2S engines originally used during Project CEV arrives at the
International Space Station
Apollo will help complete the design and provide the boost needed to send a CEV or other
cargo out of Earth orbit on its way to the Moon, and one day, Mars.
We expect that NASA will give this new rocket a more mythological name, but for now it is
known by various acronyms, including HLLV for Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle, or SDLV for
Shuttle Derived Launch Vehicle.
Other hardware, such as a new lunar module, need to be developed as part of the vision. And as
new technology is invented and perfected,
the rockets and spacecraft used for the vision
will be modified.
Silver Lining
Announced by President George W. Bush on
Jan. 14, 2004, the Vision for Space
Exploration is a silver lining in the cloud that
was the 2003 Shuttle Columbia disaster.
CEV returns to Earth
In addition to the technical failure that

doomed the vehicle and its seven-member crew, investigators found that management was at
fault, in part because the agency did not have a long-term goal for its spaceflight programs.
Senior White House and NASA officials reacted to the Columbia Accident Investigation Board’s
recommendation for a long-term goal and created the Vision for Space Exploration as the
missing direction for NASA and the entire aerospace industry.
CEV about to touchdown
Since the announcement, critical support for the nation’s vision has
continued to build. In Congress, lawmakers have twice passed
appropriations bills providing full funding for the vision. Public
support for the vision is growing, according to recent Gallup Polls.
No longer is the Vision for Space Exploration the President’s goal alone.
It has become the nation’s goal.
12 ~ The Global Space Economy
The Global Space Economy
By the Space Foundation
Editor’s Note: When President Kennedy challenged America to land on the Moon before 1970, no one
said, “If we do this, then in 40 years consumers will be able to purchase laptop computers, satellite radio
receivers, and hand-held GPS devices from a neighborhood store.” • But that’s what happened. Solving the
problems inherent in sending astronauts and satellites into space resulted in new products and capabilities
that have transformed our culture and spawned a major segment of the global economy worth trillions of
dollars. • So is it reasonable to expect that investing billions more in the Vision for Space Exploration will
yield future economic benefits presently impossible to predict? • In the following, we look at the impact of
the space program on the global economy and learn just how pervasive the influence of space is.
Space exploration has advanced telecommunications, medical technology, weather

As a direct result of the forecasting, navigation, television, radio, computing, and many other industries. The
innovations, inventions, and
nation’s commitment to space exploration has engaged us in a unique type of problem-
discoveries that have enabled
us to explore space, our daily solving. As a direct result of the innovations, inventions, and discoveries that have
lives on Earth have changed
enabled us to explore space, our daily lives on Earth have changed profoundly.
profoundly.
Space exploration requires experts in many different areas to work together to develop
entirely new capabilities that operate reliably in a remote and hostile environment. Few
Many of the capabilities and
other endeavors combine this interdisciplinary focus with the need to achieve not simply
technologies we have
developed through space concepts or demonstrations, but also functional end-state results. No other endeavor
exploration probably would
addresses the same challenges as space exploration. Many of the capabilities and
not have been developed in
its absence, even with the technologies we have developed through space exploration probably would not have
same level of investment.
been developed in its absence, even with the same level of investment.
Goods and services enabled through the use and exploration of space permeate our
The quality-of-life benefits economy. Massive industries, with annual revenues of hundreds of billions to trillions of
yielded by space goods and
dollars, rely on space systems to provide key capabilities. From television to cell phones,
services are sweeping and
significant, with tremendous from maps to weather forecasts, fundamental aspects of American life rely on an
value in time saved, injuries
infrastructure of in-space systems in place today. Ma ny others — personal computers,
and casualties avoided,
education enabled, and compact discs, and cordless tools, among countless examples — derive in part from past
efficiencies realized.
investments in space technology.
Moreover, the impact of investment in space exploration extends far beyond the United
States and the small number of other space-faring nations. Space capabilities shape life around
the world.
Space Infrastructure
The global space economy is built on a space infrastructure consisting of manufacturers, service
providers, and technologists in industry and government who deploy and operate launch
vehicles, satellites, and space platforms such as the International Space Station. The cost of this
space infrastructure is borne by commercial firms that sell satellite services; governments in
many countries that use satellites to provide long-distance telephone, television, and Internet to
their citizens; and the national space agencies (mainly those of the United States, Europe, Russia,
Ukraine, China, Japan, and a few others). The cost of space infrastructure — launchers, in-space
The Global Space Economy ~ 13
systems and supporting ground operations, human activity in space, and the knowledge and
technology base that supports the infrastructure — is about $60 billion each year. That includes
every cent of NASA’s budget, the budgets of all other international space agencies, the cost of
military space activities, and nearly $13 billion of commercial expenditure on manufacturing
and deploying commercial satellites and launchers. How much do we
spend on NASA?
This investment enables not only space exploration, with its extraordinarily rich legacy of $16.2 billion in 2005,
or 2/3 of 1% of the
science, inspiration, and human achievement, but also economic activity many times larger. Our federal budget
spending on space delivers vast and growing improvements in quality of life, safety, security, The 2005 U.S. federal
budget was about $2.4
health, and education in the United States and around the world. trillion, of which NASA’s
portion was 0.68%.
Goods and Services that Use the Space Infrastructure About 15¢ per day,
per person in the
Goods and services relying on space infrastructure generate hundreds of billions of dollars in United States
This reflects NASA’s
direct revenue, and in doing so enable important industries that are much larger. In fact, a budget divided by the
U.S. population of about
defining feature of many space-related goods and services is that their cost is tiny compared to 300 million.
the convenience, efficiency, information, and other benefits they yield.
Less than the
revenues of any
For example, most people would list direct-to-home television and satellite radio as space- Fortune 100 company
#1-ranked Wal-Mart
related industries, and indeed, these services generate more than $50 billion in revenue each has annual revenues
of $288 billion.
year, and provide access to television and radio to many new subscribers. Much more NASA’s budget is about
the same as revenues
sweeping, however, is the use of space by broadcast and cable television. Broadcast and cable from The Gap,
#130 on Fortune 500,
television providers rely on satellites to distribute nearly all content to cable head ends and with $16.2 billion
broadcast affiliates and to transmit new feeds from location to studio. in 2005.
About the amount

Satellites also enable truly global Internet service. Satellites are not the primary mode of Internet spent to advertise
cigarettes in the
communications, but they extend Internet content and access in ways that current terrestrial United States
In 1962 President John F.
networks simply cannot accommodate. Satellites provide intercontinental capacity to augment Kennedy commented
that the NASA budget
fiber optic cable networks that underserve certain pathways, such as those between South was “less than we pay
for cigarettes and cigars
America and Asia, or along many parts of the African coastline. Satellite connections have also every year.” Today,
allowed many Internet users to receive broadband service without waiting the years that it is tobacco companies
spend nearly the amount
taking in some areas to build high-speed landline connections. of NASA’s budget
($15 billion in 2003) on
U.S. advertising and
promotions alone.
Long-distance telephone service via satellite was the earliest widespread space application
and delivered instant telephone access between United States and many other countries. More than we spend
on space exploration
Today, nearly all long-distance calls leaving the United States travel on fiber optic cables, but NASA’s budget also
includes about $1 billion
many nations that are not connected to cable networks due to expense or geography still for aeronautics. $1.5
depend on satellites. billion for eath sciences,
and additional amounts
for other non-
exploration activities.
Leasing satellite capacity for television, telephone, and Internet backbone around the world
generates about $10 billion each year directly to satellite owners and operators. However, the
true economic power of these applications of satellites is in the worldwide access to
communication services, education, news, information, and entertainment provided to billions
of people. In fact, they exemplify what is perhaps the most powerful statement to be made
about space exploration and the global economy — that the concept of a global economy is
difficult to imagine in the absence of global communications, and global communications exist
because of space capabilities.
Satellite navigation is another excellent example of the disproportionate benefits delivered

by space goods and services. This global industry exists solely due to a service provided
free to the world by the United States through the Global Positioning System (GPS)
constellation of satellites. GPS satellite signals allow users on land, on the sea, and in the air
with inexpensive GPS devices to determine their position and, aided by computer maps
(most of which were developed in part using other satellite capabilities such as remote
sensing), plot a course to their destination. GPS navigation has been so successful and
valuable that that the European Space Agency is investing billions of dollars to develop its
own GPS satellite constellation, Gallileo. GPS signals also provide precision timing for
financial and cell phone networks.
Examples of Goods and Services Using Space Infrastructure

Direct Revenues Benefits and Related
Example Use of Space Infrastructure (2005) Revenues
Broadcast of television content directly from satellite to consumer,
Direct-to-home providing access to television in rural locations and a choice of $50 billion
television and television providers to many consumers. Satellite radio delivers high- subscriber fees
satellite radio quality, large number of channels, available anywhere radio service; and advertising $200 billion global
also, new emergency broadcast system function television and
radio industry
Broadcast and Content distribution to cable head ends and broadcast affiliates; news
cable television gathering; and communications infrastructure
$10 billion leasing
Long-distance of satellite $75 billion international
telephone service Communication backbone where terrestrial or undersea cables are transponders long distance market
not available, typically less-developed, remote, or difficult-to-access
Internet areas, or in areas where the Internet has created new traffic patterns
infrastructure
$1,000 billion (trillion
Last mile connections to the Internet, mainly using very small aperture $3 billion broadband dollar) global Internet
terminals (VSATs). Provides quick set-up, reliable, consistent capability service (including economy, including
for broadband connections to the internet used by consumers and $2 billion global VSAT $150 billion in rapidly
Broadband growing global
Internet businesses of all sizes and types (purposes include credit card network revenues
transactions, inventory data, digital signage in stores, Internet from business e-commerce
broadband connections to Internet cafes, many others) network users)
Global mobile Global telephone connectivity directly to and from low Earth orbit Emergency disaster
telephone service satellite systems Iridium and Globalstar $2 billion subscriber communications. Global
revenues from communication from
satellite mobile remote areas
Asset tracking using low Earth orbit satellites in combination with telephone and data
Asset tracking GPS providing information on the location of, for example, fleets, services
RFID-tagged packages, and physical inventory $20 billion geospatial
technologies industry.
$18 billion total GPS and remote
GPS navigation, GPS satellite signal used by GPS chipset in automobiles, marine revenues from sensing data also result
positioning, and navigation, aviation equipment, asset tracking systems, mapping tools, equipment and in time saved,
timing and cell phones related service improved safety,
reduced costs, greater
Remote sensing imagery (satellite images of Earth) helps monitor accuracy for Weather
$<1 billion sale of forecasts alone save
weather, create maps, track environmental impacts such as coastline commercial imagery
Remote sensing erosion and pollution. Wide range of industries and applications — many lives and
remote sensing hundreds of billions of
about one third of businesses in the economy are affected by remote satellites
sensing data dollars each year
Consumers increasingly rely on products and services such as On-Star, the General Motors
GPS system that provides drivers with directions via the cell phone network and DVD
navigation systems that integrate maps with automated voice directions. Industrial
applications include trucking, aviation, and maritime services. Manufacture of GPS
navigation units and direct purchase of associated value-added products and services
generates about $18 billion in revenue, with high annual growth. These dollar values do not, of
course, reflect the time saved, improved safety, and reduced costs that users of these systems
Stereotactic Breast
have realized. Biopsy Can Eliminate
Need for Surgery
Hubble Telescope
There are many other examples. Almost $2 billion is paid each year for satellite images and imaging technology
with the ability to see
basic processing, but analysis and use of the information they generate is a fundamental part of faint objects, such as
distant galaxies, is
many massive industries. Satellite imaging is increasingly familiar to all of us, as we see satellite applied to imaging of
suspicious tissue,
pictures of the Earth used for mapping, surveying, crop monitoring, assessing environmental delivering high
resolution to see fine
health, evaluating traffic and land use impacts, military reconnaissance, and many other details, wide dynamic
range and low light
applications. As population has risen, demands on farmers, land developers, and transportation sensitivity to shorten
exposure time and
infrastructure to obtain the best possible use of property have risen, and the value of these eliminate the need for
invasive techniques
geographic information programs and services is multiplied to the extent that they meet such as biopsies.
these needs.
Argonide Corporation
Thousands of gas stations use inexpensive small satellite dishes (very small aperture terminals,
or VSATS) to connect to dedicated communication networks that let them nearly instantly
process credit cards at their outdoor pumps. Just about every adult in the United States has
relished the convenience of these speedy transactions. Internet cafes in Europe connect to the
NanoCeram
Internet, chains receive data for “digital signage” in individual stores, and remote island regions Superfilters Deliver
Super-Clean Water
establish telephone service using VSATS. Thanks to cooperative
efforts with NASA to
develop advanced
water recovery
In summary, the quality-of-life benefits yielded by space goods and services are sweeping and systems for long-
duration space flights,
significant, with tremendous value in time saved, injuries and casualties avoided, education NanoCeram® filters far
exceed current
enabled, and efficiencies realized. The table on page 14 summarizes goods and services of the filtration systems to
space economy by quantifying the revenue they generate directly and that of the industries they satisfy the most
difficult water
enable or are related to, and describes just a few of the larger impacts they have on our economy treatment
requirements.
and our lives. NanoCeram’s filter
system is composed
of tiny tubes (with a
radius of just one
Space Technologies Transforming Daily Life nanometer) that can
filter 99.9999 percent
Perhaps even more valuable than the goods and services that use space infrastructure are those of bacteria, viruses,
and protozoa.
that use technologies developed as part of space exploration. The impacts of these technologies
are so ubiquitous that it is difficult to imagine life without them.
Just a few award-winning examples are illustrated here. However, even a complete list of
specific spinoffs would understate the impact of work conducted by NASA and the companies,
universities, and laboratories it has funded. Space exploration technology has had a profound
impact on the full range of industries that define modern life, including computing, Humanitarian
De-Mining Device
telecommunications, medicine, aviation, and many others. Saves Lives
With guidance from
the U.S. Navy, NASA
contractor ATK
For example, computing and digital data storage media such as compact discs rely on error Thiokol developed a
low-cost, easy-to-use
correction code technologies pioneered by NASA to compensate for “noisy” signals from low device to render land
mines inoperable by
power transmitters used to save weight and space in early launches. burning the explosive
they contain in the
open atmosphere
using space shuttle
propellant.
Rear Admiral Harley D. Nygren,

NOAA Corps. (Ret.)
Television and telephone signals are compressed so massive amounts of information can be
carried using limited bandwidth and small devices, drawing on decades of research on
wireless communications in space. Surgeons and doctors rely on imaging technologies such as
magnetic resonance imaging, precision miniaturized surgical instruments, laser devices, and
Anti Corrosion advanced materials that have their origins with astronauts and space hardware. Flight
Coating Protects the simulation systems, advanced avionics, automated instrumentation, and other features of
Statue of Liberty
NASA Goddard Space commercial airliners derive from NASA aeronautics and aerospace research.
Flight Center
developed a coating
that provides long-
lasting protection from The pathways taken by these capabilities often meander in and out of NASA’s programs, as
corrosion for use on
launch structures at technologies are transferred from NASA field centers and contractors to operational space
Kennedy Space
Center. The programs. They are reused, adapted, and enhanced by other organizations in industry, the
commercial variant of
this nontoxic, water- military, or academia, and then sometimes reinserted in NASA’s technology stream or perhaps
based coating has combined with commercial research and development projects. While these complex
been used to coat
bridge girders, interactions make it more difficult to map the precise pedigree of space-derived products or to
pipelines, oil rigs,
military tanks, dock compile a complete listing, the interplay among disciplines, organizations, and users makes the
equipment, buoys,
municipal water legacy of space exploration technology richer.
facilities, power
stations, antennas,
tractor-trailer frames,
and marine products, What the Future Holds
and including the
interior of the Statue We can state with certainty that the unique problems and powerful problem-solving
of Liberty during its
refurbishment. environment of space exploration will continue to enrich our economy and our lives. While we
can make some guesses about what new capabilities, goods and services will result
Applied Physics Laboratory
Johns Hopkins University
(environmentally useful water and agriculture techniques, new sources of power for tiny
mobile devices, ultra-high precision products manufactured in space, or even public space
travel on short suborbital flights), we can state with equal certainty that we don’t know for sure.
The process of space exploration is that of conquering the unknown, and its true economic
Programmable
Implantable value lies in the power of transformation inherent in that very uncertainty.
Medication Systems
(PIMS) — Delivers
Meds Automatically
Implanted PIMS
devices deliver
precisely-timed
medication to
diabetics and others.
The PIMS is a direct
spinoff of the Viking
space probe
laboratory that landed
on Mars.
Video Image
Stabilization and
Registration
NASA researchers
used their expertise
and equipment for
analyzing satellite
video to create a new
technology that
dramatically improves
crime scene videos.
Satellites generate 90% of the weather forecasting data used in the United States.
Geospatial Operational
Environmental Satellite
(GEOS) image of
Hurricane Katrina
before landfall.
Upgrades to the GEOS
will improve the detail of
imagery, increase
atmospheric sounding
capabilities (which helps
accuracy of forecasts), and
provide better relay
abilities so data and
images get to users faster.
Space based radar data

from the U.S./Japanese
Tropical Rainfall
Measurement Mission
(TRMM),
as with this Hurricane
Katrina image, are helping
to solve questions of
hurricane intensity,
a critical issue for decisions
on evacuations.
18 ~ A Day Without Space
A Day Without Space
Elliot G. Pulham, President and Chief Executive Officer, Space Foundation
Editor’s Note: Technological advances and spinoffs resulting from America's space program have
transformed our lives and culture so totally that it is all but impossible to imagine life without them. •
But these innovations often are so totally integrated into our everyday existence that we frequently lose
sight of just where they came from — or that they are even there at all. • Consider the story
of the person who said weather satellites were a waste of money because all they had to do to
In today’s world, get the forecast was turn on the Weather Channel. • In the following, Space Foundation CEO
“A Day Without Space” Elliot Pulham highlights some of the many ways that space enhances the daily life of an
is simply unthinkable.
average American.
The benefits of America’s investment in space touch every aspect of life in the
Although every person’s life United States. Our standard of living — one of the highest in the world — would
and story is different, each of us
relies on space technology look nothing like it does without these strategic investments. However, the impact
numerous times every day. of these investments is all but invisible because they are so ingrained in our culture
that space is an inseparable part of the fabric of our daily lives.
With the tremendous demands upon the United States federal budget, our nation
Life in our world today would
look nothing at all like it does faces a daunting challenge in articulating the value of renewed investment in space
without the technologies that exploration. While predictions can be made, there are no guarantees.
have flowed from our
investment in the exploration
and development But if the past is prologue, even a cursory look at life in America today vividly
of space.
illustrates the significance of the returns on our investment in space.
In today’s world, “A Day Without Space” is simply unthinkable.

We are living off
the investments made a
generation ago. To better illustrate this point, consider a few hours of a typical day for “Amanda,”
a 34-year-old mother living in Anytown, U.S.A.
As her alarm sounds, Amanda awakes refreshed and ready to face her
busy day after sleeping snugly in a home insulated with radiant
barrier technology developed by NASA, with a central heating system
that keeps
the indoor
State of Hawaii; Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism;
Energy, Resources and Technology Division
atmosphere
clean with
filtration
technology
developed for the space shuttle. Amanda
also runs an EcoQuest™ air cleaner in her No
Insulation
Radiant
Barrier
home, which uses filtration and ultra- 83°
101° Room Feels 9° Cooler ceiling
violet sterilization technology developed ceiling With Radiant Barrier
for the International Space Station to help 84° 80°

air air
reduce exposure to harmful allergens.
A Day Without Space ~ 19
Amanda’s comfortable sleep was also enhanced by her mattress of viscoelastic foam developed
by NASA to cushion astronauts from G forces. Additionally, her bedding is made of
temperature-regulating fabrics originally developed to shield astronauts from extreme
temperatures in space, based on fabrics licensed by Outlast Technologies. Of course Amanda
and her son have also felt safe as they slept
because their home is equipped with smoke
Tempur-Pedic®
detectors that emerged from the Apollo
program and anti-intrusion alarm that employs
infrared sensors developed for Air Force satellite
programs.
As she gets out of bed, Amanda slips on her

glasses made of strong
and lightweight lenses
created for astronauts,
with optical coating treatments developed for space shuttle
windshields. Starting her day with coffee and a peek at the day’s news,
space continues to have an impact. Both the news in her newspaper
and the live reports on radio and television have been transmitted via
satellite — either directly to a home system like DIRECTV® or XM®
Satellite Radio, or indirectly in the form of satellite feeds to her local
newspaper or cable TV operator. Her weather information is gathered
through a network of civil and military weather satellites. It’s going to be a chilly day with light
rain, so Amanda dresses her son in comfortable school clothing made of fireproof fabrics and
athletic shoes that trace their origins to NASA
research and development.
Amanda and her son Todd then head to school

in the family car — a veritable treasure trove of
space-derived technologies. Anti-lock brakes
developed for jetliners and the space shuttle are
an important safety feature, as is the thermal
firewall between the passenger compartment
and engine. Protective airbags rely on tiny
sensor/triggers called accelerometers, originally developed for rockets and missiles. The anti-
glare windshield employs optical coatings developed for the space shuttle cockpit. Vehicle
aerodynamics and fuel efficiency have been designed into the car through the use of
computational fluid dynamics software developed for spacecraft wind-tunnel testing. The
impact resistant unibody automobile was welded by robots — the precision and function of
which were improved through aerospace research. Further, some of the advanced welding
technology they use was developed to meet the complex welding requirements for the
International Space Station.
20 ~ A Day Without Space
Amanda’s car also includes a United States Air Force Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite
navigation system, and OnStar satellite positioning and communication systems. And their in-
car entertainment is provided by a satellite radio with commercial free programming otherwise
unavailable in her local marketplace.
On the highway, Amanda enjoys improved traction in the

light rain thanks to highway safety grooving developed by
NASA to improve runway safety for commercial jetliners.
Without their even knowing, their journey takes Amanda and
Todd over a bridge built of anti-corrosive metals, also
developed by NASA. After dropping Todd at school,
Amanda rests secure in the knowledge that his teachers can
reach her in an instant by cellular phone if needed. Her
cellular phone runs on a network that depends upon GPS
satellites for precise timing signals that enable the entire
network to function. Her phone itself depends upon a
monolithic microwave
integrated circuit (MMIC) chip,
developed by Air Force
researchers for satellite
telecommunication systems.
On her way to work, Amanda then stops at a service station

where she uses her ATM card to pump gas. The service station’s
bank “talks” to Amanda’s bank — a transaction requiring both
terrestrial and cellular phone networks that, again, rely on GPS
satellites to assure the precise timing required for clear
Safety Grooving communication and accurate financial transactions. Information
NASA developed ways
to channel water on wet about the gasoline sale is beamed via satellite from a VSAT terminal on the service station roof
runways into grooves to
prevent space shuttle to the fuel distributor, who uses the information to track product distribution and plan
wheels from
uncontrollably slipping, deliveries in the most cost-effective manner possible.
or hydroplaning. The
same safety grooving
techniques have
dramatically reduced It’s only 8:30 a.m., and space technology has already touched Amanda 27 times.
accidents — by as much
as 85% — since their
widespread application Although every person’s life and story is different, each of us
to roadways.
relies upon space technology numerous times every day.
Carpenters rely upon cordless tools originally developed for
Apollo astronauts. Doctors rely upon medical imaging
devices, microscopic surgical instruments, remote medical
monitoring devices, defibrillators, oxygen monitors,
LADARVISION® lasik surgery tools and scores of other
medical instruments and technologies that have emerged
from the Apollo program. City planners use remote sensing
satellites, farmers use remote sensing satellites and GPS-controlled machinery.
A Day Without Space ~ 21
The list of space “spinoff” technologies is estimated to exceed 40,000. The industries these
technologies have created employ tens of millions of Americans, and generate hundreds of
billions of dollars in economic activity.
Life in our world today would look nothing
LADARVision®
at all like it does without the technologies
that have flowed from our investment in
the exploration and development of space.
But we are living off the investments made

a generation ago. Whether we leave our
children and grandchildren a better
America will depend upon the choices we
make today about renewing our
commitment to the exploration and
development of space. The home of the future, the car of the future,
the industries of the future, and our life in the future — all will be
shaped by the vigor or timidity with which we approach the
exploration of space.
The economy is global. Our competitors are on the move. It is once

again time to do what America has always done — look forward,
Medical and
dare greatly, and seize the future. America’s Vision for Space Exploration provides the Scientific Imaging
framework to do exactly that. Digital imaging was
developed in the mid-
1960s to explore the
lunar surface. The Jet
Propulsion Laboratory
pioneered digital
image processing to
enhance electron
microscope, X-ray, and
light microscope
images, enabling many
medical applications,
including CAT
scanning, diagnostic
radiography, brain and
cardiac angiography,
ultrasounds, surgery
monitoring, and
nuclear magnetic
resonance.
22 ~ Technology Trends in Space: Meeting the Challenges of Space and Exploration
Technology Trends in Space:

Meeting the Challenges of Space and Exploration
John Mankins, President, Artemis Innovation Management Solutions, LLC
Editor's Note: Extending the limits of human space travel and operating for long durations on the Moon,
Mars and beyond poses many challenges that will have to be overcome. As we saw with the
Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and subsequent programs, devising technologies to meet the
In case after historical case, space challenges encountered in those programs provided unanticipated benefits that have radically
programs have focused our
innovations and created a rich affected our lives and culture. • Pushing the limits of human space exploration will again
heritage of new capabilities and require a new level of technological innovation that will undoubtedly provide applications we
new technologies that have then
benefited the quality of life here can barely anticipate. • Noted space technology expert, John Mankins, in the article that follows,
on Earth. Solving the tough looks at some of the possibilities as we expand the frontiers of human capabilities and knowledge.
challenges today to enable an
affordable and ambitious space
program will leave a similar Many challenges must be solved to enable human
legacy of innovation and
benefits for the future. space exploration. The most important of these
challenges are providing air, water, and food, and
protecting astronauts from hazards like exposure to
dangerous natural radiation and deterioration of bones,
Laboratory advances during the
past decade suggest that an muscles, and organs caused by spending a long time in
entirely new paradigm may be at a low gravity environment.
hand—one in which groups of
modular robots self-assemble
into different shapes as required Solutions to these problems will require the development
by individual mission objectives.
of robust, portable, and self-sustaining life support
systems that can operate in a range of environments and
extremes of temperature. Not only will these solutions ensure safe, affordable, and
New materials, coatings and effective operations in space, they will be a platform for innovations that will benefit
lubricants will be needed for
long duration stays on surfaces
people and industries on earth.
characterized by dust, wide
temperature swings, and
vacuum or near vacuum. These
Ambitious missions to the Moon or Mars, and the in-space technologies required to get
emerging solutions may well there, will require robots of all types. These future robotic systems may independently
find use in a range of terrestrial
settings — anywhere from the
assemble, maintain, and service systems in space, as well as assist astronauts in difficult
dry cold of the Antarctic, to the operations, including scouting hazardous terrain on the Moon and Mars. Many future
heat and dust of the Sahara, to
the unique and difficult
robotic systems will not look like classical
environments in factories “robots”—anymore than an automated vacuum
worldwide.
cleaner does. Laboratory advances during the past
decade suggest that an entirely new paradigm may
be at hand—one in which groups of modular
robots self-assemble into different shapes as required by
individual mission objectives. These self-reconfigurable,
dexterous robotic manipulators may be originally designed
to acquire planetary samples but could easily find
manufacturing, medical, emergency response, and other
applications terrestrially.
New capabilities will be needed to work on and explore the

airless and remote planetary surfaces of the Moon and Mars.
Technology Trends in Space: Meeting the Challenges of Space and Exploration ~ 23
The deep dust on the Moon and Mars present challenges for both human and robotic missions.
On the Moon, the dust grains are small and jagged, and may pose a hazard to astronauts’ lungs
during long stays. On Mars, remarkably fine and chemically active dust may damage electrical
equipment and contaminate life support systems. New materials, coatings and lubricants will
be needed for long duration stays on surfaces characterized by dust, wide temperature swings,
and vacuum or near vacuum. These emerging solutions may well find use in a range of
terrestrial settings — anywhere from the dry cold of the Antarctic, to the heat and dust of the
Sahara, to the unique and difficult environments in factories worldwide.
Another difficult technical area is generating power for surface operations. Lunar and Martian
missions will typically encompass many activities, and will require reliable and long-lived
power supplies. These power sources will range from large-scale power plants, to novel, long-
lived rechargeable batteries and fuel cells, to miniaturized “power management on a chip.”
Power plants will service permanent structures and habitats. Portable, affordable energy will be
essential for landers, rovers, shelters, and science experiments. Miniature sources will power
hand-held electronic devices, life support systems, space suits, and robots. The unending
demand for smaller, better batteries for wireless consumer devices could be met in the future
with solutions developed for exploring Mars.
Government space exploration programs have enabled not only terrestrial

technologies and applications, but also have provided the foundation of
knowledge and technology for innovative private space flight efforts. During the
summer of 2004, when SpaceShipOne won the “X-Prize,” it achieved a milestone
in human spaceflight that was believed to be unthinkable less than a decade ago: a
fully private, non-government journey to the edge of space, 100 kilometers above
the Earth. SpaceShipOne demonstrated several novel capabilities. The body of the
ship was built entirely of composite materials (largely carbon fiber). The ship’s
engine was the first new human-rated rocket engine since the space shuttle main
engine in the 1970s, and the first ever human-rated “hybrid” engine (using both solid and liquid
fuels). One of the most innovative of its features was its use of “morphing vehicle systems.” This
ship, uniquely, could change shape into one of three configurations during the course of the
flight. It was thus able to fly in the low atmosphere, in the upper atmosphere, and in space.
Truly novel technologies are at hand to achieve transformational future space capabilities—and
the benefits of doing so. Exciting new discoveries are constantly emerging from university,
industry, and government laboratories in the United States and internationally. Hosts of
promising new directions in technology point toward where future space capabilities may
journey. However, no program can follow all possible paths, and whether for space or for more
mundane applications, it takes time and investment to translate today’s discovery into
tomorrow’s technology. In case after historical case, space programs have focused our
innovations and created a rich heritage of new capabilities and new technologies that have then
benefited the quality of life here on Earth. Solving the tough challenges today to enable an
affordable and ambitious space program will leave a similar legacy of innovation and benefits
for the future.
24 ~ Educating Tomorrow’s Workforce
Educating Tomorrow’s Workforce
Patricia Arnold, Ph.D., Vice President, Education and Workforce Development, Space Foundation
Editor’s Note: To realize the Vision for Space Exploration the United States will need the best scientists,
technicians, engineers, and mathematicians it can produce. • But there is trouble in our halls of higher
education. The number of United States students graduating with these advanced degrees is
shrinking each year, while nations like China and Japan are ahead of us by light years. • We've
The National Defense Education
Act of 1958 and associated been there before. Then Sputnik woke us up and you couldn't keep enough slide rules and pocket
research, helped motivate, protectors on the shelves of college bookstores. With proper motivation we quickly educated the
inspire and educate a generation
of scientists and engineers who workforce necessary to beat the Soviet Union to the Moon. • In the following, Space Foundation
took our nation to the Moon, educator Patricia Arnold explains how the Vision for Space Exploration can inspire and motivate
cementing a technological
leadership that became the envy a new generation — and thus benefit the nation's economy and security.
of the world and delivered an
unprecedented level of economic
dominance. As the United States moves toward implementing the Vision for Space Exploration,
we face serious barriers. We are losing the scientists and engineers who not only
propelled us to the Moon in the past, but who have also been the foundation of the
The United States has now fallen very way of life we enjoy today. We have two distinct issues that together create a
from third in the world to 15th fundamental threat to our national security — a security that is more than national
in producing scientists
and engineers. defense, but economic security as well. The first threat we face is that an entire
generation of scientists and engineers is retiring now, and the second threat is that we are
not replenishing them. Growing evidence attests to a looming crisis in the United States:
A recent survey reveals that a shortage of scientists, engineers and high-technology personnel. As a nation whose
more than 5,000 science and global leadership position is built, to a large extent, on a foundation of technological
engineering positions in defense-
related fields are unfilled. innovation, this impending shortage of scientists and engineers must be reversed.
Executing the Vision for Space Exploration can play a decisive role in addressing these
threats and reversing the erosion of our technological leadership.
Executing the Vision for Space
Exploration — exploring the Much of the leadership in technology and economics we enjoy today is built on equity
Moon, Mars and beyond — has
the unique capacity to inspire gained from the very successful National Defense Education Act of 1958 that
and motivate a new generation appropriated money for education in math and science. Spurred by Cold War concerns
to tackle the tough academic
subjects required not just to about Sputnik and the “Space Race,” this Act, and associated research, helped motivate,
achieve the vision, but to secure inspire and educate a generation of scientists and engineers who took our nation to the
our future as well.
moon, cementing a technological leadership that became the envy of the world and
delivered an unprecedented level of economic dominance.
As a country, we cannot wait for

the brain drain to occur and then For the last fifteen years, the number of American college students earning science,
react. The new vision can guide a technology, engineering, and math (STEM) degrees has continued to decrease. The
renewed interest and readiness
in science, technology, United States has fallen from third in the world to 15th in producing scientists and
engineering, and math for engineers; the problem is compounded because many of the graduating scientists and
America’s youth.
engineers are internationals who return to work in their home countries. According to
the 2002 report of the National Center for Education Statistics in 2000-2001, the United
States graduated 58,098 students with engineering degrees, from both public and private colleges
and universities. Annually, India graduates 80,000, Japan 200,000, and China 800,000 students
(Xinhua News Agency, Dec. 21, 2002). Indications include a decline in the number of native-born
science and engineering graduates entering the workforce, increasing global competition for
science and engineering talent. The number of newly declared computer science majors
Educating Tomorrow’s Workforce ~ 25
decreased 39 percent from fall 2000 to fall 2004 (Computing Research Association). From 1990 to
2004, the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded in engineering dropped by eight percent
(National Science Board).
Once again, we should be hearing the wake up call for lack of preparedness felt years ago
during the Space Age. Students have drifted away from pursuing scientific fields of study. A
recent survey reveals that more than 5,000 science and engineering positions in defense-related
fields are unfilled. Competition will grow even fiercer in coming years as the Department of
Defense (DoD) must compete with private industry for the limited number of qualified
candidates.
By 2010, it is projected the national demand for STEM employees will rise
by 10 percent. According to a 2004 National Science Board report, An
Emerging and Critical Problem of the Science and Engineering Labor Force,
“We could reach 2020 and find that the ability of U.S. research and
education institutions to regenerate has been damaged and that their
preeminence has been lost to other areas of the world.”
The huge number of DoD lab scientists and those in the civilian labor pool
nearing retirement age and not being replenished with new American
scientists could interfere gravely with our ability to ensure our
technological leadership and national security. This impending shortage presents the United
States with the challenge to recruit, retain, educate, and graduate new generations of scientists,
technicians, engineers, and mathematicians. The challenge is a daunting one. Prospective
students for these fields are not enrolling at four-year colleges and universities in the numbers Inspiring
elementary and
needed. It is imperative to implement both short and long range solutions. Short term, the
secondary
Department of Defense SMART Act, NASA Science and Technology Scholarship Program, and students to seek
internship and mentoring programs targeting the collegiate level are helpful for the immediate science,
technology,
future. engineering, and
math post-
However, inspiring elementary and secondary students to seek STEM post-secondary education secondary
education and
and careers is vital if the United States is to address the shortage. Unfortunately, underserved careers is vital if
pre-kindergarten through 12th grade students are particularly absent from these disciplines. the United States
Executing the Vision for Space Exploration — exploring the Moon, Mars and beyond — has the is to address the
shortage.
unique capacity to inspire and motivate a new generation to tackle the tough academic subjects
required not just to achieve the vision, but to secure our future as well.
To be ready to explore the Moon, Mars, and beyond requires the intellectual capacity to
achieve the extraordinary and expand the limits of human capabilities. America’s new space
exploration policy represents a journey over time and so are the educational challenges
associated with it. It must start with our youngest students and build through graduate
programs. The Vision for Space Exploration gives our country a new opportunity to improve
education and our competitive standing in the world. As a country, we cannot wait for the
brain drain to occur and then react. The new vision can guide a renewed interest and readiness
in STEM for America’s youth. If we act now to devise strategies to address future demands
proactively, we can still maintain our competitive edge.
26 ~ A Consistent Theme: Support for Space Exploration
A Consistent Theme: Support for Space Exploration
John M. Logsdon, Ph.D., Director, Space Policy Institute, Elliott School of International Affairs, George Washington University
Editor’s Note: Experts have gathered time and again to discuss what the future direction of the space
program should be. Although the details are sometimes different, each report has reached similar
conclusions. • Like the Vision for Space Exploration, these studies say that a robust human and robotic
space exploration program is unquestionably in the long-term best
interest of our nation. • In the following, George Washington University
space policy expert John Logsdon reviews the details of several studies
that provide the foundation for the vision.
In its August 2003 report, the Columbia Accident Investigation

Board noted that in the aftermath of the Apollo 11 landing on
the Moon in 1969, “President Richard Nixon rejected NASA’s
sweeping vision for a post-Apollo effort that involved full
development of low-Earth orbit, permanent outposts on the
Moon, and initial journeys to Mars.” With this rejection, the
result was a “lack, over the past three decades, of any
national mandate providing NASA a compelling
1986 Commission on Space: mission requiring human presence in space.” Absent such a mandate, NASA became
We must lead the exploration “an organization straining to do too much with too little.”
and development of the space
frontier, advancing science,
technology, and enterprise that On Jan. 14, 2004, President George W. Bush, reacting to what the Columbia Board
make accessible vast new characterized as “a failure of national leadership,” proposed to the American society a
resources and support human
settlements beyond Earth orbit, Vision for Space Exploration that was intended to reverse this 35 year “lack of a national
from the highlands of the Moon vision for space.” What he proposed echoed in large part the objectives that NASA first
to the plains of Mars.
proposed in 1969 and that, as noted by the Columbia Board, “have reappeared as
central elements” in the many proposals over the past two decades emerging from
blue-ribbon groups who have given careful attention to America’s future in space.
1986—National Commission on Space

The 1986 report of the National Commission on Space noted that the commission had been
charged by the Congress and appointed by the President “to formulate a bold agenda to carry
America’s civilian space enterprise into the 21st century.” The commission spent “the better part
of a year” in an intense nationwide effort to obtain input from experts and the general public,
taking into consideration America’s “heritage, its likely future goals, and its potential impact on
world history.” It recommended as “a pioneering mission for 21st century America”: “to lead
the exploration and development of the space
frontier, advancing science, technology, and
enterprise, and building institutions and systems that
make accessible vast new resources and support
human settlements beyond Earth orbit, from the
highlands of the Moon to the plains of Mars.”
A Consistent Theme: Support for Space Exploration ~ 27
In order to achieve this vision, the commission recommended a NASA budget substantially
increased from the levels of the 1975-1985 period, but less than half of the share of the United
States gross national product (GNP) spent on civilian space at the peak of the Apollo program.
With such a modest investment, it suggested, space exploration would remain an activity
characteristic of a “21st century America” that would be a “vigorous, expansive society, its
citizens inquisitive and adventurous, eager for new challenges in the forefront of humanity.”
1988—Committee on Space Policy, National Academies of Sciences and 1988 Commission on

Engineering Space Policy:
The recommendations of the national commission were submitted to President “Long-term, durable, and widely
Ronald Reagan shortly after the January 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. As accepted goals for the nation in
space are essential,” and had been
the country focused on recovery from that tragedy, there was little chance that they missing for the preceding two
would be adopted. In late 1988, the National Academies of Sciences and decades.
Engineering chartered a Committee on Space Policy in recognition that “long-term, Humanity’s aspiration to explore
other worlds, and perhaps
durable, and widely accepted goals for the nation in space are essential,” and had eventually to expand human
been missing for the preceding two decades. In its recommendations to President- presence and activity beyond Earth,
provides a vision that gives
elect George H. W. Bush, the committee noted that while “the appropriate long- meaning to current activities
term reason for putting humans into space remains an area of continuing involving humans in space.
controversy[. . .] it is difficult to deny that some men and women will eventually
live and work on other celestial bodies.” The committee recognized that “humanity’s aspiration
to explore other worlds, and perhaps eventually to expand human presence and activity
beyond the immediate vicinity of Earth, provides a vision that gives meaning to current
activities involving humans in space.” Given this, “the question becomes what role, if any, the
United States wishes to play in humanity’s quest to become a multi-planet species.”
This report was one of the influences that led President Bush on July 20, 1989 to propose what
came to be called the Space Exploration Initiative, which included a return to the Moon, “this
time to stay,” and then “a journey into tomorrow — a journey to another planet — a manned Moon-based
Inferometer Telescope
mission to Mars.” The president asked “Why the Moon? Why Mars? Because it is humanity’s
destiny to strive, to seek, to find. And because it is America’s destiny to lead.”
1990 Committee on the Future

1990 –Advisory Committee on the Future of the U.S. Space Program of the U.S. Space Program:
For a variety of reasons, the Congress and the American public in 1989 were not
Most Americans do support a viable
ready to commit to supporting such an expansive vision. For one thing, there was a space program for the nation —
perception that NASA was not ready to take on such a bold task. To assess NASA’s but no two individuals seem able to
agree upon what that space
problems, President Bush in 1990 appointed an Advisory Committee on the Future program should be.
of the U.S. Space Program, chaired by Norman Augustine, a widely-respected
aerospace industry executive.
While most of the committee’s deliberations and report were devoted to NASA’s shorter-term
problems, the group also had much to say about the broader context within which NASA was
operating. It deplored “the lack of a national consensus as to what the goals of the civil space
program are” and observed that “most Americans do support a viable space program for the
nation — but no two individuals seem able to agree upon what that space program should be.”
The committee recommended a balanced space effort, including what it characterized as
28 ~ A Consistent Theme: Support for Space Exploration
“Mission from Planet Earth,” human travel beyond Earth orbit. The committee observed that a
focus for NASA’s human spaceflight program was badly needed, “if it is not merely to drift
through the decade ahead.”
It suggested that this focus should be “the human exploration of Mars.” Such an endeavor, it
judged, “must be justified on the basis of intangibles — the desire to explore, to learn about
one’s surroundings, to challenge the unknown and to find what is to be found.” A program of
human exploration could be “tailored to respond to the availability of funding, rather
2002 Walker Commission: than adhering to a rigid schedule.” One reason for such a focus was that “any large
organization, such as NASA, generally works best when it has an overarching and
“The challenge we face on the
space frontier is to build from challenging objective to guide its long-term future.”
dreams and concepts to new
technologies and destinations, to
the political will to move forward. The committee based its recommendations on a budget that “will grow by
For nearly two decades, we have approximately 10 percent per year in real dollars” for the succeeding decade. Such
been satisfied to limit our dreams,
rely upon proven technologies budget growth, it suggested, would bring the NASA budget by 2000, as a share of the
and invest little in building public United States GNP, to approximately one-half of its Apollo-era level, and thereby
or political support for space
initiatives. But the potential to “enable a strong space program.” During the 1990s, however, the NASA budget
do great new things has never actually decreased in constant dollars as other parts of the federal budget increased
been clearer.”
(Figure 1); this reality led to NASA’s “straining to do too much with too little.”
In the decade following the December 1990 publication of the report of the Advisory Committee
on the Future of the United States Space Program, there were no major external reviews of the
civilian space effort as NASA focused its efforts on regular flights of the space shuttle and,
beginning in 1998, assembly of the International Space Station.
2002—Commission on the Future of the United States Aerospace Industry

Then, in 2000, Congress directed the White House to create a Commission on the Future of the
United States Aerospace Industry (Walker Commission), with one of its areas of emphasis being
the United States space program. The commission began work in the second half of 2001; its
report was issued in November 2002.
Figure 1. NASA Budget in the 1990s
1.50
Change from
Base Years 1993
1.40
• Non-Defense
1.30
• Total Discretionary 1.20

• Defense
• NASA 1.10
1.00
0.90
FY 1993 FY 1994 FY 1995 FY 1996 FY 1997 FY 1998 FY 1999 FY 2000 FY 2001 FY 2002
A Consistent Theme: Support for Space Exploration ~ 29
The commission observed that “nations aspiring to global leadership in the 21st century must be
space-faring. Freedom, mobility, quality of life and the ability to do the difficult things that
define leadership will be enhanced and discovered on the space frontier.” It lamented the fact
that “a sense of lethargy has infected the space industry and community” and noted that Japan,
China, Russia, India, and France, to name a few, see space as a strategic and economic frontier
that should be aggressively pursued.”
“So should we,” concluded the commission. “The challenge we face on the space
frontier is to build from dreams and concepts, to new technologies and destinations,
to the political will to move forward. For nearly two decades, we have been satisfied
to limit our dreams, rely upon proven technologies and invest little in building public
or political support for space initiatives. But the potential to do great new things has
never been clearer.”
The commission recommended that “the United States create a space imperative” which,
among other elements, would “accelerate the exploration of the near and the distant universe
with both human and robotic missions.” It characterized government funding for
long-term research and infrastructure as “insufficient and unfocused” and called
upon the federal government to “significantly increase its investment in basic
2004 Commission on
Implementation of the Vision:
aerospace research.”
The long-term, ambitious space
agenda advanced by the President
2004—President’s Commission on Implementation of United States Space will significantly help the United
Exploration Policy. States protect its technological
leadership, economic vitality, and
At the same time he announced his new Vision for Space Exploration in January security.
2004, President George W. Bush created the President’s Commission on
The American nation has an
Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy. This nine-member opportunity to ensure space
commission concluded in its June 2004 report that “the long-term, ambitious space leadership for decades to come,
and that leadership opportunity
agenda advanced by the President [. . .] will significantly help the United States can reap multiple benefits for this
protect its technological leadership, economic vitality, and security.” The country, if the political will and
consequent resources to seize it
commission unanimously endorsed the “ambitious yet thoroughly achievable goal can be sustained.
of space exploration.”
This brief review of two decades of recommendations on the future of the United States space
program shows remarkable consensus on one basic theme: that a strong and valuable U.S.
space effort must include a challenging long-range goal, and that among possible goals the
preferred one is human and robotic exploration beyond Earth orbit. In addition, most groups
who have examined the ongoing space effort have concluded that investing increased budget
resources is needed for that effort to succeed in providing maximum payoffs to the nation.
In its final report, The Columbia Accident Investigation Board noted that “the absence of a
strategic vision [for space] in itself has reflected a policy decision, since there have been many
opportunities for national leaders to agree on ambitious goals for space, and none have done
so.” That policy decision has now been reversed. The American nation has before it an
opportunity to ensure space leadership for decades to come, and that leadership opportunity
can reap multiple benefits for this country, if the political will and consequent resources to seize
it can be sustained.
30 ~ Public Strongly Endorses Space Exploration — Gallup Poll
Public Strongly Endorses Space Exploration — A Gallup Poll
Commissioned by the Space Foundation, on behalf of the Coalition for Space Exploration
Editor’s Note: Americans are enthusiastic about their space program. And they support it by
overwhelming majorities. Those who work in the space program know this in their hearts. • Proof comes
at obscure times, such as when a NASA manager from Florida visits relatives in Minnesota and someone
in the grocery store line asks about the shuttle mission patch on her jacket. • Proof also comes in the form
of scientific surveys, with questions carefully worded to avoid any appearance of bias, and conducted by
one of the most prestigious names in the polling business. • In the following, the results of a 2005 Gallup
Poll are presented and the support it uncovers is both profound and pervasive.
Americans continue to show strong support for

Extent of Support for 2004 Plan for Space Exploration NASA’s plans to explore, discover and
(n=1001) understand our universe by implementing the
nation’s Vision for Space Exploration.
• Support 51% That’s one of the conclusions of a new Gallup survey on

• Strongly support 26% public attitudes about our nation’s space program that
• Strongly oppose 6% was coordinated by the Space Foundation and
• Oppose 14% sponsored by the Coalition for Space Exploration.
• Neutral 2%
• Don't know/ Refused 1% More than three-fourths (77%) of the American public
say they support a new plan for space exploration that
would include a stepping-stone approach to return the
space shuttle to flight, complete assembly of the
International Space Station, build a replacement for the
shuttle, go back to the Moon, and then on to Mars and beyond.
With funding for such a program expected not to exceed one percent of the federal budget, 51%
of adults surveyed say they
support the program and 26%
Agreement with Statement:
strongly support it. Of note is
“America’s space program helps give America the
that a majority of both scientific and technological edge it needs to compete with
Republicans (84%) and other nations in the international marketplace.”
Democrats (77%) support such (n=1001)
an exploration plan.
• Strongly agree 32%
The results to this particular • Somewhat agree 48%
question are higher than • Strongly disagree 8%
measured by Gallup in 2004 • Somewhat disagree 10%
when the same question was • Neutral 1%
asked. In 2004, 68% of • Don't know/ Refused 1%
Americans supported or
strongly supported the
exploration plan.
Public Strongly Endorses Space Exploration — Gallup Poll ~ 31
When it comes to NASA’s budget, almost three-fourths (73%) of American adults surveyed
think NASA’s budget should remain at its present level (36%) or be increased (37%).
NASA’s current share of the total federal budget is seven-tenths of one percent, or about $58
per year for the average citizen. During the height of Project Apollo, NASA’s share of the
budget was about four percent.
Among The Gallup Survey’s Other Findings

Survey Methodology
• Seven in ten adults (71%) say they are somewhat interested (49%) or very interested (22%) in
The survey results are based
America’s space program. on a nationally representative
sample of 1001 telephone
• Of nine possible answers, interviews with a general
most (26%) said the most population sample of adult
men and women age 18 and
popular reason America Agreement with Statement: over residing in telephone
continues to explore space is “America’s space program benefits the nation's economy households. The Gallup
because it is human nature by inspiring students to pursue careers in technical fields.” Organization’s full-time
interviewing staff conducted
to do so. Almost one-fourth (n=1001) the survey during the period
of June 9–July 1, 2005.
(24%) said it is to conduct
The survey was commissioned
science experiments.
• Strongly agree 28% by the Space Foundation in an
• Eight in ten adults (80%) say

• Somewhat agree 48%
effort to understand better
the extent of support and
they somewhat agree (48%)
• Strongly disagree 8% public attitudes toward
or strongly agree (32%) that

• Somewhat disagree 14%
America’s space program.
America’s space program

• Neutral 1%
For results based on samples
of this size, one can say with
helps give America the
scientific and technological
• Don’t know/ Refused 1% 95% confidence that the error
attributable to sampling and
other random effects could be
edge it needs to compete plus or minus three
percentage points. In addition
with other nations in the
to sampling error, question
international marketplace. wording and practical
difficulties in conducting
• More than three-fourths (76%) of adults somewhat agree surveys can introduce error
(48%) or strongly agree (28%) that America’s space program benefits the nation’s economy by or bias in the findings of
opinion polls.
inspiring students to pursue careers in technical fields.
The complete Gallup survey

report and supporting data
is posted on the web at:
www.spacecoalition.com
Opinion Regarding the Funding of the Space Program

2005 %
At this current level 36
At a slightly increased level 25
At a significantly increased level 12
At a slightly decreased level 12
At a significantly decreased level 4
Not fund at all 8
Don’t know/Refused 3
Total 100
Number of Interviews (1001)
32 ~ American Strategic Leadership and Manned Spaceflight
American Strategic Leadership and Manned Spaceflight
Joan Johnson-Freese, Ph.D.,

Chair of the National Security Decision Making Department at the Naval War College Newport, Rhode Island
Editor’s Note: To be a leader in the world, a nation must be a leader in space. • Other nations have
learned this and even now we are engaged in what an increasing number of people see as a second space
race. While they have a long way to go, these nations are making progress. • While we are
working with a number of partners on the International Space Station, America can ensure its
Neil Armstrong demonstrated
to people everywhere that no role as a leader in space and in the world by maintaining a robust space program as outlined in the
dream was too big and thereby Vision for Space Exploration. • In the following, space policy expert Joan Johnson-Freese describes
dared them to dream as well.
how the vision will help America uphold its leadership in the world despite the pressures of being
the world’s only remaining superpower.
The United States went to the

Moon because it could. It dares When American astronauts walked on the Moon, a new “us-them” was inherently
to do the hard things that created, “us” being the people of Earth…and if you believe that space is too big a
other nations do not, an
integral part of what makes place to have only one populated planet, a “them” is potentially still to be found. No
America a leader. other person will ever have the same role in history as Neil Armstrong. He was the
first person from Earth to step onto another celestial body. He, an American, led the
way for all humanity. He demonstrated to people everywhere that no dream was too
The United States needs to big and, thereby, dared them to dream as well.
again recognize and embrace
the leadership opportunity
offered by human space Global leadership has characterized America’s role in space and, technologically, the
exploration…based on
cooperation, not competition. United States is far ahead of any other country in space capabilities. Consequent to two
Chinese manned launches since 2003, however, the perception has emerged that China
is catapulting ahead of the United States. While patently untrue, a space race has been
Participating in a space created that is destined to be won largely by image. With China willing to play the
program does more than help tortoise to the U.S. hare, there is the very real chance that the United States could be
…create technology and
industries; it builds dreams and perceived as bested based on consistency rather than capabilities.
generates pride.
Since Apollo, the United States manned space program has been plagued by lack of
political will, with the manned program carried forward by (weak) inertia rather than
real motive. Unfortunately, much of the American public views space largely as an interesting
museum exhibit, and space is largely ignored by Congress unless their constituents’ jobs are at
stake. In reality, space has become an integral part of everyday life not just for Americans but for
individuals all over the world. The Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) system is a global utility.
It is important to the extent that people will not be denied — or, as the advent of the European
Galileo program illustrates, even take the risk of being denied — the services these navigation
satellites provide. GPS is an American program — another example of America leading the way
into space, just as it did with Apollo. While the impact of Apollo on everyday lives was less
explicit, it was, nevertheless, just as powerful.
Global leadership is a role that has been thrust onto the United States and, thankfully, one to
which it is eminently qualified to respond. The United States not only has the military might to
lead, it has been viewed, as former President Ronald Reagan put it, as the “shining city on the
hill” that others want to emulate. The United States went to the Moon because it could. It dares
to do the hard things that other nations do not, part of what makes America a leader. Now,
American Strategic Leadership and Manned Spaceflight ~ 33
however, lack of political will and a perceived lack of a strategic purpose could result in the
United States tacitly ceding manned spaceflight leadership. Make no mistake, doing so will cost
the United States its global leadership role.
Global leadership is part and parcel of America as the “shining city on the hill.” Foregoing that
leadership dims the lights in the city at a time when America’s place in the world must be more
pronounced and more positive than ever before. Fighting the global war on terror and shaping
the world into a more stable place where human security needs are provided for all requires
both American leadership and global cooperation.
Can America’s global leadership image stand a little polishing? While it is sometimes more
important to be feared than loved by certain countries, it appears that the United States might be
precariously close to overdoing it. A Pew Research Center Poll taken in April and May 2005, for
example, showed China, a communist dictatorship, was viewed more favorably than the United
States in 11 of the 16 countries surveyed, including Britain, France, Germany, Spain, the
Netherlands, Russia, Turkey, Pakistan, Lebanon, Jordan, and Indonesia. India and Poland saw
the United States in a more favorable light than China, and Canada was about evenly split. The
United States is having trouble conveying its message.
While to a degree it may be normal for other countries to view the only remaining superpower
with angst, if not outright hostility, these poll numbers indicate negative feelings toward the
United States beyond what is normal, and certainly not desirable. Tanks, planes and lasers will
not stop the spread of feelings or ideology. And, whether we like it or not, a poor image clouds
positive, progressive messages that America seeks to convey. For America to lead in the
longterm, it must have willing followers.
In the 1960s, leadership was the motivation that took America to the Moon, wanting to show
itself leading in a technological competition against the Soviets: a techno-nationalist show of
prowess. Today, post 9/11 and equally, or more importantly, with the on-going war in Iraq, the
United States needs to recognize again and embrace the leadership opportunity offered by
The material for this article
manned space exploration. But this time it should be based on cooperation, not competition. is drawn from the author’s
new book Heavenly
Leading an international, inclusive expedition off planet Earth offers the United States a
Ambitions, forthcoming
strategic alternative to counter both the militaristic image of the United States that has prevailed from Columbia University
Press. The views expressed
since the Iraq War and from concerns regarding the potential weaponization of space by the
in this article are the
United States. It offers an alternative that would go a long way toward rebuilding America’s soft author’s alone and do not
represent the official
power, the power to shape the others’ preferences in line with those of the United States by
position of the Department
inducement and attraction, rather than force. Participating in a space program does more than of the Navy, the
Department of Defense, or
help countries construct technology and create industries; it builds dreams and generates pride.
the U.S. government.
America has demonstrated its military ability to make others bend to its will. Now we must
work at not needing to use that ability. Soft power is essential for building a stable, peaceful
world where the human security needs of all are met. Cooperative manned spaceflight creates
leadership opportunities that build soft power.
34 ~ Amazing True Tales of Space Exploration
Amazing True Tales of Space Exploration
James Cameron, Filmmaker; edited text, from an address February 3, 2005, first Space Exploration Conference, Orlando, Florida.
Editor’s Note: Spaceflight is accomplished by the hard work of people who have great stories to tell. •
And now with the Vision for Space Exploration, NASA has a new and incredibly exciting tale to share as
astronauts, flight controllers, mission managers, and others put together this program that could see us
back on the Moon by 2018. • Along the way, according to legendary Hollywood director James Cameron,
by fully involving the public at every step, the vision will survive changes in the economy, leadership in
Congress and presidential administrations. • In the following, Cameron offers his insight into what makes
a good yarn and why the space program may be among the greatest stories ever told.
This is your space program. You are a participant. The public wants and should
have ownership. They want to be included. They want empowerment and
Only by seeing the passion of
those who practice space participation.
exploration can the average
person feel the sense of
participation and excitement. In the Apollo days, it was all NASA’s public affairs office could do to keep the
There are six billion of us here on ravenous press at bay. In recent decades the roles have reversed and it’s harder now
the ground who are not going to
get to go and a handful of us who for NASA to get into the public eye.
will. Those who go become the
avatars for the rest — the eyes
and ears, the hearts and spirits for I’ve been asked lots of times by folks at all levels of NASA, what can we do better to
the rest of humanity. reach out to the public? Well, two things. One, tell the story better. Two, have a better
story to tell. Now for the first time in a while, we have a better story to tell, so the job
just got a whole lot easier.
When we set foot on the planet
Mars with our eyes fixed on other Now we can talk about the challenges of sustainable mission architectures for the
moons and beyond, we'll be
telling the greatest story of the
Moon and Mars, and we can tell the story of actually, really, no kidding planning to
21st century. And when the first send people to Mars. Not some vaporous someday, but when these other specific
man or woman creates those
historic footprints, every human
and defined tasks are completed.
being will stand vicariously in
those boots at that moment. We
will all be uplifted and ennobled
That’s big.
as one. We will be energized by
the greatest accomplishment
of all.
But telling the story better in the meantime is also
critical. How do you sustain interest over the next
decade while all this groundwork is laid?
NASA and the space community need to find better ways to

involve the public through education and media.
We need to think of one of its key products as the story, not just
the science and technology. Telling the story involves putting a
premium on the images, both in capturing them and getting
them out there. It means embracing the concept that human
exploration of space is a story of people, not of agencies and
systems. We need to take a cue from the tawdry world of reality
TV and make our characters interesting. Astronauts and the many who support them on the
ground need to be free to be seen as human beings with hopes and fears; people who make
Amazing True Tales of Space Exploration ~ 35
mistakes, who have dreams, who work hard and care about what they do — three-
dimensional, living, breathing people.
Only by seeing the passion of those who practice space exploration can the average person feel
the sense of participation and excitement. There are six billion of us here on the ground who
are not going to get to go and a handful of us who will. Those who go become the avatars for
the rest — the eyes and ears, the hearts and spirits for the rest of humanity.
On my recent ocean expeditions I brought along a number of young scientists and, in the
IMAX film that resulted from the expeditions, it’s the heart and passion of these young
researchers that conveys the importance of the task of doing science, and not the actual content
of the information.
Audiences are responding remarkably well to what is basically a

science documentary, because they see people on the screen who
care about what they’re doing.
The key to telling the story of humans in space is humans. People.

This is how we communicate as a species. We perceive events
through the experience of others.
To aid in the task of telling the story, NASA also needs to allocate
resources for better imaging and better live streaming of those
images. The images are your most important product. It’s already getting better.
I’m actually lucky enough to be a co-investigator on the proposal for the mastcam, which was
selected for the ‘09 Mars lander. The team will be developing a stereoscopic high definition
camera with zoom lenses and motion video capability. It will literally capture the first moving
images on another planet.
As a moviemaker, I think that’s pretty cool.
Now, there are good science and engineering justifications for having these images, but to the
public, seeing our machines moving and working on another planet will have tremendous
impact. This is a great example of telling the story better. And when we set foot on the planet
Mars with our eyes fixed on other moons and beyond, we’ll be telling the greatest story of the
21st century. And when the first man or woman creates those historic footprints, every human
being will stand vicariously in those boots at that moment.
We will all be uplifted and ennobled as one. We will be energized by the exhilaration of
accomplishment. We will be energized by the greatest accomplishment of all.
So what are we waiting for? Let’s go!

36 ~ An Advocate for the Next Giant Leap for Mankind
An Advocate for the Next Giant Leap for Mankind
Neil Armstrong, Astronaut, first man on the moon
Editor’s Note: Only 12 men have walked on the Moon — so far. • As commander of Apollo 11 in July of
1969, Neil Armstrong was the first, exploring the Sea of Tranquility for more than two hours along with
lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin. • Their position is unique in history, but maybe not for long. Soon
humans will return to the Moon and, a few years later, land for the first time on Mars. • Speaking in
Houston on March 11, 2004, just two months after the Vision for Space Exploration was announced,
Armstrong gave a professorial lecture on the history of the Space Age, from Sputnik 1 to that first giant
leap for mankind. • In the following, Armstrong recalls those glory days of Apollo and endorses a bold
new vision for sending explorers beyond Earth orbit for the first time since 1972.
It was a great shock to most Americans when, in October of 1957, Sputnik sailed
Apollo proved that humans were across the night sky, and people could actually watch it.
not forever a prisoner of Earth’s
gravity. We could leave our own
planet and go to other celestial The space age had begun, and we weren't a part of it. Americans were embarrassed,
destinations, and Americans were
no longer second best. and for the first time ever, people began talking seriously about people going into
space. The competing configurations (for the spacecraft) were a highly swept delta
wing, a flat-topped lifting body, and a flat-bottomed lifting body.
Our economy can certainly afford
an effort of this magnitude, but Max Faget and Paul Purser of Langley argued that if we were to get a man into orbit
the public must believe that the
benefits to society deserve the soon, the only choice, the only reasonable choice, was a ballistic shape lifted by an
investment. ICBM booster. The Soviets had reached the same conclusion.
One obvious configuration was the sphere. It had no instability problems at any
Noting the advancement of Mach number, and its aerodynamic characteristics were very predictable. But
knowledge, the rate of progress is
proportional to the risk depending on its entry angle into the atmosphere, it might produce deceleration
encountered. The public at large forces which are beyond human tolerance.
may well be more risk-adverse
than the individuals in our
business, but to limit the progress Russians went the spherical route, and the Americans, using the work of Harvey
in the name of eliminating risk is
no virtue. Allen and Al Eggers at Ames, developed modified warhead shapes. And so it
happened that the Vostock on the A1 booster and the Mercury on an Atlas, were
created and launched, and human beings found themselves circling the Earth high
above the atmosphere.
Soviets were soon flying multiple crews, and we wanted to

also. We wanted the ability to do more. The Gemini added
onboard rocket propulsion so we could maneuver in space,
and it had an onboard digital computer. Digital computers
weren't so highly regarded in those days. They could be
accurate, but they were interminably slow. This one didn't
have any gigs or any megs; it had 4K of memory. No
screen, just one seven-digit register for input and output.
But Gemini crews could navigate.
An Advocate for the Next Giant Leap for Mankind ~ 37
And, for the first time, knew how to get to a destination without asking for directions. Using all
this computing power, they took great pride in controlling their entry into the atmosphere, the
trajectory, and landing precisely close to the ship that was awaiting them. I landed (Gemini 8)
near Okinawa, but my intended target had been the Caribbean. I doubt the record will ever
be broken.
Apollo had a crew of three and more propulsion and more computing power. Apollo proved
that humans were not forever a prisoner of Earth's gravity. We could leave our own planet and
go to other celestial destinations, and Americans were no longer second best.
Space stations emerged in the 70s with Skylab and Salyut, and Apollo and Soyuz
rendezvoused and docked in the 70s, paving the way for international participation in later
stations, and here on the ISS.
After Apollo, NASA conjured a grand plan to expand human presence in space and include
one or more permanent terminals in Earth orbit, craft to depart from and after return to the
terminal from various places in the solar system, and reusable craft to service the entire
enterprise by shuttling back and forth between Earth orbit and the Earth's surface.
Advocates were unable to persuade the establishment that that was all doable with the
resources available, and only the last piece, the shuttle orbiter, was funded. The shuttle has
now been operating for a couple of decades, with occasional time-outs for good reason. And,
although it never came close to reaching the original planned flight rate, and, consequently,
the economies of scale, it has done a remarkable job of performing a very wide range of
mission types.
From time to time, new grand plans have been announced, only to decay and dissolve from an
inadequate level of public support, as interpreted by their elected officials. Now our president
has introduced a new initiative with renewed emphasis on exploration of our solar system and
expansion of the human frontiers. This proposal has substantial merit and promise.
The success of that endeavor will be dependent on overcoming principle concerns of cost and
risk. Our economy can certainly afford an effort of this magnitude, but the public must believe
that the benefits to society deserve the investment. Noting the advancement of knowledge, the
rate of progress is proportional to the risk encountered. The public at large may well be more
risk-adverse than the individuals in our business, but to limit the progress in the name of
eliminating risk is no virtue.
The success of the endeavor will also be dependent on the degree to which the aerospace
community, all of us — government, industry, and academia — can coalesce their forces and
converge on a common goal.
So that's a retrospective of the beginning of the Space Age. And the remarkable thing, to me, is
that we happen to be living in a time when we could watch the entire process occur — and be
involved in a substantial part of it.
38 ~ Risk is Our Business
Risk is Our Business
Col Steven W. Lindsey, NASA Astronaut
Editor’s Note: It takes thousands of people to prepare a space shuttle mission for launch, but ultimately it
is a small crew of astronauts who will climb aboard and put their lives on the line in the name of science
and exploration. • This special set of human beings knows more than any other why it is so important to
have a space program. They have examined the risk of being hurled into space. They know the goals of their
mission. And they find the whole thing worthy. • Just ask Steve Lindsey, commander of the second shuttle
mission to be flown following the Columbia accident. He lost his friends in that disaster, yet there's no
hesitation on his part to fly. There's no sense he's playing a daredevil, either. • In the following, Lindsey
reports first-hand why the Vision for Space Exploration is worth the risk.
The spirit of exploration is

The next time a space shuttle lifts off from the Kennedy Space Center, I will be
something that lies deep within all
of us. It’s an important thing to strapped into the commander’s seat on Discovery’s flight deck, beginning my
do. The value — both tangible fourth spaceflight.
and not — of what we learn from
spaceflight is worth so much more
Thanks to my training and the confidence I have in the teams of people who
to humanity than the risks
involved that I am personally manage the space shuttle program and prepare the vehicle for launch, I won’t be
willing to put my life on the line dwelling on the risks that are inherent in making this voyage — a journey I know
and take those risks. 14 of my colleagues aboard Challenger and Columbia did not complete.
You can’t take those risks to zero.

Not ever. Exploring space — doing As I prepare this column, it is the holiday season of 2005. Launch of STS-121, as my
things that have never been done next spaceflight is called, is still months away. There’s much training that needs to be
before — is going to be a high-risk done, but already I know we will be prepared to fly when the time comes.
operation for a long time to come
If it were 100 percent safe, we’d I have a great crew for this test mission, which will include a visit to the
never fly. If it were easy, we’d International Space Station. Flying with me will be pilot, Mark Kelly, and mission
never advance — and never learn. specialists, Mike Fossum, Lisa Nowak, Stephanie Wilson, Piers Sellers, and
Thomas Reiter.
We have a long and complex set of tasks to do on this mission, many of them a continuation and
expansion of the test flight work done during the STS-114 mission flown in July 2005. We’ll also
be re-supplying the space station and taking care of a few assembly tasks as well.
Assuming all goes well, when Discovery lands and we walk off the Orbiter, we’ll be able to say
that we accomplished our goals and have taken the next step in the Vision for Space
Exploration.
For me, that’s the reason I’m willing to take the risk.
The spirit of exploration is something that lies deep within all of us. It is an important thing to
do. The value — both tangible and not — of what we learn from spaceflight is worth so much
more to humanity than the risks involved that I am personally willing to put my life on the line
and take those risks.
Risk is Our Business ~ 39
It is important, however, to note that at NASA, when we discuss risk, it is always about
minimizing the chance something could go wrong to the maximum extent possible. We build
redundancy into our systems, learn how to make repairs in-flight and train ourselves to handle
technical failures in a way that gives us the best possible chance to not only come home safely,
but to complete the mission as well.
When I climb aboard Discovery on launch day, I know that the NASA team will have done
everything they can to make things as safe as possible. If the NASA team didn’t believe that,
they wouldn’t launch us. And if I didn’t believe that, I wouldn’t fly.
That’s the promise I’ve made to my family.
However, things still go wrong. You can’t take those risks to zero. Not ever. Exploring space —
doing things that have never been done before — is going to be a high-risk operation for a long
time to come, and as history has shown us, sometimes it is impossible to cheat death.
Astronauts know that, yet still we continue to look for ways to make spaceflight safer while
reaching for what’s just beyond our grasp. If it were 100 percent safe, we’d never fly. If it were
easy, we’d never advance — and never learn.
It is our destiny to explore, and I am proud to have a small part in it.

40 ~ Recommendations
Recommendations
By the Space Foundation
Because the case for space exploration is so compelling, the Space Foundation
makes the following recommendations for implementing the nation’s
Vision for Space Exploration:
The future of the nation is at stake.
United States leadership in space
cannot be expected to continue
unless we create again the A PRIORITY:
conditions to develop the world’s The Vision for Space Exploration must be seen as a top priority for the Nation.
greatest minds, tools, and talents.
Fund it.
Since it was unveiled, the Vision for Space Exploration has been embraced more as a
post-Columbia prescription for NASA. Instead, it should be seen as an urgent
The next 50 years depend upon
the investments we make today. priority for the nation. As persuasively argued throughout this report, the future of
A vigorous, ambitious, the nation is at stake. United States leadership in space cannot be expected to
aggressive, and well-funded space
exploration program must be a continue unless we create again the conditions to develop the world’s greatest
national priority. minds, tools, and talents. United States national security depends upon having the
intellectual capacity to respond tomorrow to crises we cannot define today. It
depends upon economic strength rooted in unsurpassed technology. It depends
upon an industrial base capable of delivering whatever national means are required.
The journey must be undertaken

with a greater sense of urgency. For five decades, the United States' technological leadership has come from our
investment in space exploration and the research, development, academic
foundation, and industrial capacity it drives. The next 50 years depend upon the
United States accomplishments in investments we make today. A vigorous, ambitious, aggressive, and well-funded
space, if untimely and space exploration program must be a national priority. If it is only a tool for bringing
overshadowed by the
achievements of others, will management focus to a small government agency, we will fail.
weaken our ability to lead —
whether in competition or
collaboration with other nations
(and both are desirable). A SENSE OF URGENCY:
This epic, inevitable journey must be undertaken with a great sense of urgency.
Now — not later.
The vision has been framed as a journey, not a race. If so, the journey must be undertaken with a
greater sense of urgency. The United States is not the only nation making this journey. Credible
space exploration programs exist in other nations. United States accomplishments in space, if
untimely and overshadowed by the achievements of others, will weaken our ability to lead —
whether in competition or collaboration with other nations (and both are desirable).
The present political “go as you pay” assumption places a higher priority on static
levels of NASA funding than on high levels of national achievement. If not the
race, at least the pace must be re-examined. The United States must proceed with a
sense of urgency and a commitment to funding success.
Recommendations ~ 41
EMBRACE THE DIFFICULT CHALLENGES:

We must choose the difficult path of invention and discovery or others will define
the future for us.
One of John F. Kennedy’s most quoted statements about the Apollo program is,
“We choose to go the Moon [. . .] not because it is easy, but because it is hard.”
Kennedy was right. The vast cornucopia of intellectual, technical, scientific, The vast cornucopia of
intellectual, technical, scientific,
academic, industrial, and other benefits that have come from our space programs academic, industrial, and other
were the result of invention and innovation required to do what had never been benefits that have come from
our space programs were the
done before. If the United States is to benefit from this Vision for Space Exploration result of invention and
going forward, it must choose the difficult path of invention and discovery — not innovation required to do what
had never been done before.
the easy path of recycling its current capabilities. While proven systems and off-
the-shelf products can provide a quick start to this bold new endeavor, a balanced
approach that demands new capabilities is also essential. We can reconfigure our
current inventory in a variety of ways to serve the vision, but, by inventing new If the United States is to benefit
from this Vision for Space
systems, technologies and capabilities, we will better serve the nation. Exploration going forward, it
must choose the difficult path of
invention and discovery — not
the easy path of recycling its
OUR NATION’S SPACE PROGRAM: current capabilities.
We must demand a long-term program that extends human presence across the
solar system — because the future of the nation and of generations to come is
at stake.
Because the future of the nation is at stake, the exploration of our solar system must
be the nation’s program and not just NASA’s. From the point of view of our leaders
who oversee the space agency, only a strong national imperative can justify Make no mistake — if the United
States is to proceed with the
significant additional financial outlays. And make no mistake — if the United urgency required, significant new
States is to proceed with the urgency required, significant new outlays will be outlays will be needed.
needed. From NASA’s point of view, leading an urgent national imperative is a

different proposition than managing the bureaucracy to achieve flat budgets and
avoid controversy. The nation must demand a long-term program that extends The nation must demand a
human presence across the solar system while assuring continued United States long-term program that extends
human presence across the solar
leadership and the political, social, technical, scientific, academic, military, system while assuring continued
economic, and other benefits that accompany such leadership. United States leadership and the
political, social, technical,
scientific, academic, military,
economic, and other benefits
that accompany such leadership.
42 ~ Biographies Biographies of Authors
Patricia J. Arnold, Ph.D. Jim Banke

Vice President, Education and Workforce Development, Vice President, Florida Operations, Space Foundation
Space Foundation Jim Banke is vice president of Florida Operations for the
As vice president of education and workforce development, Space Foundation and was recently appointed by Florida
Dr. Patricia Arnold leads the Space Foundation’s education Governor Jeb Bush to serve on the Commission on the
mission and all education programs. Arnold recently facilitated Future of Space and Aeronautics in Florida. Banke also
a collaborative effort between the Space Foundation, the directs the Coalition for Space Exploration, where he is
University of Colorado at Colorado Springs (UCCS), and Regis responsible for the Space Foundation’s support of a
University to jointly offer a Master’s Degree with a Space collaborative industry effort whose mission is to ensure the
Studies emphasis. Arnold’s educational experience spans 36 United States will remain a leader in space, science and
years, including serving as dean of the School of Arts and technology. He is a veteran aerospace journalist with 20
Science at the University of Southern Colorado, Pueblo; years of experience covering the world’s space programs
principal of elementary, junior high, and high schools; and with an emphasis on launch and mission operations. Banke
teacher of all levels. Arnold earned both a Master’s Degree and earned a Bachelor of Science Degree in Aviation Business
Doctorate in Educational Leadership and Innovation from the Administration from Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University,
University of Colorado. Daytona Beach, FL.
Neil Armstrong James Francis Cameron

Astronaut, first man on the moon Filmmaker, Academy award-winning director
Neil Armstrong served as a naval aviator from 1949 to 1952 James Cameron is a Canadian film director noted for his
and flew 78 combat missions over Korea. He joined the American action/science fiction. Thematically, James
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) in 1955. Cameron’s films generally explore the relationship between
His first assignment was with the NACA Lewis Research Center man and technology. Cameron went from set builder to art
in Cleveland, Ohio. For the next 17 years, he was an engineer, director, in film Escape from New York, to film director.
test pilot, astronaut, and administrator for NACA and its Cameron directed Arnold Schwarzenegger in 1984’s The
successor agency, the National Aeronautics and Space Terminator and its sequel sever years later, Terminator 2:
Administration (NASA). As a research pilot at NASA’s Flight Judgment Day. Cameron also directed Signorney Weaver in
Research Center, Edwards, Calif., Armstrong was a project pilot Aliens and Ed Harris in The Abyss. In 1998, his film, Titanic,
on many pioneering high-speed aircraft, including the (4000- broke box office records winning eleven Oscars, including
mph) X-15. He has flown over 200 different models of aircraft, Best Picture and Best Director. James Cameron
including jets, rockets, helicopters, and gliders. Armstrong enthusiastically promotes exploration of our world and
transferred to astronaut status in 1962. He was assigned as offers exciting viewpoints, both mirroring and influencing
command pilot for the Gemini 8 mission, which launched on the audiences he reaches.
March 16, 1966, and Armstrong performed the first successful
docking of two vehicles in space. As spacecraft commander for Jay DeFrank, Ph.D.
Apollo 11, the first manned lunar landing mission, Armstrong Executive Director, Research and Analysis and
gained the distinction of being the first man to land a craft on Vice President, Washington Operations,
the moon and first to step on its surface. Space Foundation
Dr. Jay DeFrank is the executive director, Research and
Armstrong subsequently held the position of Deputy Associate Analysis and vice president, Washington Operations, for the
Administrator for Aeronautics, NASA Headquarters, Space Foundation. DeFrank leads the Space Foundation’s
Washington, D.C., where he was responsible for the effort to assess the state of the space industry, research and
coordination and management of overall NASA research and analyze key issues affecting the civil, commercial, and
technology work related to aeronautics. He was Professor of national security uses of space, and develop products to
Aerospace Engineering at the University of Cincinnati between inform the public and aid decision makers in the
1971-1979. During the years 1982-1992, Armstrong was formulation of policy. He also serves as the public
chairman of Computing Technologies for Aviation, Inc., spokesperson for the Space Foundation in Washington,
Charlottesville, Va. D.C. Previously, he was deputy director, public affairs for
the U.S. Air Force and director of media relations for the
He received a Bachelor of Science Degree in Aeronautical Department of Defense. DeFrank earned a Bachelor of
Engineering from Purdue University and a Master of Science in Science Degree in Journalism, Magna Cum Laude, from
Aerospace Engineering from the University of Southern Southern Connecticut University; a Master of Science
California. He holds honorary doctorates from a number of Degree in Communication, with distinction, from the
universities. Armstrong is a Fellow of the Society of Annenberg School of Communication, University of
Experimental Test Pilots and the Royal Aeronautical Society; Southern California; and a Doctorate in Communication/
Honorary Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Media Studies from the University of Colorado at Boulder.
Astronautics, and the International Astronautics Federation. He
served as a member of the National Commission on Space
(1985-1986), and as Vice-Chairman of the Presidential
Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident (1986),
His authorized biography, First Man: The Life of Neil A.
Armstrong, was written by former NASA historian James
Hansen and published in 2005.
Biographies of Authors Biographies ~ 43
Jim Jannette Col Steven W. Lindsey, USAF

Chief of Staff, Space Foundation NASA Astronaut, Commander, STS-121
In 2003, Jim Jannette was appointed chief of staff, responsible An Air Force Academy graduate and experienced test pilot
for directing the day-to-day business operations of the Space who has logged more than 5,000 hours of flying time in
Foundation, providing leadership in establishing policies and more than 50 different types of aircraft. Lindsey became an
procedures, and acting for the president and chief executive astronaut in May 1996 and is a veteran of three Space
officer in his absence. Jannette joined the Foundation as vice Shuttle missions, including one trip to the International
president of marketing and communications after relocating Space Station (ISS). A native of California, Lindsey is
from Florida, where he was president of Watermark Strategic assigned to command the crew of STS-121, a return-to-
Communications. Jannette also served in the United States Air flight test mission and ISS assembly flight targeted for
Force, as a White House appointee under President Ronald launch in 2006.
Reagan, and as the assistant administrator for public affairs for
the Federal Aviation Administration. He earned a Bachelor of John M. Logsdon, Ph.D.
Science Degree in Education, graduating Phi Beta Kappa, and a Director, Space Policy Institute, Elliott School of
Master’s Degree in English, Summa Cum Laude, both from International Affairs, George Washington University
Ohio University. He also earned national accreditation as a John M. Logsdon is Director of the Space Policy Institute at
Public Relations Counselor (APR). George Washington University’s Elliott School of
International Affairs, where he is also Professor of
Joan Johnson-Freese, Ph.D. International Affairs. He holds a B.S. in Physics from Xavier
Chair of the National Security Decision Making University (1960) and a Ph.D. in Political Science from New
Department at the Naval War College Newport, York University (1970). Dr. Logsdon’s research interests
Rhode Island focus on the policy and historical aspects of U.S. and
Dr. Joan Johnson-Freese has served as Chair, Department of international space activities.
National Security Studies, at the Naval War College since Dr. Logsdon is the author of The Decision to Go to the
August 2002. Previously, she was on the faculty at the Asia Moon: Project Apollo and the National Interest and is
Pacific Center for Security Studies in Honolulu, Hawaii; at the general editor of the eight-volume series Exploring the
Air War College in Montgomery, Alabama; and the Director of Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S.
the Center for Space Policy & Law at the University of Central Civil Space Program. He has written numerous articles and
Florida. reports on space policy and history. He is frequently
Within the realm of international and national security studies, consulted by the electronic and print media for his views on
Dr. Johnson-Freese has focused her research and writing on space issues.
technology programs and policies generally, and space Dr. Logsdon is a member of the NASA Advisory Council and
programs and policies specifically, including issues relating to of the Commercial Space Transportation Advisory
technology transfer and export, missile defense, transparency, Committee of the Department of Transportation. In 2003,
space and regional development, transformation, and he served as a member of the Columbia Accident
globalization. Investigation Board. He is a recipient of the NASA
Dr. Johnson-Freese’s next book is entitled Heavenly Ambition: Distinguished Public Service and Public Service Medals and
Will America Dominate Space? for Columbia University Press, the 2005 John F. Kennedy Award from the American
due out in 2006. Prior book publications include: The Chinese Astronautical Society, and a Fellow of the American
Space Program: A Mystery Within a Maze (Krieger Publishing, Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and of the
1998); Space: The Dormant Frontier, Changing the Space American Association for the Advancement of Science. He
Paradigm for the 21st Century, (Praeger Publishers, 1997); The is a member of the International Academy of Astronautics.
Prestige Trap: A Comparative Study of the US, European and
Japanese Space Programs, with Roger Handberg, (Kendall-
Hunt, 1994); Over the Pacific: Japanese Space Policy Into the
21st Century, (Kendall-Hunt, 1993); and Changing Patterns of
International Cooperation in Space, (Krieger Publishing, 1990).
She has also published over 70 journal articles relating to
international space cooperation and competition issues.
44 ~ Biographies Biographies of Authors
John C. Mankins Elliot G. Pulham

President, ARTEMIS Innovation Management President and Chief Executive Officer,
Solutions LLC Space Foundation
John C. Mankins is the President of ARTEMIS Innovation Elliot G. Pulham is president and chief executive officer of
Management Solutions LLC, a management consulting, the Space Foundation, leading this globally respected
research and development start-up focusing on solving tough nonprofit organization headquartered in Colorado Springs,
innovation challenges for government, industry and not-for- Colo., in the pursuit of its mission: to vigorously advance
profit clients. Mr. Mankins is an internationally recognized civil, commercial and national security space endeavors and
leader in space systems and technology innovation, and as a educational excellence. Pulham leads a team of space and
highly effective manager of large-scale technology R&D education professionals providing services to educators and
programs. His 25-year career at NASA ranged from flight the space industry around the world and is widely quoted
projects and space mission operations, to systems-level by national, international and trade media in their coverage
innovation and advanced technology research & development of space and space-related issues. He previously served as
management. He is also well known as an innovator in R&D the Foundation’s executive vice president. Pulham brings
management, and was one of the creators of the widely used national award-winning experience in public affairs to a
“technology readiness level” (TRL) scale for technology Foundation focused on creating public awareness and
assessment. support for space endeavors, and on using the excitement
Before leaving NASA, Mr. Mankins was the manager of of space to inspire academic achievement. For a decade
Exploration Systems Research and Technology within the prior to joining the Space Foundation, he was senior
Exploration Systems Mission Directorate with responsibility for manager of public relations, employee communication and
an $800M annual budget, involving more than 100 individual advertising for all space programs of The Boeing Company.
projects and over 3,000 personnel. For 10 years, he was the Pulham’s experience spans more than 25 years since his
manager of Advanced Concepts Studies at NASA, and was the undergraduate studies at the University of Hawaii’s school
lead for critical studies of space solar power, highly reusable of Journalism.
space transportation, affordable human exploration
approaches, and other topics. He was the creator or co-creator Neil deGrasse Tyson, Ph.D.
of numerous novel concepts, including the “MagLifter’ Astrophysicist, American Museum of Natural History;
electromagnetic launch assist system, the Internet-based NASA Director, Hayden Planetarium; Member, Commission
“Virtual Research Center” the “Solar Clipper” interplanetary on the Future of the U.S. Aerospace Industry
transport vehicle, the “SunTower” space solar power system,
Neil deGrasse Tyson, Ph.D., is the Frederick P. Rose Director
the “Hybrid Propellant Module” for in-space refueling, the
of New York City’s Hayden Planetarium. He serves on the
“HabBot” mobile planetary outpost architecture, the
board of directors of the Space Foundation and was a
Advanced Technology Life cycle Analysis System (ATLAS), and
Presidential Appointee to the Commission on the Future of
others. In recognition of his accomplishments, he has received
the U.S. Aerospace Industry and to the Commission on
numerous awards and honors, including the prestigious NASA
Moon, Mars and Beyond. Tyson is the on-camera host,
Exceptional Technology Achievement Medal (of which he was
narrator and executive editor of the PBS-NOVA mini-series
the first recipient).
Origins. He is the author of seven books, including the
He holds undergraduate (Harvey Mudd College) and graduate acclaimed Just Visiting This Planet (1998) and a memoir
(UCLA) degrees in Physics and an MBA in Public Policy Analysis The Sky is Not the Limit: Adventures of an Urban
(The Drucker School at Claremont Graduate University). Mr. Astrophysicist (2004). His newest book, Death By Black
Mankins is a member of the International Academy of Holes and Other Cosmic Quandaries, is scheduled for
Astronautics (IAA), the International Astronautical Federation publication in 2006. He has been voted by the editors of
(IAF), the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Crain’s Magazine to be among the 100 most powerful
(AIAA), and the Sigma Xi Research Society. minority business Leaders in New York.
Mr. Mankins is an accomplished communicator, including Dr. Tyson continues to work as both an educator teacher
political, programmatic, technical and lay audiences. He has and astrophysics research scientist at the American Museum
authored or co-authored more than 70 published papers, of Natural History, where he also directs the programs and
reports and other technical documents, and has testified operations of the Hayden Planetarium and serves as an
before Congress on several occasions, and has been consulted expert commentator for virtually all major national
on R&D management and space issues with organizations in television news networks. His remarks for this report were
the U.S. and internationally. excerpted from his keynote address to the 2005 Goddard
Memorial Dinner in Washington, D.C.
Editorial assistance also provided by Space Foundation interns, Margaret “Ashley” Whelan,
a graduate student studying space policy at George Washington University’s Elliot School of International Affairs;
and Josh Kaushansky, an undergraduate student at American University.
45
The Space Foundation is a national nonprofit organization that vigorously advances civil, commercial, and
national security space endeavors and educational excellence. Headquartered in Colorado Springs, the Space
Foundation has offices in Washington, D.C. and Cape Canaveral, Florida.
In 1983 a small group of visionary leaders in Colorado Springs saw a need to establish an organization that
could, in a non-partisan, objective and fair manner, bring together the various sectors of America’s developing
space community and serve as a credible source of information for a broad audience — from space
professionals to the general public. The Space Foundation was founded March 21, 1983, as an IRS 501 (c)(3)
organization “to foster, develop and promote, among the citizens of the United States of America and among
other people of the world a greater understanding and awareness of the practical and theoretical utilization of
space for the benefit of civilization and the fostering of a peaceful and prosperous world.”
In the years since its founding, the Space Foundation has become one of the world’s premier nonprofit
organizations supporting space activities, space professionals, and education. Its education programs —
accredited through 17 universities and colleges — have touched teachers in 49 of the 50 U.S. states.
As the global space community has evolved, so has the Space Foundation — embracing all facets of space —
commercial (including telecommunications and other satellite-based services), civil, and national security. In
fact, the Foundation is one of few “ecumenical” space-related organizations that embraces the totality of this
community rather than focusing on a narrowly defined niche.
The Space Foundation annually conducts, along with its partnering organizations, the National Space
Symposium (The Broadmoor, Colorado Springs), Inside Aerospace (Washington, D.C.), Florida Space
(changing venues in Florida), and Strategic Space (Omaha).
For more information, visit www.SpaceFoundation.org.

46
The Space Foundation gratefully acknowledges
the Coalition for Space Exploration,
without whose contributions
this book would not have been possible.
Photos courtesy of NASA, and others as notated.

“Man
Man must rise above Earth
to the top of the atmosphere
and beyond,
for only then will he
fully understand the world
in which he lives.”
lives.
~ Socrates,
sometime around 400 B.C.
Headquarters 310 S. 14th Street » Colorado Springs » Colorado 80904 » T 719.576.8000 » F 719.576.8801
Washington Office 1620 I Street NW » Suite 615 » Washington, D.C. 20006 » T 202.463.6122 » F 202.463.8498
Florida Office 707 Mullet Road » Suite 201 » Cape Canaveral, FL 32920 » T 321.868.6288 » F 321.868.6289
www.spacefoundation.org

The Case For Space Exploration

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AMERICA S VISION:

The Case for

Space Exploration: The Power of the Vision ............................................................................ 2-7

The Vision for Space Exploration ........................................................................................ 8-11

The Global Space Economy ............................................................................................... 12-17

A Day Without Space ...................................................................................................... 18-21

Educating Tomorrow’s Workforce ....................................................................................... 24-25

A Consistent Theme: Support for Space Exploration .................................................................. 26-29

Public Strongly Endorses Space Exploration — A Gallup Poll ....................................................... 30-31

American Strategic Leadership and Manned Spaceflight ............................................................ 32-33

Amazing True Tales of Space Exploration .............................................................................. 34-35

Risk is Our Business ....................................................................................................... 38-39

Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 40-41

Biographies of Authors .................................................................................................... 42-44

The Space Foundation ..................................................................................................... 45

The Case for

Elliot G. Pulham James “Jay” DeFrank, Ph.D.

America’s Vision: The Case for Space Exploration

Space Exploration: The Power of the Vision

America’s Vision: The Case for Space Exploration

One of our research strategies as a commission

First stop, China — before they put a man in

America’s Vision: The Case For Space Exploration

Our high-tech leadership is something we all took for

America’s Vision: The Case for Space Exploration

Let’s double NASA’s budget.

America’s Vision: The Case for Space Exploration

Let me conclude with the following observation.

America’s culture? Well, consider this. If you go to a grocery store

America’s Vision: The Case for Space Exploration

But here’s what’s interesting. The driver was not

America’s Vision: The Case For Space Exploration

The Vision for Space Exploration

Jim Banke, Vice President, Florida Operations, Space Foundation

While goals will be stated and schedules determined, if

Another facet of the vision that separates it from programs

America’s Vision: The Case For Space Exploration

First Stop: Low Earth Orbit

Assembly missions to the station will be complemented by Russian Soyuz

Each copy of the CEV is designed for reuse at least 10 times.

America’s Vision: The Case For Space Exploration

America’s Vision: The Case For Space Exploration

including an Earth Departure Stage that will send a CEV beyond

In addition to the technical failure that

America’s Vision: The Case for Space Exploration

The Global Space Economy

By the Space Foundation

Space exploration has advanced telecommunications, medical technology, weather

America’s Vision: The Case for Space Exploration

About the amount

America’s Vision: The Case for Space Exploration

Satellite navigation is another excellent example of the disproportionate benefits delivered

Examples of Goods and Services Using Space Infrastructure

America’s Vision: The Case for Space Exploration

America’s Vision: The Case for Space Exploration

Rear Admiral Harley D. Nygren,

America’s Vision: The Case for Space Exploration