The sex hormones—the estrogens, progesterone, and the androgens—are a special category of

steroids, released mostly by the gonads (testes and ovaries) and to a lesser extent by the adrenal
glands. We generally refer to the androgens, a group that includes testosterone, as male hormones
because men have higher levels. Th e estrogens, which include estradiol, are female hormones because
their level is higher in women. (Androgens and estrogens are categories of chemicals; neither androgen
nor estrogen is a specifi c chemical itself.) However, both sexes have both types of hormones.
Progesterone, another predominantly female hormone, prepares the uterus for the implantation of a
fertilized ovum and promotes the maintenance of pregnancy. Sex hormones aff ect the brain, the
genitals, and other organs. Sex Diff erences in the Hypothalamus.In addition to controlling differences in
the external genitals, sex hormones early in life bind to receptors in specifi c areas of the hypothalamus,
amygdala, and other brain areas (Shah et al., 2004). Th e hormones thereby induce anatomical and
physiological diff erences between the sexes. For example, one area in the anterior hypothalamus,
known as the sexu

dimorphic nucleus, is larger in the male than in the female and contributes to control of male sexual
behavior. Parts of the female hypothalamus can generate a cyclic pattern of hormone release, as in the
human menstrual cycle. Th e male hypothalamus cannot, and neither can the hypothalamus of a female
who was exposed to extra testosterone early in life Morales, 1999).

Human sexual motivation is an unusual motivation. In lower animals we speak about sexual motivation
as a "drive." That is, we state that some internal, innate force pushes the animal to engage in
reproductive behaviour. Humans don't simply give in to an internal push towards sexual behaviour.
Instead, human motivation to engage in sexual behaviour is due to a complex relationship among
several factors.

Most theorists refer to motivation as an inferred need, desire or impulse which initiates directs and
sustains behavior (e.g., Coon, 1997; Wood and Wood, 1996). One group of psychologists calls
motivation a factor which explains the relations between stimuli and behavior (Bernstein, Clarke
Stewart, Roy, and Wickens, 1997). By combining these two definitions and applying them to human
sexual behavior we could say that sexual motivation is an inferred, internal state influenced by several
factors which determines engagement in sexual activity Physiological Correlates - An analysis of human
sexual motivation couldn't proceed without first discussing physiological factors, in particular,
hormones. The influence of hormones in sexual behaviour is well-supported by research. Both men and
women produce estrogens, progestins and androgens, though women produce far more estrogens and
progestin and men more androgens (Hokanson, 1969; Leger, 1992). In lower species, hormone levels
are almost directly correlated with sexual behavior, however, as one moves up the phylogenetic scale,
other elements become involved (Fisher, 1993; Hokanson, 1969). In humans, hormones are also related
to sexual desire, but are not the entire story.

In males, a minimum level of testosterone is necessary to maintain normal sexual motivation in males
(Leger, 1992). If males' testosterone levels fall below the threshold, sexual motivation is greatly reduced.
However, once the threshold level is reached, it no longer predicts sexualbehavior/activity. Women's
studies also show correlations between hormones and sexual desire (Leger, 1992; Sherwin and Gelfan,
1987; Sherwin, Gelfan, and Brender, 1985), however, the results are inconsistent (Leger, 1992). Since
neither increases nor decreases in hormones in either males or females are perfectly correlated with
sexual desire, it stands to reason that there must be other factors involved. As Hokanson (1969)
concludes, hormones serve the primary purpose of readying the individual for action, but other factors
determine whether the individual actually engages in sexual activity. Another physiological factor in
sexual motivation may well be odor and sense of smell. Of all the elements researched, odor and sense
of smell have received the least attention, probably because, as Kohl and Francoeur (1995) state, their
influence on sexual behavior is difficult to ascertain. However, body odor (i.e. airborne hormones)
definitely influences our behaviorus. In their review of numerous studies such as synchronization of
menstrual cycles of women who live together, and the influence of hormone-scented masks on
individuals' ratings of others, Kohl and Francoeur (1995) state that odor must be involved in our sexual
behaviours also. Odors may influence sexual behavior.

Sexual Orientation - Our desire to engage in sexual behavior with someone is also influenced by sexual
orientation. Sexual orientation refers to the direction of an individual's sexual attraction (Wood, et al.,
1996). Most individuals are heterosexual (Laumann, 1994; Wellings, et al., 1994) which means they are
primarily attracted to the opposite sex. Homosexuals are individuals who are attracted to the same sex
and bisexuals are attracted to both sexes. Why are individuals attracted to one sex rather than another?
LeVay (1995) believes that most researchers of the topic agree it is a combination of multiple factors
including genetic makeup, hormones and social experiences. He further believes that newer studies
(e.g., Bailey and Pillard, 1991; Bailey, Pillard, Neale, and Agyei, 1993) indicate that genes are perhaps
more influential than the other factors. Studies indicate that the percentage of individuals who call
themselves homosexual is quite small, ranging from about .5% to 2.8% (Laumann, 1994; Wellings, et
al., 1994). This estimate is significantly lower than the rates given in the problematic Kinsey Reports
(1948; 1953).

In his review of several studies on the prevalence of homosexuality, LeVay (1995) states that it is best to
keep an open mind towards reviewing new evidence since changing attitudes and beliefs appear to be
linked to self-stated homosexuality. What he was referring to was the indication that individuals are
more likely to express their gay behavior within their own culture as that culture becomes more
accepting of homosexuality. Thus it is apparent that culture influences the expression of one's sexual
orientation which in turn influences sexual motivation.

Pleasure - As mentioned earlier, pursuit of erotic pleasure is a primary reason to engage in sexual
behavior (Abramson et al., 1995; Hatfield et al., 1993). Kinsey and colleagues (1953) found that children
between the ages of 2 and 5 years of age spontaneously touch their genitals. At this age, one could not
argue that this sexual behavior is learned or designed to contribute to reproduction. Abramson and
Pinkerton (1995) point out that the pleasure of sexual behavior is physiologically and psychologically-
based and that the sex organs do not exist merely to guarantee reproductive behavior. As an example,
they cite the female orgasm, uncommon during vaginal penetration, but very common by more direct
means of clitoral stimulation. In other words, sexual pleasure does not occur merely to ensure
procreation. We engage in sexual behavior because it is enjoyable. However, as will be reviewed later,
what is considered pleasurable may well be influenced by one's interpretation of the stimuli. Cognitions
- How a stimulus is interpreted influences how individuals respond to that stimulus. Zellman and
Goodchild (1983) surveyed 400 teenagers and found that the behaviours girls felt conveyed romantic
interest were the same actions boys considered invitations to sex. Since societies create very different
gender roles for men and women, differences in interpretation of the same data are bound to occur
(Wade, et al., 1996). Wade's comments indicate that culture influences sexual behaviors, not only
through performance of behaviors that are considered appropriate, but also through interpretation of
those behaviours.

Cognitions and arousal - Based upon the results of surveys such as the Kinsey studies (1948; 1953), men
have been considered to be more sexually responsive than women. Early studies comparing men and
women's subjective responses to erotic films supported that theory. However, when studies were
conducted comparing male and female physiological responses to male-produced, male-intended erotic
films, researchers found that men and women actually experienced the same physiological arousal
(Laan, Everaerd, Van Bellen, and Hanewald; 1994). When participants were asked to express their
feelings about the stimuli,men reported sexual arousal and positive affect, yet women reported disgust
and lack of arousal. In other words, both men and women experienced the same physiological arousal
but different subjective arousal. When women viewed an erotic film produced by women for women,
the female participants showed the same physiologic arousal as they did to male-produced films, but
reported significantly greater sexual arousal, interest and positive affect. As interpreted by the
researchers, the difference was due to how women interpreted the content of the films.Essentially, this
study indicated that interpretation of the stimuli is of great importance in subjective feelings of sexual
arousal. Cognitions affect sexual arousal in another fashion. According to Kalat (1996), inhibition of
arousal can occur in individuals who believe that sex is shameful. These individuals experience sexual
arousal, but have difficulties achieving sexual orgasm because of their thoughts. Palace and Gorzalka
(1992) study sexually functional and dysfunctional women and found that cognitions and physiological
arousal were simultaneously important in sexual arousal. They hypothesized that cognitions and
physiological arousal comprise a feedback loop to determine overall sexual arousal. These many studies
indicate that the thoughts individuals have regarding various stimuli impact individuals sexual
motivation through influencing their arousal or their interpretations of behavior.

Attraction - Numerous elements have been identified as playing a role in attraction. For example,
attraction is a function of proximity (how frequently you cross paths with someone), familiarity and
similarity (e.g., in looks, or attitudes) (Kalat, 1996). This has been supported both with studies of
attraction to friends and to romantic partners. Playing hard-to-get also contributes to human's attraction
to one another

(Hatfield, Walster, Piliavin and Schmidt, 1988). Apparently individuals make attributions about potential
significant others based upon how quickly that person returns a show of interest. Those who are easily
attained are less attractive than those who are more difficult to attain due to the traits the relationship-
seeker attributes to her. For example, relationship seekers fear that easy-to-get women might display
inappropriate behaviors in public. However, a hard-to-get woman who indicates interest in the
relationship-seeker has positive traits attributed to her such as warmth and friendliness.

Another overwhelmingly important element in attraction is physical attractiveness. As stated previously,

research between attitudes and behaviors are not always consistent. Research onwhat individuals find
attractive in potential dates provides further evidence for this inconsistency in human sexual behavior.
Although subjects stated that physical attractiveness was one of the least important elements in their
attraction to someone else, in actual experiments using blind dates, the only factor which predicted
whether subjects desired a second date with the same person was the attractiveness of the blind date
(Walster, p Aronson, Abrahams, and Rottman, 1966). This was true for both male and female
participants of the study. In a study on physical attractiveness and relationship length, the factor which
best predicted whether couples would remain together nine months after they began dating was the
similarity in their physical attractiveness (White, 1980). This "matching" phenomenon in which people
tend to select mates that match them in terms of physical attractiveness, has been replicated and
expanded upon with consistent results (Feingold, 1988). It might seem that we learn to appreciate
beauty from the culture that we are born into, yet studies of

pre-school children indicate that they too, prefer attractive classmates and also make attributions based
on classmates' physical characteristics (Dion and Berscheid, 1971). Attraction to others is yet another
element of sexual motivation that has its roots in both nature and nurture -- it is obviously innate to
seek out attractive others, yet we still lean towards mates who are more similar to us, an apparent
influence of culture and learning in addition to an inherited predisposition. Learning - Learning is, of
course, highly influential in sexual motivation. We copy the behaviors of those we respect and admire.
We learn to repeat behaviors that are rewarded (and sexual behavior is rewarding for most) and we
learn to discontinue behaviors that have negative outcomes. Conditioning is believed to influence sexual
motivation. Certain stimuli may increase sexual arousal. For example, one might become sexually
aroused by candlelight due to the learned association with sexual preencounters such as a romantic,
candlelight dinner. It has also been proposed that conditioning accounts for sexually dysfunctional
behaviours and sexual deviance (O'Donohue and Plaud, 1994). For example, a pedophile (person
sexually aroused by children) might have been accidentally sexually aroused in the presence of a child.
Principles of conditioning indicate he would seek this same combination of factors in the future in order
to achieve the same pleasurable circumstances again. Fear of rejection, a learned component, is indeed
the reason most often given by single men for not engaging in sex. Matching theory (Carli, Ganley, and
Pierce-Otay, 1991), which states that individuals within couples are frequently very similar in
attractiveness ratings, is easily understood using the principles of conditioning. For example, an average-
looking man who is rebuffed whenever he approaches beautiful females should reduce his attempts to
interact with beautiful women. Similarly, he should rebuff less-attractive women if he could interact
with more attractive women. Who he ultimately couples with should be very similar in looks due to the
conditioning of each person's partner-choosing behaviors. Conditioning as a theory to explain sexual
deviance and dysfunction is not without its critics. O'Donohue and Plaud (1994) examined several
studies which used behavioural and aversion therapy to change sexual behaviors. Due to methodological
problems in the studies they examined, they believe that conditioning plays a much smaller role in
sexual motivation than previously believed. Thus conditioning may play some role in the sexual
motivation, but how much of a role it plays is not clear. Culture - As mentioned throughout this essay,
culture determines what behaviors are gender appropriate, what behaviors may or may not be
performed in public, and what behaviors are considered sexually arousing. Yet culture and learning are
inextricably tied together. An individual could not acquire his or her culture's norms without learning
taking place. Conversely, there is very little one could learn which is not influenced by culture. For
example, when we model the behaviors of individuals from our own society, we are copying behaviours
that are more than likely already societally-influenced. If we view behaviors performed by individuals
from another culture, we do so through lenses already colored by our society's influence. Hence any
learning we might acquire from a culturally-different person is mediated by our own culture first.

Attitudes and Culture - Attitudes are defined as relatively stable evaluations of a person, object, and
situation or issue (Wood et al., 1996). Studies have shown that behaviors normally considered proper in
one culture, may be improper or unarousing in another. In other words, attitudes towards sexual
behaviors are culturally learned. For example, some cultures find kissing repulsive (Tiefer, 1995) while
other cultures insist on same-gender sex as a rite of passage into adulthood (Herdt, 1984).

It is still noted, even in some surveys in the United States (e.g., Laumann et al., 1994), that men and
women have different attitudes toward sexual behaviors. For example, men are more interested in a
variety of sexual behaviors, such as group sex, than are women. These divergences are undoubtedly, as
mentioned earlier, a function of the gender roles each society impresses upon its members. A
comparison of Swedish and American college students sought to examine if indeed the difference in
men's and women's attitudes could be definitively tied to culture, rather than inherent gender
differences (Weinberg, Lottes, Shaver, 1995). Specifically, it was believed that men and women in
Sweden would have more convergent and relaxed attitudes toward sexual behaviors than the American
participants. Sweden is generally known to have more relaxed sexual standards. It is believed that this is
due, in part, to several years of mandatory sex education and the relatively equal power that women
have in society. The study indeed showed that Swedish men and women had very similar attitudes
towards sexual behaviours. Americans, as expected, had very different attitudes about what constituted
appropriate sexual behaviors. We should remember it was cautioned earlier against drawing causal
conclusions from a descriptive study such as this; however the information further indicates that culture
is associated with differences in sexual attitudes.

The influence of learningon sexual motivation is quite profoundAttraction, cognitions, and sexual
orientation, variables mentioned previously are also influenced by learning. Thus a key component
which determines the level of our sexual motivation is learning.