08 - Relay Design Tools - r12

Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401
Section 8 - Relay Design Tools
Power System Protection

For Engineers
Relay Design Tools
Copyright © SEL 2005
Relay Design Tools_r11 1

Relay Design Tools

Objectives
z Describe the Historical Development of

Protective Relay Design
z Explain the Basic Architecture of
Analog Relays
z Discuss Digital Relay Architecture

Power System Protection Functions
z Fault Detection
z Faulted Element Disconnection
z Fault Indication

Protective Devices
z Fuses
z Automatic Reclosers
z Sectionalizers
z Low-Voltage Breakers
z Protective Relays

Protection Using Fuses

t
Protected Protected
Equipment Equipment
td Fuse
Damage Curve
tc I
Fuse
Curves
The Total Clearing Time
Must Be Shorter Than the
In Imm Ix I
Equipment Damage Time
Fuse Rating
Fuse:
“An overcurrent protective device with a circuit-opening fusible part that is heated
and severed by the passage of the overcurrent through it” (IEEE 100)

Protection Unit Using

Circuit Breakers and Relays
BUS
Protected
CB CT IP Equipment
IS
Relay PROTECTIVE RELAY
z The Total Clearing Time Must Be Shorter

Than the Equipment Damage Time.
Relay:
“A relay whose function is to detect defective lines or apparatus or other power system
conditions of an abnormal nature and to initiate appropiate control circuit action”
(IEEE 100)

Sequence of Events During a Fault

Fault Fault Fault is
Occurs Current Cleared
Current
Normal
Load BUS
Current CT CB
IP Fault
tr tm ta IS
tcb PR
tc
The slide shows a simplification of the fault clearing process by a relayed circuit
breaker.
The process of clearing a fault has several steps. The first step, the detection function
is performed by the protective relay. The relay also makes the decision of tripping, or
not tripping, the high voltage circuit breaker.
Relays are normally designed to operate in a very short time. When no intentional
delay is required, the operation time of a relay is between 1 to 3 cycles.
In this slide:
tr = relay time
ta = arcing time
tcb = CB time
tc = total clearing time
tm = mechanism time

Simple Protective Relay

Auxiliary input
(AC or DC)
PR
Input Output
(dry contact)
Current, Settings
The contact
Voltage
is used to
(both I & V),
energize the
or other
circuit breaker’s
quantities
The relay thresholds trip coil
and operation time
need to be set
A protective relay can be represented as a non-linear system, which has inputs,

outputs, and a transfer function.
The inputs are generally currents and/or voltages.
The outputs are dry contacts. Some modern relays have other kinds of outputs. The
contacts are used to energize the circuit breaker trip coil.
Unlike fuses, relays are flexible devices which can be set to operate for different
situations. The settings include the thresholds (limits), the time delay (when required),
and others. These settings must be calculated by the engineers.

Fault Detection Principles
z Level Detection
Current
Voltage
z Phase Angle Comparison

z Distance Measurement

Fault Detection Principles
z Differential Comparison
z Magnitude Comparison
z Frequency Sensing
z Harmonic Content Detection

Protective Relay Types
z Overcurrent (50, 51)

z Voltage (59, 27)
z Directional (67)
z Distance (21)
z Differential (87)
z Frequency (81)

Protective Relay Designs
z Electromechanical Relays
z Electronic Analog Relays
Vacuum and gas tubes
Solid state (transistors, integrated
circuits)
z Microprocessor-Based (Digital) Relays

Electromechanical Relays
z Research Began at the End of the 19th

Century
z The Relay Family Was Completed in
the 1930’s
z They Are Still in Use

Magnetic Attraction Unit

Instantaneous Element
Force of Contact:
F=k•I2
In an elecrtomagnetic attraction element, the current applied to the relay coil produces
a magnetic flux that attracts a ferromagnetic moving element.
The figure shows different constructions of electromagnetic attraction relays. The two
upper structures in the figure are hinged armature designs for two and one input
signals respectively. The lower structure is a plunger type design. The electromagnetic
operating force is roughly proportional to the air gap flux squared.
The units do not have an intentional delay, so they are called instantaneous units.

Induction Disc Unit
Contacts
Torque Over
Permanent
the Disc:
Magnet
Driving
Winding
T=k•I2
Magnet
Disk
Shaft
Shading Coil
The well-known induction disc relay will be studied later in the course.

Induction Cylinder (Product) Units
Cylinder
I2
I1
I1
Torque Over
Cylinder:
I2
T = k • |I1| • |I2| • sin β =
= k • |I1| • |I2| • cos (β−90ο)
The induction cylinder relay operates when the angle between two quantities is in a
given range. For the case presented in the slide, the torque is positive (relay operation)
when:
Sin(β) > 0
Which means
0 < β < 180o

Electronic Analog Relays

(Vacuum and Gas Tubes)
z Research Began in the 1930’s

z A Commercial Relay Appeared in 1948
z Low Reliability

Solid State Relays

z First Commercial Products in the Late
1950’s
z Full Development in the 1960’s
z Advantages Over Electromechanical
Relays

Analog Static Relay Example

R1 R2
R7
R5
i T R3
D1 D2 +
D6 D7 A
C
D5 –
R4 R6
D3 D4
+15 V
R8
R9
D8
R10
Solid State Analog Relays (SSAR) evolved into very elaborated devices.
The components of the late SSAR are resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors,
operational amplifiers, etc.

Analog Relay Architecture
Input Signal Timing

Comparison Tripping Tripping
Signals Processing and Logic
Element Element Signals
Element Element
Setting
Quantities
Signalling Operation
Element Indication

Signal Comparison in Analog Relays
z Simple Input / Level Detector

z Amplitude (Magnitude) Comparison
z Phase Comparison
z Hybrid Comparison (Amplitude and
Phase)

Level Detector
v v
L. D. y
v0 v0
T
y
Operates when
v > v0
v0 is the
threshold T
The level detector compares the magnitude of the input with a fixed threshold.

Amplitude Comparator
|S1| - |S2|
S1
A. C. y
S2 T
y
Operates
when
|S1|>|S2| or
|S1| - |S2| > 0 T
The diagram shows a two-input magnitude comparator.

Angle or Phase Comparator
angle(S1) – angle(S2)
θ2
S1 y
A. C. θ1
S2
y
Operates when
θ1<angle(S1)-
angle(S2)<θ2
T
The diagram shows a two-input phase (or angle) comparator.

Amplitude Comparison
r r θ r r θ
Input signals: S1 = S1 ∠ S1 S 2 = S 2 ∠ S2
→
→ →
Operation S1 > S 2 Im{W }
Condition:
Operation
S1 = Operation signal Zone
Restraint
S2 = Restraint signal
Zone
→
Define: Re{W }
→ → →
W = S1 S2
The performance of amplitude comparator is normally studied by using the complex

plane.
The complex variable is defined as the ratio between the two phasors representing the
two inputs of the comparator.

Phase Comparison
→ →
Input signals: S 1 = S1 ∠α S1 , S 2 = S 2 ∠α S2
Operation Condition: θ 1 < α S1 − α S 2 < θ 2
S1: Operation signal

Operation
S2: Polarizing signal θ2 Zone
θ1
Restraint
→ → →
W = S1 S2 Zone
The input signals can be represented by their phasors as follows:
S1 = S1 ∠arg(S1)
S2 = S2 ∠arg(S2)
The comparator will produce an output (operation) if the angle between the two
phasors is within a given range. In other words, the comparator will operate if:
θ1 < arg(S1/S2) < θ2

Sine-Type Phase Comparator
Operation Condition for θ1 = 0 and θ 2 = π :
0≤θ≤π
This is Equivalent to:
sin θ ≥ 0

Cosine-Type Phase Comparator
π π
Operation Condition for θ1 = − and θ2 = :
2 2
π π
− ≤θ≤
2 2
This is Equivalent to:
cos θ ≥ 0
This is probably the most popular type of comparator used in protective relays.
Note that there is a duality between sine and cosine comparators.
There is also a duality between phase and magnitude comparators. For a given phase
comparator, there is an equivalent magnitude comparator which performs the same
function.

Digital Relays

z Basic Developments: Early 1970’s
z A Technical and Economic Solution:
the Microprocessor
z Commercial Relays: Early 1980’s

Some Initial Publications
z Substation Equipment Protection:

Rockefeller, 1969
z Bus Protection: Cory, 1970
z Line Protection: Mann, 1971
z Transformer Protection: Sykes, 1972
z Generator Protection: Sachdev, 1973

Input/Output Scheme of a Digital

Relay
Auxiliary Input
(AC or DC)
Dry contacts
Analog Inputs Computer Based Outputs
(trip, alarm,
Relay etc.)
Discrete Inputs (Digital Relay)
“Live” outputs
Computer
Communications

Digital Relay Architecture

Analog Discrete Tripping
M Input A/D Output M Outputs
Subsystem Subsystem
Operation
Discrete Microprocessor Signalling
M Input
Subsystem
M } Communications
Ports
RAM ROM / PROM EEPROM

Analog Input Subsystem
z Surge Suppression
z Signal Conditioning
z Galvanic Isolation
z Low-Pass Filtering
Anti-aliasing

Analog Input System
Analog filter
Input
Output

Discrete Input Subsystem
z Surge Suppression
z Signal Conditioning
z Galvanic Isolation
The treatment is similar that the treatment for continuous analog inputs.

Sampling of Analog Signals
S/H
Input Output
Continuous Signal Sampled Signal

Sampled Signal
Present
Sample
∆t = Sampling Rate
Sampling frequency is the inverse of sampling rate.

Analog to Digital (A/D) Conversion
Input Output
A/D
00000001
00000101
00001001
00100100
10010000
:
Analog Signal Digital Signal

Alternatives for A/D Conversion

A/D
Analog Analog
Inputs
M MUX A/D
Inputs
Buffer
A/D
Clock
Clock
S/H
Analog
Inputs
M MUX A/D
S/H
Clock

Digital Relay Algorithm

READ LAST SAMPLE k
DIGITAL FILTERING
PHASOR CALCULATION
Modify if PROTECTION METHODS

required
NO-TRIP RELAY LOGIC
TRIP ORDER
The relay algorithm is a set of mathematical operations implemented in a program. These

operations are performed over the last N samples of the sampled input signal. The relay
makes the decision of tripping (or not) the circuit breaker based on the result of this
algorithm. The algorithm presented in the slide is a particular example. The routines are:
• Reading Routines (Read last sample). This part of the program is in charge of
reading the last sample of the input signals.
• Routines for Digital Filtering. The digital filter smooth the signal, by
eliminating DC and frequencies components different than the fundamental
(when required).
• Routines for Phasor Calculation. These routines determine phasors V and I

from the samples of the sampled signals.
• Routines for Protection Methods. These routines implement the protection

function: overcurrent, directional, distance, differential, etc.
• Routines for Relay Logic. With the results of the protection methods routines,
the relay logics make the final decisions for tripping and other relay functions. In
some modern relays, the logic can be programmed by the user.
Sometimes the digital filtering routines and the phasor calculation routines are considered
the same module.

Reading Routines
Present
Sample
k
k-1
k-2
∆t = Sampling Rate
This part of the program is in charge of reading the last sample of the input signals.

Digital Filtering
Non-Filtered Signal
(Samples)
DIGITAL FILTERING
Filtered Signal
(Samples)
The digital filter smoothes the signal by eliminating DC and frequencies components
that are different than the fundamental (when required).

Phasor Calculation
Filtered Signal
(Samples)
PHASOR CALCULATION
|I|
Phasor Samples: θ
Ref.
Magnitude and Angle
vs. Reference
These routines determine phasors V and I from the samples of the signals.

Protection Methods
z Overcurrent (50, 51)

z Voltage (59, 27) PHASOR CALCULATION
z Directional (67)
PROTECTION METHODS
z Distance (21)
RELAY LOGIC
z Differential (87)
z Frequency (81)
These routines implement the protection function: overcurrent, directional, distance,

differential, etc.

Relay Logic
Next Sample
Modify if Protection Methods

required
No-trip RELAY LOGIC
Trip Order
With the results of the protection methods routines, the relay logic makes the final
decisions for tripping and other relay functions. In some modern relays, the logic can
be programmed by the user. The results of a logic function could be used to modify
the protection method. Sometimes this is called “torque control” to make a similitude
with old electromechanical relays.

Programmable Logic
(+)
A
A C D
B
Logic
B C E
D
Equation Implemented:
(-)
E = A•B + C + !D
Programmable logic is an extraordinary feature of digital relays. The user has a large
number of possibilities to define a logic function according to the present needs.
Inside the relay, there is a logic variable associated with several relay and protection
functions. These variables can be employed to create new logic variables, according to
laws defined by the user.

Digital Relay Programmable Outputs
Y1
Y2
Inputs
Y3
Y3
The outputs of some modern digital relays can be programmed. It allows the user to
send to the external world the decisions made by the logical functions created
according to the user needs.

Advantages of Digital Relays
z Low Cost
z Multifunctionality
Protection and control
Measurement
Fault recording
Communications capability

z Compatibility with Digital Integrated

Systems
z High Reliability
Relays (integration, self-testing)
Protection system (supervised by the
relays)

z Sensitivity and Selectivity

New Protection Principles
New Relay Operating Characteristics
z Maintenance-Free
z Reduced Burden on CTs and VTs
z Adaptive Protection

08 - Relay Design Tools - r12

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

08 - Relay Design Tools - r12

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

08 - Relay Design Tools - r12

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Power System Protection

Relay Design Tools

Copyright © SEL 2005

Relay Design Tools_r11 1

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Relay Design Tools

z Describe the Historical Development of

Relay Design Tools_r11 2

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Power System Protection Functions

Relay Design Tools_r11 3

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Relay Design Tools_r11 4

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Protection Using Fuses

Relay Design Tools_r11 5

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Protection Unit Using

Relay PROTECTIVE RELAY

z The Total Clearing Time Must Be Shorter

Relay Design Tools_r11 6

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Sequence of Events During a Fault

Relay Design Tools_r11 7

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Simple Protective Relay

A protective relay can be represented as a non-linear system, which has inputs,

The inputs are generally currents and/or voltages.

Relay Design Tools_r11 8

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Fault Detection Principles

z Phase Angle Comparison

Relay Design Tools_r11 9

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Fault Detection Principles

Relay Design Tools_r11 10

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Protective Relay Types

z Overcurrent (50, 51)

Relay Design Tools_r11 11

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Protective Relay Designs

z Microprocessor-Based (Digital) Relays

Relay Design Tools_r11 12

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

z Research Began at the End of the 19th

Relay Design Tools_r11 13

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Magnetic Attraction Unit

Relay Design Tools_r11 14

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Induction Disc Unit

Relay Design Tools_r11 15

Section 8 - Relay Design Tools

Induction Cylinder (Product) Units

0 < β < 180o

Relay Design Tools_r11 16