IEE Power Engineering Series 1

Power circuit breaker

theory and design
Edited by
C. H. FLURSCHEIM, B.A., F.Eng., Fei. I.E.E.E., F.I.Mech.E., F.I.E.E.
Consultant to Metz and McLellan

PETER PEREGRINUS LTD.

on behalf of the
Institution of Electrical Engineers
 VII

Contents
page

Authors v

Foreword xviü

1 Development of circuit breakers 1

C. H. Flurscheim, B.A., Fei. I.E.E.E., C.Eng., FJ.Mech.E., F.I.E.E.
1.1 The function of circuit breakers 1
1.2 Development of circuit breakers: oil 4
1.3 Development of circuit breakers: air 9
1.4 Development of circuit breakers: airblast 10
1.5 Development of circuit breakers: SF 6 14
1.6 Development of circuit breakers: vacuum 14
1.7 Development of circuit breakers: special Systems 16
1.8 Summary 17
1.9 References 18

2 Physics of circuit-breaker arcs 20

M. P. Reece, B.Sc, Ph,D„ C.Eng., F.I.E.E.
2.1 Introduction: arc as switching element in circuit breakers 20
2.2 Types of arc used in circuit breakers 21
2.3 High-pressure arcs 21
2.3.1 Characteristics of high-pressure arcs 21
2.3.2 Electrode regions 23
2.3.3 Arc column 25
2.3.4 Ionisation in arcs 25
2.3.4.1 Thermal ionisation 26
2.3.4.2 Ionisation by collision 26
2.3.4.3 Formation of negative ions 27
2.3.5 Recombination 29
2.3.6 Electron and positive-ion velocities in arc column 30
2.3.7 Current flow, conductivity and power dissipation in arc
column 31
2.3.8 Magnetic phenomena in arcs :circumferential fields 32
2.3.9 Magnetic phenomena in arcs : transverse fields 32
2.3.10 Thermal phenomena in arc 33
2.3.10.1 Temperature distribution in arcs 34
2.3.10.2 Arcboundary 36
2.3.11 Static arc characteristics 36
2.3.12 Are in transient state 38
2.3.13 Dynamic arc equations and arc extinetion 39
2.3.14 Post zero currents and arc time constants 45
2.3.15 Current chopping 47
2.4 Vacuum arc 47
VIII Contents

2.4.1 Definition of vacuum arc 47

2.4.2 The two vacuum-arc regimes 48
2.4.3 Diffuse vacuum arc 48
2.4.3.1 Cathodespot 48
2.4.3.2 Plasma region 49
2.4.4 Transition from diffuse to constricted arc 51
2.4.5 Fully constricted vacuum arc 52
2.4.6 Interrupting ability of vacuum arc 52
2.4.7 Current-zero processes in diffuse arc 52
2.4.8 Post-zero currents 53
2.5 Methods of measurement of arc properties 55
2.5.1 Category (a): measurements 56
2.5.1.1 Voltage 56
2.5.1.2 Current 56
2.5.1.3 Pressure 57
2.5.1.4 Arc geometry 57
2.5.2 Category ( b ) : fundamental studies 58
2.5.2.1 Arc temperature 58
2.5.2.2 Gas density 59
2.5.2.3 Electron densities 59
2.6 Acknowledgment 59
2.7 References 59

3 Network switching conditions 64

M. W. Kennedy, B.Sc, Ph.D., Mem. I.E.E.E., CEng., M.I.E.E.
3.1 Introduction 64
3.2 Short-circuit switching : power-frequency phenomena 64
3.2.1 Three-phase short-circuit switching : power-frequency
recovery voltage 64
3.2.2 Asymmetrie short-circuit switching 66
3.2.3 Effect of neutral earthing 66
3.3 Short-circuit switching :natural-frequency phenomena 67
3.3.1 Transient recovery voltage 67
3.3.2 Short-line faults 77
3.4 Load and System switching 83
3.4.1 Effect of load power factor 83
3.4.2 Out-of-phase switching 89
3.4.3 Single-phase switching 92
3.4.4 Closing and reclosing on long transmission lines 95
3.5 Reactive-current switching 100
3.5.1 Current chopping with small reactive currents 100
3.5.2 Capacitance switching 109
3.6 References 119
3.7 General bibliography 122
3.8 List of Symbols 123

4 Oil cireuit breakers 125

D. F. Amer, CEng., F.I.E.E.
4.1 Introduction 125
4.2 Interrupters rdesign and principles 127
4.2.1 General 127
 Contents ix
4.2.2 Cross blast 127
4.2.3 Axial arc-control units 129
4.2.4 Factors Controlling Performance 129
4.2.4.1 Speed of break 129
4.2.4.2 Speeds of make 130
4.2.4.3 Gass generated during circuit breaking 131
4.2.4.4 Typical interrupter characteristics 133
4.2.5 Interrupters in series 134
4.2.6 Features of construction 135
3 Contacts and conductors: design principles 139
4.3.1 General 139
4.3.2 Normal current carrying 139
4.3.2.1 Skin and proximity effects 142
4.3.3 Short-circuit current carrying 142
4.3.3.1 Electromechanical forces 142
4.3.3.2 Carrying of short-time currents 143
4.3.4 Features of construction 146
4 Mechanisms :design principles 148
4.4.1 General 148
4.4.2 Energy levels 150
4.4.3 Trip-mechanism chain 152
4.4.4 Latches 155
4.4.5 Electromagnetic actuators 157
4.4.5.1 General 157
4.4.5.2 Series-connected tripping devices 158
4.4.5.3 Shunt-connected tripping devices 158
4.4.6 Features of construction 160
4.4.7 Pneumatic-hydraulic mechanisms 162
5 Insulation: design principles 162
4.5.1 General 162
4.5.2 Coordination of insulation 164
4.5.3 Effects of carbon and water 165
4.5.4 Constructional features 166
4.5.4.1 Materials 166
4.5.4.2 Bushings 166
4.5.4.3 Stand-off insulation 169
6 Construction of circuit breakers 169
4.6.1 General 169
4.6.2 Open-type dead tank circuit breakers 169
4.6.2.1 General 169
4.6.2.2 69 kV dead-tank circuit breakers 171
4.6.2.3 161/220 kV dead-tank circuit breakers 172
4.6.2.4 300-380 kV dead-tank circuit breakers 174
4.6.3 Open-type live-tank equipment 175
4.6.3.1 Single-break type 175
4.6.3.2 Multibreak type 177
4.6.4 Metalclad circuit breakers 179
4.6.4.1 General 179
4.6.4.2 Metalclad dead-tank type 179
4.6.4.3 Metalclad live-tank type 180
4.6.5 Insulation-clad circuit breakers 180
x Contents

4.6.6 Features at the interface of application 180

4.6.6.1 General 180
4.6.6.2 Secondary control features 180
4.6.6.3 Foundations 183
4.6.6.4 Low temperatures 185
4.6.6.5 Earthquake conditions 185
4.6.6.6 Slow opening and closing 185
4.7 E.H.V. oil circuit breakers of the future 185
4.8 Acknowledgments 187
4.9 References 187
Air-break circuit breakers 189
J. S. Morton, B.Sc, C.Eng., F.I.E.E.
5.1 Air-break circuit breaking 189
5.1.1 Principles of arc extinction 189
5.1.2 Power-balance theory of arcing 190
5.1.3 D.C. circuit breaking 190
5.1.4 A.C. circuit breaking 190
5.2 Arc control 192
5.2.1 Contacts and arc initiation 192
5.2.2 Arc chutes 194
5.2.2.1 Bare-metal-plate type or cold cathode 194
5.2.2.2 Insulated stee! plate 196
5.2.2.3 Insulated plate with external iron circuit 199
5.2.2.4 Insulated plate with external blowout coils and no
iron circuit 201
5.2.2.5 Insulated plate 'solenarc' 202
5.2.3 Performance characteristics 203
5.2.3.1 Arching time/current characteristics 203
5.2.3.2 Voltage/current characteristic 205
5.2.3.3 Interrupting Performance 206
5.3 Construction 208
5.3.1 D.C. circuit breakers
5.3.1.1 Insulated plate arc chutes 209
5.3.1.2 Cold-cathode arc chute 211
5.3.2 Low-voltage a.c. air-break circuit breakers 219
5.3.3 High-voltage circuit breakers 222
5.4 Mechanisms 224
5.4.1 Closing-mechanism design Parameters 224
5.4.1.1 Design problems 225
5.4.2 Tripping mechanism and design Parameters 227
5.4.3 Mechanism linkages 227
5.5 Fused circuit breaker 231
5.6 Acknowledgments 234
5.7 References 234

Air-blast circuit breakers 235

S. M. Gonek, C.Eng., F.I.E.E.
6.1 Introduction 235
6.2 Properties of compressed-air medium 238
6.2.1 General 238
 Contents XI

6.2.2 Static electrical properties 238

6.2.3 Dynamic electrical properties 240
6.2.4 Mechanical properties 248
6.3 Interrupter types 253
6.4 Circuit-breaker types and basic arrangements 255
6.4.1 'Open-terminals'type 255
6.4.2 Metalclad type 257
259
6.4.3 Isolators
6.4.4 Voltage-control impedances 261
6.4.5 Contacts 273
6.4.6 Vaives and air engines 276
6.4.7 Silencers 280
6.5 Operating sequences and requirements 281
281
6.5.1 General
6.5.2 Closing 282
6.5.3 Opening 284
6.6 Examples of typical circuit breakers 284
3
6.7 Acknowledgments ^2
SF 6 circuit breakers 303
Parti
E. Maggi, Dr. Ing.
7.1 Historical 303
7.2 Properties of SF 6 303
7.2.1 Physical properties 303
7.2.2 Chemical properties 304
7.2.3 Electric properties 305
7.3 SF 6 circuit breakers 308
7.3.1 Methods of current interruption 308
7.3.2 Metal-enclosed double-pressure types 309
7.3.3 Insulated-construction double-pressure types 311
7.3.4 Gas drying for double-pressure types 314
7.3.5 High-voltage impulse (or puffer) types 315
7.3.6 Distribution impulse types 320
7.4 Nozzles for SF 6 circuit breakers 326
7.5 Future developments in SF 6 circuit breakers 327
Part II: Recent developments in S F 6 circuit breakers (1981)
C. A. Fawdrey, B.Sc, C.Eng., M.I.E.E,
7.6 Methods of current interruption 328
7.7 SF 6 circuit-breaker types 329
7.7.1 Metal-enclosed double-pressure types 329
7.7.2 E.H.V. puffer types 331
7.7.3 H.V. puffer types for distribution voltages 336
7.7.4 Metalclad gas-insulated types 337
7.7.5 Self-extinction types 340
7.8 Operating mechanisms 341
7.8.1 Spring mechanisms 341
7.8.2 Pneumatic mechanisms 343
7.8.3 Hydraulic mechanisms 345
7.9 Gas mixtures 345
7.10 Acknowledgments 346
7.11 References 346
xii Contents

Vacuum circuit breakers 350

M. F. Reece, B.Sc, Ph.ü., C.Eng., F.LE.E.
8.1 Introduction 350
8.2 Arcing phenomena in vacuum related to contacts for vacuum
interrupters 353
8.2.1 Basic processes 353
8.2.2 Spiral petal contact 353
8.2.3 Contrate contact 356
8.3 Design and construction of power vacuum interrupters 357
8.4 Interrupting ability of the vacuum interrupter 362
8.4.1 Interruption 362
8.4.2 Reignition in vacuum interrupters 363
8.4.3 Capacitance current switching 364
8.4.4 Interruption of small inductive currents 364
8.5 Design of vacuum circuit breakers 364
8.5.1 General form and geometry of vacuum circuit breakers 364
8.5.2 Interrupter mounting 365
8.5.3 Mechanical-drive arrangements 366
8.5.4 Moving-contact guidance 366
8.5.5 Connections to moving-contact stem 366
8.5.6 Current feed to the interrupter 366
8.5.7 Contact pressure 366
8.5.8 Contact stroke 367
8.5.9 Contact speed (closing) 367
8.5.10 Contact speed (openmg) 368
8.5.11 Accelerating forces 368
8.5.12 Contact wear 368
8.5.13 Interrupter cooltng 369
8.5.14 Mechanical biasing 369
8.5.15 Insulation 369
8.6 Vacuum tests for vacuum interrupters 370
8.7 Vacuum circuit breaker types 371
8.8 Examples of vacuum circuit breakers 371
8.8.1 Circuit breakers for distribution and utilisation 371
8.8.2 'Second generation' distribution circuit breakers 373
8.8.3 25 kV railway trackside circuit breaker 376
8.8.4 RaiJway rooftop circuit breaker 377
8.8.5 E.H.V. circuit breakers 377
8.9 Vacuum interrupters since 1975 381
8.9.1 Developments in vacuum interrupters 381
8.9.2 Developments in contact struetures 381
8.9.3 Developments in contact materials 383
8.9.4 Interrupter ratings currentiy available 383
8.9.5 Interrupter unit voltage ratings 384
8.9.6 Continuous current ratings 384
8.9.7 Short circuit current ratings 384
8.10 Vacuum circuit-breakers since 1 975 384
8.10.1 Developments in vacuum circuit-breakers 384
8.10.2 Vacuum circuit-breakers for distribution Systems 385
8.10.3 Service experience 386
8.11 Acknowledgments 386
 Contents XIII

8.12 References 386

Special switching Systems 388

M. N. John, B.Sc, Sen. Mem. I.E.E.E., C.Eng., F.I.E.E.
9.1 Introduction 388
9.2 Power fuses 388
9.2.1 H.R.C. fuses 388
9.2.2 Expulsion fuses 390
9.2.3 Explosive fuses 390
9.3 Current-Variation Systems 392
9.3.1 Scope for applications 392
9.3.2 Resonance links 394
9.3.3 Controlled transformer-type interconnectors 399
9.3.4 Switched-resistor current-linking device (cl.d.) 400
9.3.5 Superconducting short-await limitei 404
9.4 Synchronised switching 406
9.4.1 Short-circuit testing 406
9.4.2 System applications 408
9.5 H.V.D.C. switching Systems 409
9.5.1 The need for switchgear 409
9.5.2 Circuit-breaker duty 410
9.5.3 Methods of Interruption 411
9.5.4 H.V.D.C. vacuum circuit breakers 411
9.5.5 High-speed oil-cooled h.v.d.c. circuit breaker 414
9.6 Semiconductor switching 416
9.6.1 Static circuit breakers 416
9.6.2 Power thyristor string design 418
9.7 Acknowledgments 421
9.8 References 421
401
Circuit-breaker specification and testing 424
/ . A. Suliivan, C.Eng., F.I.E.E.
10.1 Specification 424
10.2 Environment 425
10.3 Normal Service conditions 425
10.3.1 Ambient air temperature 426
10.3.2 Altitude 426
10.3.3 Atmospheric conditions 426
10.4 Mechanical testing 427
10.4.1 Mechanical-endurance type test 427
10.4.2 Operating limits 428
10.4.3 Component testing 428
10.5 Withstand-voltage tests 429
10.5.1 Design tests 430
10.5.1.1 Up-and-down method 430
10.5.1.2 Fixed-voltage multi-shot method 430
10.5.1.3. Cumulative frequency method 431
10.5.1.4 Contour-lines method 431
10.6 Power-factor tests 432
10.7 Partial-discharge testing 433
10.8 Radio-interference tests
xiv Contents

Temperature-rise tests 435

10.9.1 Test arrangement 436
10.9.2 Temperature measurement 437
10.9.3 Control and auxiliary circuits 438
10.9.4 Main circuit resistance 439
10.9.5 Interpretation of results 439
Short-circuit testing 440
10.10.1 Testing Standards 440
10.10.2 Transient recovery voltages 441
10.10.3 Inherent circuit Parameters 444
10.10.4 Methods of test 445
10.10.5 Voltagc distribution 445
10.10.6 Unit testing 449
10.10.7 Point on wave 452
10.10.8 Arrangements for test 453
10.10.9 Failure diagnosis 455
Synthetic testing 457
10.11.1 Voltage injeetion 458
10.11.2 Current injeetion 460
10.11.3 Validity of synthetic testing 462
10.11.4 Current interrupted 462
10.11.5 Rate of change of current 462
10.11.6 Pre-zero current period 462
10.11.7 Post-arc duration 463
10.11.8 Recovery voltage 464
10.11.9 Injeetion time 464
10.11.10 Synthetic test procedure 464
10.11.11 MultHoop testing 465
10.11.12 Resistance-switched circuit breakers 465
10.11.13 Short-line fault: current injeetion 468
10.11.14 Making capacity 468
10.11.15 Composite test duties 468
Test facilities 469
10.12.1 Short-circuit generators 470
10.12.2 Short-circuit making switch 471
10.12.3 Master circuit breaker 471
10.12.4 Transformers 471
10.12.5 Current-limiting reactors and resistors 472
10.12.6 Connections 472
10.12.7 Artificial transmission lines 472
10.12.8 Capacitors 472
10.12.9 Measuring and control equipment 473
10.12.10 Auxiliary plant 474
10.12.11 Synthetic recovery voltage source 474
10.12.12 Spark gaps for synthetic circuits 474
10.12.13 Reignition equipment for synthetic circuits 475
10.12.14 Auxiliary circuit breaker for synthetic circuits 475
Capacitive current switching 475
10.13.1 Line charging current 477
10.13.2 Cable charging current 478
10.13.3 Capacitor bank current 478
 Contents xv

10.14 Low inductive current switching 479

10.15 Evolving faults 481
10.16 Circuit breaking in parallel 482
10.17 Special Service conditions 483
10.17.1 Flammable atmospheres 483
10.17.2 Pollution 484
10.17.3 Earthquakes 486
10.17.4 Shipboard installations 487
10.17.5 Noise 488
10.18 References 489

11 Design criteria for reliabUity, maintenance and safety 490

/ . A. Sullivan, C.Eng., F.I.E.E.
11.1 Introduction 490
11.2 Operating statistics 491
11.3 ReliabUity 492
11.3.1 Toggles and bearings 492
11.3.2 Running fits 494
11.3.3 Auxiliary Switches 494
11.3.4 Springs 495
11.3.5 Air and high-pressure oil leaks 495
11.3.6 Gas valves 496
11.3.7 Gaskets 497
11.3.8 Shock loading 497
11.3.9 Finishes 498
11.4 Electrical failure 499
11.5 Maintenance 500
11.6 Simplicity 502
11.7 Reference 502
494
503
12 Insulation applied to circuit breakers
D. Legg, B.Sc, C.Eng., M.I.E.E.
12.1 Technique of insulation design 503
12.2 Gaseous insulation 509
12.2.1 Gases used for circuit breakers 509
12.2.2 Electric strength of air 510
12.2.2.1 Uniform fields 510
12.2.2.2 Nonuniform fields 512
12.2.3 Electric strength of sulphur hexafluoride 516
12.2.4 Conditioning effects 517
12.2.5 Effect of particles 519
12.2.6 Effect of electrode area 520
12.2.7 Effect of temperature 521
12.2.8 Surface flashover of insulating spacers in gases 521
12.2 Vacuum insulation 523
12.3.1 Elect ric strength of a vacuum 524
12.3.1.1 Dependence on electrode Separation 524
12.3.1.2 Pressure effect 524
12.3.1.3 Conditioning 524
12.3.1.4 Electrode material 525
12.3.1.5 Electrode shape 526
 Contents
12.3.1.6 Flashover across solid üisulation in a
vacuum 527
12.4 Insulating liquids 527
12.4.1 Electric strength of mineral oil 528
12.4.1.1 Effect of impurities 530
12.4.1.2 Effect of oil volume 532
12.4.1.3 Effect of frequency 533
12.4.1.4 Effect of hydrostatic pressure 534
12.4.1.5 Flashover solid insulation in oil 534
12.5 Solid insulation 535
12.5.1 General 535
12.5.2 Plastics 535
J 2.5.2.1 Thermoplastics 536
12.5.2.2 Thermosetting plastics 536
12.5.2.3 Elastomers 538
12.5.3 Cast epoxide resin 539
12.5.3.1 Stress control 540
12.5.3.2 Electric strength 540
12.5.3.3 Mechanical strength 543
12.5.4 Reinforced plastics 544
12.5.4.1 Electrical properties of glass-reinforced
epoxide resin - 545
12.5.4.2 Mechanical properties of glass-reinforced
epoxide resin 545
12.5.5 Paper insulation 547
12.5.5.1 Synthetic resin-bonded-paper (s.r.b.p.)
bushings 548
12.5.5.2 Oil-impregnated-paper (o.i.p.) bushings 548
12.5.5.3 Epoxy-resin paper bushings 548
12.5.5.4 Stresses in circuit-breaker bushings 548
12.5.6 Porcelain 550
12.5.6.1 General properties 550
12.5.6.2 Design criteria 552
12.5.7 Electrical degradation of solid insulation 553
12.5.7.1 Thermal deterioration 553
12.5.7.2 Tracking 555
12.5.7.3 Voids and partial discharge 556
12.6 Acknowledgments 557
12.7 References 557

Cost effective design 563

C. H. Flurscheim, B.A., Fel.I.E.E.E., C.Eng., F.LMech.E., F.I.E.E.
13.1 Cost effective approach to design objective 563
13.2 Specification of requirements 565
13.2.1 Specification of Performance and rating 565
13.2.2 Specification of future rating requirements 565
13.2.3 Specification of special requirements 565
13.2.4 Specification of production requirements 566
13.2.5 Definition of the development Programme 567
13.2.6 Specification of cost objectives 568
13.3 Cost effective design :standardisation 569
 Contents xvii
13.4 Cost effective design: Performance and simplification 570
13.5 Cost effective design: use of materials 579
13.5.1 Porcelain 579
13.5.2 Cast epoxy resin 582
13.5.3 Laminated wood and fibreglass operating rods 584
13.5.4 Filament wound insulation 587
13.6 Cost effective design: assembly and test 588
13.7 Changes in design 589
13.8 Acknowledgments 590
Appendix A Virtual current chopping 591
M. P. Reece, B.Sc, Ph.D., F.Eng., F.I.E.E.
A.l Introduction 591
A.2 Conditions for Virtual chopping to occur 591
A.3 Causes of parasitic current zeros 592
A.4 Likelihood of interruption at a parasitic zero 592
A.5 Prospective overvoltage generated by Virtual chopping 593
A,6 Sensitivity of different circuit-breakers to parasitic current zeros 593
A.7 Forms of Virtual chopping 594
Chopping in the same phase 594
Chopping on closing 594
Chopping in an adjacent phase 595
A.8 Practica! importance of Virtual current chopping 595

Index 597