Balanced Cantilever Bridges

Introduction
BCBs are adopted for comparatively longer spans where simply supported,
continuous or rigid frame type superstructures are found unsuitable. Simply
supported decks of any type having spans more than 20 to 30 m. require
comparatively greater depths and therefore, become uneconomical.
On the other-hand, continuous or rigid frame type bridges, though cheaper,
must be founded on unyielding foundations since otherwise unequal settlement
of the foundations may induce harmful stresses and thereby cracks may develop
in the members. Balanced cantilever bridges are combination of the simply
supported and continuous structures.
For span more than 20 to 30 m balanced bridges offer an ideal solution for the
following reasons - Advantage of continuity/Reduction in moments/Not affected
by settlement of supports
Basically a balanced cantilever bridge consists of freely supported spans with
cantilevers extending on either side serving as supports for adjacent spans. It
also require one line of bearings over the piers similar to continuous bridges.
Types of Super-structure may be of solid slab, T-beam and slab, hollow box
girder.
It is one of the most efficient methods of building bridges without the need of
false work. This method has great advantages over other forms of construction
in urban areas where temporary shoring would disrupt traffic and services
below, in deep gorges, and over waterways where false-work would not only be
expensive but also a hazard.
 Design Considerations
• Suspended span is simply supported structure
• The moments and shears for the cantilever arms are to be determined with
loads on the cantilever and the suspended span.
• The ILDs for cantilever arm that the load on the main span has no effect either
on the moment or on the shear of the cantilever section.
• While both the DL and LL moments and shears are additive in designing the
cantilever sections, the design of the main span sections, however, needs
careful examination in arriving at the design moments and shears.
• It is needless to maintain that the reversal of nature of moments near the mid
span section may occur in continuous structure also and proper care should be
taken.
• The maximum +ve and –ve LL moments and shears may be evaluated by placing
the LLs suitably on the ILDs for getting maximum values.
• In calculating shear forces at different sections, it is necessary to account for the
correction due to haunches.
 Design Procedures
• Decide span lengths and assume rough section of the main girders
at important sections such as end, intermediate and mid span.
• Select suitable profile of the soffit of the girders and find the depths
at different sections of the girders.
• Assume sections of cross girder and thickness of the deck and soffit
slab.
• Calculate the DL bending moment at various sections.
• Draw ILD for moments for various sections.
• Work out LL moments at different sections.
• Check adequacy of the sections wrt concrete stresses and calculate
tensile steel reinf.
• Similar to moments, find the DL and LL shears at different sections
and check concrete stresses.
• Arrange the reinforcement properly.
 Design Procedures cont…
• Arrangement of Supports
• Design features
• Shear Variation
• Articulation
• Design Example
– Arrangement of Spans
– Design of Deck Slab
– Design of Cantilever
– Design of Longitudinal Girders
– Design of Articulation
Box Culvert
 Introduction Box Culvert
• It consists of two Horizontal and two vertical slabs built monolithically are
ideally suited for a road or railway bridge crossing with high embankments
crossing a stream with a limited flow. If the discharge in a drain or channel
crossing a road is small, and if the bearing Capacity of the soil is low, and then
the box culvert is an ideal bridge structure. This is a reinforced concrete rigid
frame box culvert with square or rectangular openings are used up to spans of
4m. The height of the vent generally does not exceed 3m.
• It is economical due to their rigidity and monolithic action and separate
foundation are not required since the bottom slab resting directly on the soil,
serves as raft slab. For small discharges, single celled box culvert is used and for
large discharges, multicelled box culverts can be employed.
• A few things like depth of cushion, coefficients of earth pressure for lateral
pressure on walls, width or angle of dispersion for live loads on box without
cushion and with cushion for structural deformation are important items where
opinion of the designers vary and need to be dealt in much detail. These affect
the design significantly and therefore, required to be assessed correctly for
designing a safe structure. Therefore an attempt is made to study the effects of
cushion, co-efficient of earth pressure and angle of dispersion for live load.
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
1. CO-EFFICIENT OF EARTH PRESSURE
The earth can exert pressure, minimum as active and maximum as passive, or in between
called pressure at rest. It depends on the condition obtained at the site. In cases where the
structure is constructed before the backfill earth is placed in position and the situation is
such that structure is not in position to yield on either side, the earth pressure shall reach a
state at rest. In such situation the coefficient of earth pressure shall be more than active
condition. In case of box since it is confined with earth from both sides the state of earth
shall be at rest and a co-efficient more than the active pressure is normally adopted in the
design. The earth is filled after construction of the box further the box is not in a position
to move/yield therefore the pressure shall be at rest.
The co-efficient of earth pressure in case of box is taken to be 0.333 for a soil having ϕ = 300
or may take value 0.5 for normal soil having ϕ = 300. Coulomb’s theory is acceptable. All
abutments and return walls shall be designed for a live load surcharge equivalent to 1.2m
earth fill.
2. EFFECTIVE WIDTH
Effective width in the run of culvert (length across span) is expected to be affected by a
moving live load. This width plays a significant role as far as consideration of live load in the
design of culvert.
bef = αe (1 –a/L0) + b1
bef = The Effective width of slab on which load acts. L0 = Effective span.
a = Distance of the centre of gravity of concentrated load from the nearer Support.
B1 = The breadth of concentration area of the load.
 Design of Box Culvert cont..
3. CUSHION
• A box culvert can have more than single cell and can be placed such that the top slab is
almost at road level and there is no cushion. A box can also be placed within the
embankment where top slab is few meters below the road surface and such boxes are
termed with cushion.
• The size of box and the invert level depend on the hydraulic requirements governed by
hydraulic designs. The height of cushion is governed by the road profile at the location of the
culvert. While calculating weight of cushion on top slab, some designers take average height
of earth fill coming over full length of box including sloping side fill.
4. LONGITUDINAL FORCE/BRAKING FORCE
• Consideration of Braking Force is another area where opinion of the designers varies in two
ways firstly, whether braking force caused by moving loads shall deform the box structure
and should therefore be considered in the design of box. Secondly, if it is to be considered
what effective width should be taken to obtain force and moment per unit run of the box.
5. IMPACT OF LIVE LOAD
• Moving loads create impact when move over the deck slab (top slab). The impact depends on
the class and type of load. Provision for impact or dynamic action shall be made by an impact
allowance expressed as a fraction or a percentage of the applied live load.
For class A or class B loading,
1. Impact factor fraction for reinforced concrete bridges = 4.5/6+L
2. Impact factor fraction for steel bridges = 9/13.5+L
For class AA loading and class 70R loading, a) For spans less than 9m:
1. for tracked vehicles: 25% for spans upto 5m linear reducing to 10% for spans of 9m.
2. for wheeled vehicles: 25%
 B. LOAD CASES FOR DESIGN
Mainly three load cases govern the design.
1. Box empty, Live load surcharge on top slab
of box and superimposed surcharge load on
earth fill.
2. Box inside full with water, live load
surcharge load on top slab and superimposed
surcharge load on earth fill.
3. Box inside full with water, live load
surcharge on top slab and no superimposed
surcharge on earth fill.
The above mentioned load cases are to be
examined for box with cushion and without
cushion. In case of box without cushion live
load surcharge shall straightway be considered
to act on the top slab, of course with dispersal
through wearing coat and slab thickness as
applicable. In case of box with cushion the live
load surcharge is supposed to disperse through
such cushion in both directions thereby
reducing intensity of load on top slab. This
shall be obtained for heaviest live load wheel,
generally 70R (T) vehicle, with due restrictions
due to several wheels placed simultaneously.
 5. SHEAR STRESS
• The box is designed for maximum moment for its
concrete section and reinforcements. It is
checked for shear at the critical section and if it
exceeds permissible shear stress for the size of
section; mix of concrete and percentage of
reinforcements, the section has to be increased
to bring shear stress within the permissible limit.
Alternatively, the reinforcement can be increased
to increase allowable shear strength.
• The design shear stress τ at any cross section of
beams or slabs of uniform depth shall be
calculated by the equation.
 6. DISTRIBUTION REINFORCEMENTS
• The Distribution reinforcement shall be such as to
produce a resisting moment in direction perpendicular to
the span equal to 0.3 times the moment due to
concentrated live loads plus 0.2 times the moment due
to other loads such as dead load, shrinkage, temperature
etc.
• In box, moment due to live load and dead loads are
obtained considering both the loads together. It,
therefore, becomes cumbersome to separate these two
moments to calculate distribution reinforcements. To
make it convenient and easy a combined factor for both
the loads, based on weighted average in proportion of
their magnitude, can be worked out to apply for the
design.
 7. DESIGN OF TYPICAL BOX
• Design of typical RCC box can be done by considering
above mentioned clarifications. The box of 3 m × 3 m
with and without cushion of 5 m has been calculated.
Various load cases are calculate for the box and the box
is checked for shear and shear reinforcement provided
on the site. Basically, there is no difference in design of
single cell and multi cell box having two, three or more
cells. The bending moment is obtained by moment
distribution considering all the cells together for
different combination of loading and design of section
accomplished for final bending moments for that
member. Shear force and resulting shear stress have to
be checked for members independently.
 CONCLUSIONS
1. Box for cross drainage works across high embankments has many advantages compared
to slab culvert.
2. Box culvert is easy to add length in the event of widening of the road.
3. Box is structurally very strong, rigid & safe.
4. Box does not need any elaborate foundation and can easily be placed over soft
foundation by increasing base slab projection to retain base pressure within safe bearing
capacity of ground soil.
5. Box of required size can be placed within the embankment at any elevation by varying
cushion. This is not possible in case of slab culvert.
6. Easy to construct, practically no maintenance , can have multicell to match discharge
within smaller height of embankment.
7. Small variation in co-efficient of earth pressure has little influence on the design of box
particularly without cushion.
8. For culverts without cushion taking effective width corresponding to α for continuous slab
shall not be correct. It is likely to provide design moments and shear on lower side hence
not safe.
9. For box without cushion braking force is required to be considered particularly for smaller
span culverts. Further for distribution of braking force effects the same effective width as
applicable for vertical application of live load shall be considered. If braking force is not
considered or distributed over the whole length of box (not restricted within the effective
width) shall be unsafe.
10. For box without cushion having low design moments and shear stress as compared to
the box having cushion. So steel required is less in the box with no cushion as compared to
with cushion.
AQUEDUCTS
 What is Cross Drainage Works?

A cross drainage work is a structure carrying

the discharge from a canal across a natural
stream intercepting the canal. Canal comes
across obstructions like rivers, natural drains
and other canals. The various types of
structures that are built to carry the canal
water across the above mentioned
obstructions are called cross drainage works.
 Types of Cross Drainage Works
Type I (Irrigation canal passes over the drainage)
• (a) Aqueduct
• (b) Siphon Aqueduct
Type II (Drainage passes over the irrigation canal)
• (a) Super passage
• (b) Siphon super passage
Type III (Drainage and canal intersection each other
of the same level)
• (a) Level crossing
• (b) Inlet and outlet
Type-I Irrigation canal Passes over Drainage:
• Aqueduct
• The hydraulic structure in
which the irrigation canal is
taken over the drainage
(such as river, stream etc..)
is known as aqueduct. This
structure is suitable when
bed level of canal is above
the highest flood level of
drainage. In this case, the
drainage water passes
clearly below the canal.
 Siphon Aqueduct
• In a hydraulic structure
where the canal is taken
over the drainage, but
the drainage water
cannot pass clearly
below the canal. It flows
under siphonic action.
So, it is known as siphon
queduct. This structure
is suitable when the bed
level of canal is below
the highest flood level.
Type-II Drainage Passes Over the irrigation Canal.
• Super Passage
• The hydraulic structure in
which the drainage is taken
over the irrigation canal is
known as super passage.
The structure is suitable
when the bed level of
drainage is above the full
supply level of the canal.
The water of the canal
passes clearly below the
drainage.
 Type II cont…
• Siphon Super Passage
• The hydraulic structure in
which the drainage is taken
over the irrigation canal,
but the canal water passes
below the drainage under
siphonic action is known as
siphon super passage. This
structure is suitable when
the bed level of drainage is
below the full supply level
of the canal.
 Type III Drainage and Canal Intersect each
other at the same level.
Level Crossings
• When the bed level of canal
and the stream are
approximately the same and
quality of water in canal and
stream is not much different, the
cross drainage work constructed
is called level crossing where
water of canal and stream is
allowed to mix. With the help of
regulators both in canal and
stream, water is disposed
through canal and stream in
required quantity. Level crossing
consists of following
components (i) crest wall (ii)
Stream regulator (iii) Canal
regulator.
 Type III cont…
Inlet and Outlet
• When irrigation canal meets
a small stream or drain at
same level, drain is allowed to
enter the canal as in inlet. At
some distance from this inlet
point, a part of water is
allowed to drain as outlet
which eventually meets the
original stream. Stone pitching
is required at the inlet and
outlet. The bed and banks
between inlet and outlet are
also protected by stone
pitching. This type of CDW is
called Inlet and Outlet.
 Selection of Type of Cross Drainage Works
The following factors should be considered:
I) Relative Bed Level
II) Availability of Suitable Foundation
III) Economic Consideration
IV) Discharge of the drainage
V) Construction of Problems
The following points should be remembered while recommending
the type of work,
(a) The crossing should be at right angle to each other,
(b) Well defined cross-section of the river or drainage should be
available.
(c) At the crossing point the drainage should be straight for a
considerable length.
(d) The width of the drainage should be narrow as far as possible.
Design consideration for cross drainage works
1. Determination of maximum flood discharge
2. Fixing the waterway requirements for aqueduct
and syphon aqueduct
3. Afflux and head loss through syphon barrels
4. Fluming of the canal
5. Design of Pucca Canal Through
6. Design of bottom floor of aqueduct and syphon
aqueduct
7. Design of bank connection – Canal/Land wings,
Drainage/Water/River wings
 Determination of Maximum Flood Discharge
• The high flood discharge for smaller drain can be worked out by using empirical
formulas; and for large drains other methods such as Hydrograph analysis, Rational
formula, etc may be used.
In general, the methods used in the estimation of the flood flow can be group as:
• Physical Indications of past floods
- enquiring from the residents
- by noting the high water marks along the banks
- from rating curve(Simple Judgment & Logarithmic method, Q=Kdn)
• Empirical formulae and curves
Most of these formulae may be written in a general form as:
Q = C An
Where, C is coefficient and n is index
Dicken’s formula:
Q = CA ¾
Where,
Q= Maximum flood Discharge in cumec.
A= Area of Catchment in sq. Km
C= coefficient depending upon the region
The maximum value of C= 35.
 Determination of MF Discharge cont..
Ryve’s Formula:
Q= CA 2/3
Where, Q= discharge in cume
A= Catchment Area in Sq. . Km
C= coefficient depending upon the region
Rational Method:
Q = 2. 78 C Ic A
Where, Q = Discharge in Cumec, A= Catchment Area in Km2
C= Coefficient which depends upon the characteristics of the catchment.
Ic= The critical Intensity of rainfall (cm/hr) corresponding to the time of
Concentration (tc) of the catchment for a given recurrence interval obtained
from the intensity of duration frequency curves.
Inglis formula:
Q= 124 A = 124 A ½
√A + 10.4
Where Q= discharge in cumec
A= area of catchment in Sq.. Km.
Ali Nawab Jang Bahadur formula:
Q= CA ( 0.993- 1/14 log A)
Where, Q= Discharge in Cumec
A=area of catchment insq .km
C= Coefficient which varies from 48 to 60.
 Determination of MF Discharge cont..
• Envelop Curves:
– By using envelop curves the maximum flood
discharge may be estimated if the area of the
drainage basin is known.
• Overland flow hydrograph and unit hydrograph
– is a graphical plot of discharge of a natural stream or
river versus time. A unit Hydrograph is a hydrograph
representing 1 cm of runoff from a rainfall of some
duration and specific areal distribution.
 Fluming of Canal
• The Contraction in the
waterway of the canal
(i.e. fluming of canal)
will reduce the length of
barrels or the width of
the aqueduct. This is
likely to produce
economy in many cases.
The fluming of canal is
generally not done
when the canal section
is in earthen banks.
 Design of Bank Connections
Two sets of wings in aqueducts and syphon-Aqueducts:
Canal wings or Land wings
Drainage Wings or Water Wings
• Canal Wings: provide a strong connection between
masonry or concrete sides of a canal trough and earthen
canal banks.
• Drainage Wings or Water Wings or River Wings: retain
and protect the earthen slopes of the canal, guide the
drainage water entering and leaving the work, and join it
to guide banks and also provide a vertical cut-off from the
water seeping from the canal into drainage bed. The
foundations of these wings wall should be capable of
withstanding the maximum differential pressure likely to
come on them.