ĐẠI HỌC FPT CẦN THƠ

Chapter 4
Vector geometry

MSc. Nguyen Cam Nhiem

Email: nhiemnc@fe.edu.vn

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Contents
4.1 Vectors and Lines
4.2 Projections and Planes
4.3 More on the Cross Product
4.4 Linear Operations on R^3
4.5 An application in Computer Graphics

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4.1 Vectors and Lines

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Vertor in R3

As in the plane, we introduce vectors by

identifying each point P(x, y, z) with the
vector
x 
v   y 
 z 
in R3, represented by the arrow from the
origin to P as in Figure 1

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Length and Direction

Theorem 1
x 
v   y
Let   be a vector.
 z 

(1) v  x2  y 2  z 2
(2) v = 0 if and only if ||v|| =0
(3) ||av|| = |a| ||v|| for all scalars a.

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Length and Direction

EXAMPLE 1

 2
 1
        14 .
2 2 2
If v   then v 2 1 3
 3 
 3
Similarly if v    in 2-space then v  32   4   5
2

 4 

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Length and Direction

Theorem 2
 Let v ≠ 0 and w ≠ 0 be vectors in R3. Then v = w as matrices if and
only if v and w have the same direction and the same length.

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Geometric Vectors
Definition 4.1
Suppose that A and B are
any two points in R3. In
Figure 4 the line segment
from A to B is denoted AB
and is called the geometric
vector from A to B. Point A
is called the tail of AB , B
is called the tip of AB , and
the length of AB
is denoted AB .
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The Parallelogram Law

 The Parallelogram Law
In the parallelogram
determined by two vectors v
and w, the vector v + w is the
diagonal with the same tail as
v and w.

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Theorem 3
If v and w have a common tail, then v - w
is the vector from the tip of w to the tip of v.

Theorem 4
Let P1  x1 , y1 , z1  and P2  x2 , y2 , z2  be two
points. Then:
 x2  x1 
PP  y  y 
1. 1 2  2 1 
 z2  z1 
2. The distance between P1 and P2 is
 x2  x1    y2  y1    z2  z1 
2 2 2

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EXAMPLE 3

The vector from P1(2, -1, 3) to P2(1, 1, 4) is

1 2  1  2,1   1 ,4  3   1,2,1
PP

and the distance between P1 and P2 is

 
    6
2 2 2
1 2 1

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Scalar Multiplication
If a is a real number and v  0 is a vector then:
(1) The length of av is ||av||=|a| ||v||.
(2) If av  0, the direction of av is
 the same as if a  0,

oppostite to if a  0.

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Scalar Multiplication
A vector u is called a unit vector if ∥u∥ = 1. Then
1  0  0 
    
i  0  , j  1  , and k  0  
0  0 1 
are unit vectors, called the coordinate vectors.

EXAMPLE 4
1
If v ≠ 0 then v is the unique unit vector in the same
v
direction as v.
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Definition 4.2

Two nonzero vectors are called parallel if they have the

same or opposite direction.
Theorem 5
Two nonzero vectors v and w are parallel if and only if
one is a scalar multiple of the other.

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EXAMPLE 7
Given points P(2, -1, 4), Q(3, -1, 3), A(0, 2, 1), and B(1, 3, 0),
determine if PQ and AB are parallel.

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Lines in Space
We call a nonzero vector d ≠ 0 a direction vector for the
line if it is parallel to AB for some pair of distinct points
A and B on the line.

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Vector Equation of a Line

The line parallel to d ≠ 0 through the point with vector p0
is given by
p = p0 + td, t any scalar
In other words, the point p is on this line if and only if a
real number t exists such that p = p0 + td.

In component form the vector equation becomes

 x   x0   a 
 y    y   t b 
   0  
 z   z0   c 
Equating components gives a different description of the line.
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Parametric Equations of a Line a 

The line through P0(x0, y0, z0) with direction vector d   b   0
 
is given by  c 
x = x0 + ta
y = y0 + tb t any scalar
z = z0 + tc
In other words, the point P(x, y, z) is on this line if and only
if a real number t exists such that x = x0 + ta, y = y0 + tb,
and z = z0 + tc.

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Examples 8
Find the equations of the line through the points P0(2, 0, 1)
and P1(4, -1, 1).

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Examples 9
Find the equations of the line through P0(3, -1, 2) parallel to
the line with equations
x = -1 + 2t
y=1+t
z = -3 + 4t

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Examples 10
Determine whether the following lines intersect and, if so, find
the point of intersection.
 x  1  3t  x  1  s
 
 y  2  5t  y  3  4s
z  1  t z  1  s
 

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Theorem 6
Pythagoras’ Theorem
Given a right-angled triangle with hypotenuse c and sides a
and b, then a2 + b2 = c2

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4.2. Projections and Planes

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4.2. Projections and Planes

The Dot Product and Angles

 x1   x2 
Given vectors v   y1  and w   y2  , their dot product v · w is a number
defined  z1   z2 

v · w = x1x2 + y1y2 + z1z2 = vTw

EXAMPLE 1
2 1
If v   1 and w   4  ,
 3   1
then v  w  2  1   1  4  3   1  5
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4.2. Projections and Planes

Theorem 1
Let u, v, and w denote vectors in R3 (or R2).
1. v · w is a real number.
2. v · w = w · v.
3. v · 0 = 0 = 0 · v.
4. v · v = ∥v∥2.
5. (kv) · w = k(w · v) = v · (kw) for all scalars k.
6. u · (v ± w) = u · v ± u · w

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4.2. Projections and Planes

EXAMPLE 2
Verify that ∥v - 3w∥2 = 1 when ∥v∥ = 2, ∥w∥ = 1, and v·w =2.

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4.2. Projections and Planes

Law of Cosines

If a triangle has sides a, b, and c then

c2= a2 + b2 - 2ab cos(C).

Theorem 2
Let v and w be nonzero vectors. If θ is the angle between v
and w, then
v · w = ∥v∥∥w∥cos θ

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4.2. Projections and Planes

EXAMPLE 3  1 2
 
Compute the angle between u   1  and v   1 .
 2   1

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4.2. Projections and Planes

Definition 4.5
Two vectors v and w are said to be orthogonal if v = 0 or

w = 0 or the angle between them is .
2
Theorem 3
Two vectors v and w are orthogonal if and only if v · w = 0.

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4.2. Projections and Planes

Example 4
Show that the points P(3, -1, 1), Q(4, 1, 4), and R(6, 0, 4)
are the vertices of a right triangle.

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4.2. Projections and Planes

Example 5
A parallelogram with sides of equal length is called a
rhombus. Show that the diagonals of a rhombus are
perpendicular.
Solution:

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4.2. Projections and Planes

If a nonzero vector d is specified,

then u = u1 + u2, where u1 is parallel to d and
u2 = u - u1 is orthogonal to d.

Suppose that u and d ≠ 0 emanate from a common tail Q. Let P be

the tip of u, and let P1 denote the foot of the perpendicular from P to
the line through Q parallel to d. Then u1  QP1 has the required
properties:

1. u1 is parallel to d.
2. u2 = u - u1 is orthogonal to d.
3. u = u1 + u2.

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4.2. Projections and Planes

Definition 4.6
The vector u1  QP1 in Figure 5 is called
the projection of u on d. It is denoted
u1 = projd u
Theorem 4
Let u and d  0 be vectors.
1. The projection of u on d is given by
u.d
projd u  2
d
d
2. The vector u-projdu is orthogonal to d.
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4.2. Projections and Planes

Example 7 2 1
   
Find the projection of u   3 on d   1 and express u = u1 + u2
 1   3 

Where u1 is parallel to d and u2 is orthogonal to d.

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4.2. Projections and Planes

Example 8

Find the shortest distance (see

diagram) from the point P(1, 3, -2)
to the line through P0(2, 0, -1) with

1
direction vector d   1 .
 0 

Also find the point Q that lies on the line and is closest to P.

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4.2. Projections and Planes

Solution 8
 1   2   1
Let u  P0 P   3    0    3 
 2  1  1

and let u1 denote the projection of

u on d. Thus
 1   2
u.d 2  3  0    
u1 = projdu = 2 d  2 2 
1   2 
1   1  0
2
d
 0   0 

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Solution 8
We see geometrically that the point Q on the line is closest
to P, so the distance is 1
QP  u  u1   1   3
 1
To find the coordinates of Q, let p0 and q denote the vectors
of P0 and Q, respectively. Then
2 0
p0   0  and q  p0  u1   2 
 1  1

Hence Q(0, 2, -1) is the required point. It can be checked

that the distance from Q to P is as expected.
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Definition 4.7
A nonzero vector n is called a normal for a plane if it is orthogonal
to every vector in the plane.

Scalar Equation of a Plane a 

The plane through P0(x0, y0, z0) with normal n  b   0 as a normal
c 
vector is given by
a(x - x0) + b( y - y0) + c(z - z0) = 0
In other words, a point P(x, y, z) is on this plane if and only if x, y,
and z satisfy this equation.

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EXAMPLE 9
Find an equation of the plane through P0(1, -1, 3) with
3
n   1 as normal.
 2 

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EXAMPLE 10

Find an equation of the plane through P0(3, -1, 2) that is

parallel to the plane with equation 2x - 3y = 6.

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Vector Equation of a Plane

The plane with normal n ≠ 0 through the point with vector
p0 is given by
n · (p - p0) = 0
In other words, the point with vector p is on the plane if
and only if p satisfies this condition.

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Example 11
Find the shortest distance from the point P(2, 1, -3) to the
plane with equation 3x - y + 4z = 1. Also find the point Q on
this plane closest to P.

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Solution 11

The plane in question has normal

n  3 1 4 . Choose any point
T

P0 on the plane—say P0(0,-1,0) -

and let Q(x,y,z) be the point on the
plane closest to P. The vector from
P0 to P is u   2 2 3 . Now
T

erect n with its tail at P0. Then

QP  u1 and u1 is the projection of
u on n:
3 3
n u 8   4  
u1  2 n   1   1
n 26 13
 4   4 
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Solution 11
4 26
Hence the distance is QP  u1  . To calculate the
13
point Q, let
 x 0
  
q   y  and p0   1 
 z   0 
be the vectors of Q and P0. Then  38 
 13 
0 2 3  
    4   9 
q  p0  u  u1   1   2    1 
13  13 
 0   3  4   
 23 
This gives the coordinates of Q(38/13, 13/9, -13/23).  13 
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The Cross Product

Definition 4.8  x1   x2 
Given vectors v1   y1  and v2   y2  , define the cross
 z1   z2 

product v1 × v2 by

 y1 z2  z1 y2 
v1  v2   z1 x2  x1 z2 
 x1 y2  y1 x2 

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Determinant Form of the Cross Product

 x1   x2 
If v1   y1  and v2   y2  are two vectors then
 z1   z2 

i x1 x2 
v1  v2  det  j  y1 y2 x1 x2 x1 x2
y1 y2   i j k
z1 z2 z1 z2 y1 y2
 k z1 z2 

where the determinant is expanded along the first column.

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EXAMPLE 12
2 1 
Let v1   1 and v 2 =  3  , find v1 × v 2 .
 4  7 

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Theorem 5
Let v and w be vectors in R3.
1. v × w is a vector orthogonal to both v and w.
2. If v and w are nonzero, then v × w = 0 if and only if v
and w are parallel.
EXAMPLE 13

Find the equation of the plane through P(1, 3, -2), Q(1, 1, 5),
and R(2, -2, 3).

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4.3. More on the Cross Product

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4.3. More on the Cross Product

Theorem 1

 x0   x1   x2 
If u   y0  , v   y1  , and w   y2 
 z0   z1   z2 
 x0 x1 x2 

then u   v  w   det  y0 y1 y2  
 z0 z1 z2 

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4.3. More on the Cross Product

Theorem 2
Let u, v, and w denote arbitrary vectors in R3.
1. u × v is a vector.
2. u × v is orthogonal to both u and v.
3. u × 0 = 0 = 0 × u.
4. u × u = 0.
5. u × v = -(v × u).
6. (ku) × v = k(u × v) = u × (kv) for any scalar k.
7. u × (v + w) = (u × v) + (u × w).
8. (v + w) × u = (v × u) + (w × u)

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4.3. More on the Cross Product

Theorem 3
Lagrange Identity
If u and v are any two vectors in R3, then
uv  u v   u.v 
2 2 2 2

Theorem 4
If u and v are two nonzero vectors and θ is the angle
between u and v, then
1. ∥u × v∥ = ∥u∥∥v∥ sin θ = area of the parallelogram
determined by u and v.
2. u and v are parallel if and only if u × v = 0.
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4.3. More on the Cross Product

EXAMPLE 1

Find the area of the triangle with vertices

P(2, 1, 0), Q(3, -1, 1), and R(1, 0, 1).

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4.3. More on the Cross Product

Theorem 5
The volume of the parallelepiped determined by three
vectors w, u, and v (Figure 2) is given by |w · (u × v)|.

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4.3. More on the Cross Product

EXAMPLE 2
Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors
1 1   2
w   2  , u  1  , v   0 
 1 0  1 

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4.4. Linear Operators on R3

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4.4. Linear Operators on R3

Definition 4.9

A linear transformation
T: n
 n

is called a linear operator on Rn.

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4.4. Linear Operators on R3

T: n
 n
is said to be distance preserving if the
distance between T(v) and T(w) is the same as the distance
between v and w for all v and w in R3; that is,
T  v   T  w   v  w for all v and w in 3

Clearly reflections and rotations are distance preserving,

and both carry 0 to 0, so the following theorem shows that
they are both linear.

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4.4. Linear Operators on R3

Theorem 1
If T : 3  3 is distance preserving, and if T(0) = 0, then
T is linear.

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Reflections and Projections

We studied the reflection Qm: R2 → R2 in the line y = mx
and projection Pm: R2 → R2 on the same line. We found
that they are both linear and
1 1  m2 2m 
Qm has matrix  
1  m 2  2m m  1
2

1 1 m 
and Pm has matrix
1  m2  m m2 
 

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Reflections and Projections

EXAMPLE 1
In each case show that that T is either projection on a line,
reflection in a line, or rotation through an angle, and find
the line or angle.

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Reflections and Projections

Solution 1

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Reflections and Projections

Theorem 2
Let L denote the line through the origin in R3 with direction
a 
vector d   b   0 . Then PL and QL are both linear and
 c 
 a 2 ab ac 
1  2 
PL has matrix 2 
ab b bc  ,
a b c
2 2
 ac bc c 2 
 
a 2  b2  c 2 2ab 2ac 
1  
QL has matrix 2 ab b 2
 a 2
 c 2
2bc .
a 2  b2  c2 
 2ac 2bc c 2  a 2  b 2 

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Reflections and Projections

EXAMPLE 2 2
Find the reflection of v   5  in the line with equation
 1
 x  1 
 y  t  1 
   
 z   2 

a 2  b2  c 2 2ab 2ac 
1  
2 
2ab b2  a 2  c 2 2bc .
a b c
2 2
 2ac 2bc c 2  a 2  b 2 


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Reflections and Projections

Theorem 3
Let M denote the plane through the origin in R3 with normal
a 
n   b   0 . Then PM and QM are both linear and
 c 
b 2  c 2 ab ac 
1  
PM has matrix 2 
ab a2  c2 bc  ,
a b c
2 2
 ac bc a 2  b 2 

b 2  c 2  a 2 2ab 2ac 
1  
QM has matrix 2 
2ab a 2  c2  b2 2bc  .
a b c
2 2
 2ac 2bc a 2  b 2  c 2 

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Reflections and Projections

EXAMPLE 3 2
Find the projection of v   5  in the plane with equation
 1
3x  5 y  2 z  0

b 2  c 2 ab ac 
1  
2 
ab a2  c2 bc  ,
a b c
2 2
 ac bc a 2  b 2 


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Rotation
 The rotation of R3 about the Z axis through an angle θ
from the X axis to Y axis

R θ has matrix
cos   sin  0
A   sin  cos  0 
 0 0 1 

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EXAMPLE 4
2
  
Find the rotation of v   5  about the z axis through  
4
 1

cos   sin  0

A   sin  cos  0 
 0 0 1 

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Transformations of Areas and Volumes

Theorem 4
If T : 3  3 (or 2  2 ) is a linear
operator, the image of the parallelogram
determined by vectors v and w is the
parallelogram determined by T(v) and
T(w).

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Transformations of Areas and Volumes

Theorem 5

Let vol(u, v, w) denote the volume of the parallelepiped determined

by three vectors u, v, and w in R3, and let area(p, q) denote the area
of the parallelogram determined by two vectors p and q in R2. Then:
1. If A is a 3×3 matrix, then vol(Au, Av, Aw) = |det(A)| · vol(u, v, w).
2. If A is a 2×2 matrix, then area(Ap, Aq) = |det(A)| · area(p, q).

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4.3. More on the Cross Product

EXAMPLE 2
Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors
Aw, Au, Av with

1 1   2
w   2  , u  1  , v   0 
 1 0  1 

1 0 2
A   1 1 0 
 2 1 1

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4.3. More on the Cross Product

Theorem 5
The volume of the parallelepiped determined by three
vectors w, u, and v (Figure 2) is given by |w · (u × v)|.

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4.5. An Application to
Computer Graphics

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4.5. An Application to Computer Graphics

Consider displaying the letter A. In reality, it is
depicted on the screen, as in Figure 1, by specifying
the coordinates of the 11 corners and filling in the
interior. For simplicity, we will disregard the
thickness of the letter, so we require only five
coordinates as in Figure 2. This simplified letter can
then be stored as a data matrix.

Vertex 1 2 3 4 5
 0 6 5 1 3
D 
 0 0 3 3 9 
where the columns are the coordinates of the
vertices in order
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Example
a 0  x
A  X  
0 1  y

 x  TX  AX  a 0  x   ax 
 y  0 1  y    y 
      

 a>1:X-expansion of R2

 0<a<1:X-compression of R2
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Example

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Example
1 0   x
A  X  
0 b   y

 x  TX  AX 1 0  x   x 
 y 0 b   y   by 
      

 b>1:Y-expansion of R2
 0<b<1:Y-compression of R2

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Example
1 a   x
A  X  
0 1   y

 a>0: Positive
X-shear of R2
 x  TX  AX 1 a   x   x  ay 
 y 0 1   y    y 
 a<0: Negative       
X-shear of R2

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Example

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4.5. An Application to Computer Graphics

If we want to transform the letter by a 2 × 2
matrix A, we left-multiply this data matrix by A
(the effect is to multiply each column by A and
so transform each vertex).
For example, we can slant the letter to the
right by multiplying by an x-shear matrix
1 0.2
A 
 0 1 
The result is the letter with data matrix
1 0.2 0 6 5 1 3 0 6 5.6 1.6 4.8
A     
 0 1  0 0 3 3 9   0 0 3 3 9 
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4.5. An Application to Computer Graphics

If we want to make this slanted matrix narrower, we
can now apply an x-scale matrix
0.8 0 
B 
 0 1 
that shrinks the x-coordinate by 0.8. The result is
the composite transformation
0 4.8 4.48 1.28 3.84 
BAD   
 0 0 3 3 9 

which is drawn in Figure 4.

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4.5. An Application to Computer Graphics

On the other hand, we can rotate the letter
about the origin through 30° by multiplying by
the matrix
  
cos 6  sin 6  0.866 0.5 
R    
 
 sin cos   
6
0.5 0.866
 6 6 
This gives

0 5.196 2.83 0.634 1.902 

R D   
6  0 3 5.098 3.098 9.294 

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