D.C.

GENERATOR
Question: What is generator?

Answer: An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical

energy (or power) into electrical energy (or power). The energy conversion
of an electric generator is based on the principle that whenever a
conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced e.m.f is produced in it
according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. This e.m.f causes a
current to flow if the conductor is closed. The direction of induced e.m.f is
given by Fleming’s right hand rule. Therefore, the essential components of
a generator are:

(a) A magnetic field

(b) Conductor or a group of conductors
(c) Motion of conductor with respect to magnetic field.

Question: Write down the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

Answer: Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction is given below:

First law: Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux an e.m.f is induced in

that conductor.

Second law: The magnitude of the induced e.m.f is equal to the rate of
change of flux linkage.

Question: Write the Lenz’s law.

Answer:

Lenz’s law: In all cases of electromagnetic induction, the direction of

the induced e.m.f in a conductor is such that it opposes the very cause
which produces it.

Question: Write down the Fleming’s rule.

Answer:

Fleming’s right hand rule: The thumb represents the direction of

motion of the conductor. The first finger represents the direction of field.
The middle finger represents the direction of current.

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 D.C. GENERATOR
Fleming’s left hand rule: When the direction of motion and field are
reversed then the direction of current will remain the same. This is known
as Fleming’s left hand rule.

Question: Classify DC generator with diagram.

Answer:

Classification of dc generator:

1. On the basis of excitation, dc generators are mainly two types-

(i) Separately excited
(ii) Self-excited
2. On the basis of connection of field coils or windings to the armature,
self-excited generators are three kinds
(i) Shunt-wound
(ii) Series-wound
(iii) Compound-wound
3. Depending on the length of shunt, compound wound generator are
two types-
(i) Short-shunt
(ii) Long-shunt

Question: Discuss the constructional details of dc generator.

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 D.C. GENERATOR
Answer: A dc generator consists of the following essential parts:

1. Magnetic frame or Yoke 7. Shaft

2. Rotor 8. Armature
3. Stator 9. Coil
4. Field electromagnets/Pole 10. Commutator
coils or field coil
5. Pole cores and pole shoes 11. Bearings
6. Brushes and slip-ring

Magnetic frame or Yoke: The outer frame or Yoke serves double purpose.

i) It provides mechanical support for the poles.

ii) It acts as a frame of the machine.
iii) It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
iv) It has high permeability to the circuit.

In small generators where cheapness rather than weight is the main

consideration, yokes are made of cast iron.

Field electromagnet/Pole coils or field coil: The field coils or pole coils,
which consist of copper wire or strip, are former-wound for the correct
dimension. Then, the former is removed and wound coil is put into place
over the core. When current is passed through these coils, they
electromagnetise the poles which produce the necessary flux that is cut by
revolving armature conductors.

Pole cores and pole shoes: The field magnets consist of pole cores and
pole shoes. The pole shoes serve two purposes. They are:

1. They spread out the flux in the air gap, and also being of larger cross-
section, reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path.
2. They support the exciting coils (or field coils).

Armature winding: The armature windings are usually former-wound.

These are first wound in the form of flat rectangular coils and are then
pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller.

Armature core:

1. It is used to support armature windings.

2. It is used to rotate conductors in a magnetic field.
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 D.C. GENERATOR
3. It is laminated to reduce eddy current losses.

Commutator: The function of the commutator is to facilitate collection of

current from the armature conductors. It is of cylindrical structure and is
built up of wedge-shaped segments of high-conductivity hard-drawn or
drop forged copper.

Brushes: The brushes, whose function is to collect current from

commutator, are usually made of carbon or graphite and are in the shape of
a rectangular block.

Shaft: It is the mechanical link between prime mover and armature.

Bearings:

1. Bearings are used for the free rotation of the shaft.

2. In case of heavy duties, roller bearings perform excellently in the
smooth sunning of generator.

Question: Describe the working principle of a DC generator.

Answer:

Working principle: DC generator converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy when a conductor moves in a magnetic field in such a way
that conductor cuts across a magnet flux of lines and an e.m.f is induced in
the generator and it is defined by the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. This e.m.f causes a current to flow in the conductor if the circuit
is closed.

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 D.C. GENERATOR
Let, a single loop ABCD is rotating clockwise in a uniform magnetic field
with a constant speed shown in figure. As the loop rotates, the flux linking
the coil sides AB and CD changes continuously.

When the loop is in position 1, the generated e.m.f is zero. Because the coil
sides (AB, CD) are cutting no flux but are moving parallel to the fluxes.

At position 2, coil sides move at an angle and generate low e.m.f.

At position 3, coil sides are at right angle to the flux and as maximum fluxes
are cut by it. Hence maximum e.m.f is generated.

At position 4, e.m.f is less as the coil sides are cutting flux at an angle
similarly as at position 2.

No magnetic flux is cut at position 5. So e.m.f is zero at this position.

At position 6, the coil sides moves under a pole of opposite polarity and the
direction of generated e.m.f is reversed. The e.m.f will be maximum in this
direction when the load is at position 7 and zero again when the loop is at
position 1. This is as like as the position 1 to 4.

Therefore we find the current which is ac. To get dc we use commutator

and brushes in a dc generator. Commutator converts ac into dc.

Question: Write down the difference between dc generator and ac

generator.

Answer: The differences between dc generator and ac generator are given

below:

DC Generator AC Generator
1. In dc generator, armature (coil) 1. In ac generator, rotor rotates.
rotates.
2. In dc generator, magnet is 2. In ac generator, stator is
stationary. stationary.
3. In dc generator, current is 3. In ac generator, current is
supplied by armature. supplied by stator.

Question: What are the basic requirements of generator e.m.f?

Answer: The basic requirements of generator e.m.f are given below:

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 D.C. GENERATOR
i) A uniform magnetic field.
ii) A system of conductor.
iii) Relative motion between the field and conductor.

Magnetic field: We can get magnetic field from permanent magnet or

electro magnet.

Conductor: Copper or aluminium bars can be used as a conductor.

Relative motion: To get e.m.f we should have relative motion between the
magnetic field and conductors. This relative motion is produced by prime
mover, turbine, I.C. engine.

Question: Derive the E.M.F equation of generated voltage of a DC

generator.

Answer:

E.M.F equation of generator:

Let, Φ = flux/pole in weber

Z = total number of armature conductors.
= No. of slots No. of conductors
P = No. of generator poles
A = No. of parallel paths in armature
N = armature rotation in revolution per minute (r.p.m)
E = e.m.f induced in any parallel path in armature.
Generated e.m.f Eg = e.m.f generated in any one of the parallel path i.e. E

Now, Average e.m.f generated/conductor = volts

Flux cut/conductor in one revolution, dΦ = Φ ⨉ P wb

no. of revolution per second =

Time for one revolution, dt = sec

According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction,

E= =

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 D.C. GENERATOR
or, E= volt

In case of wave winding:

No. of parallel paths = 2

No of conductors (in series) in one path =
∴ E.M.F generated in armature of a d.c. generator = ⨉

= ⨉ [∵ A=2]

In case of lap winding:

No. of parallel paths = A

no. of conductors (in series) in one path =
∴ E.M.F generated in armature of a d.c. generator = ⨉

= ⨉

In general, generated e.m.f, Eg = ⨉

This is the E.M.F equation of a DC generator.

Question: Draw the power stage diagram of a dc generator.

Answer: The power stage diagram of a dc generator is given below:

Question: Discuss the total loss in DC generator.

Answer: The various losses occurring in a generator can be sub-divided as

follows:

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 D.C. GENERATOR
(a) Copper losses: Cu losses are mainly due to the current passing
through the winding. These consists of
(i) Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra
where, Ra = resistance of armature and interpoles and series
field winding etc.
(ii) Field copper loss:
In case of shunt generators it is = Ish2Rsh
In case of series generators it is = Ise2Rse
(iii) The loss due to brush contact resistance. It is usually included in
the armature Cu loss.
(b) Magnetic losses/iron/core losses: These consist of
(i) Hysteresis loss, Wh Bmax1.6f and
(ii) Eddy current loss, We Bmax2f2
(c) Mechanical losses: These consist of
(i) Friction loss at bearings and commutator
(ii) Air-friction or windage loss of rotating armature.

Question: Write down the efficiency of a generator? Derive the

condition for maximum efficiency.

Answer: There are three types of generator efficiencies. They are:

1. Mechanical efficiency, ηm =

2. Electrical efficiency, ηe =

3. Overall or Commercial efficiency, ηc =

It is obvious that overall/commercial efficiency,
ηc = ηm ⨉ ηe. For good generators, its value may be as high as
95%.

Condition for maximum efficiency:

Efficiency of generator is defined as the ratio of output power to input

power,
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 D.C. GENERATOR

∴η= ⨉ 100

Input = Output + losses

or, Output = Input – losses

Here,

Generator output = VI
Generator input = Output + losses
= VI + Ia2Ra + Wc
= VI + (I+Ish)2Ra + Wc [∵Ia = I+Ish]

However if Ish is negligible as compared to load current, then Ia = I

(approximately)

∴ η =

Now, efficiency is maximum when denominator is minimum i.e. when,

( )=0

or, - =0

or, =

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 D.C. GENERATOR

or, Ra =

or, I2Ra = Wc

Hence, generator efficiency is maximum when variable loss = constant loss

The load current corresponding to maximum efficiency is given by the

relation,

I2Ra = Wc

or, I=√

Question: Write down the applications of dc generator.

Answer:

Separately excited generators:

1. These are used for speed control of DC motors over a large range.
2. These are used in areas where a wide range of terminal voltage is
required.

Self-excited generators:

(a) Shunt generators:

1. These are used as exciters for exciting the field of synchronous
machines and separately excited dc generators.
2. These are used for battery charging because its terminals are
constant or can be kept constant.
3. Commonly used in ordinary lighting purposes and power supply
purposes.
(b) Series generators:
1. These are used for series lighting.
2. Series incandescent lighting.
3. As a series booster for increasing the voltage across the feeder
to compensate the resistance drop of the line because of their
rising characteristic.
4. Special purposes such as supplying the field current for
negative breaking of DC locomotives.

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 D.C. GENERATOR
5. Constant current for welding.
(c) Compound generators:
1. Compound generators are used where constant terminal
voltages have to be maintained for different leading conditions.
2. These are for domestic lighting purposes and to transmit energy
over long distance and for heavy power service.
3. It is used for special application like welding.

Question: What do you mean by armature reaction? What are the

effects of it?

Answer: The effect of flux due to armature current upon the main field flux
is called armature reaction.

The armature magnet field has two effects:

1. It demagnetizes or weakens the main flux.

2. It cross-magnetizes or distorts.

Question: What is brush contact drop?

Answer: The voltage drop over the brushes when current passes from
commutator to the brushes is known as brush contact drop.

For all loads, the drop is 0.5 volt for metal-graphite brush and 2 volts for
carbon brushes.

Question: What is stray loss and standing/constant loss?

Answer:

Stray loss: Magnetic and mechanical losses are collectively known as stray
loss.

Standing/constant loss: Stray loss and shunt Cu loss are together known
as standing or constant loss.

Question: Write down the uses of lap and wave windings.

Answer: The advantage of the wave winding is that for a given number of
poles and armature conductors, it gives more e.m.f than the lap winding.
Lap winding is suitable for comparatively low-voltage but high current

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 D.C. GENERATOR
generators whereas wave winding is used for high-voltage, low-current
machines.

Question: Describe the no-load magnetizing curve of a DC generator.

Answer:

No- load

Figure shows a separately excited DC generator. Now we will discuss its no-
load magnetization curve. To discuss the no-load magnetization curve,
some regions of the following curve have to be
discussed.

Curve shows that,

1. When the field current is zero, i.e. If=0,

there is some voltage in the circuit due to
residual magnetism.
2. The region form point 2-3 is practically a
straight line and seems to be ohmic
region.
3. The saturation of the curve starts from point 3. This point is called
the knee of this curve.
4. The region above point 3 curves the region above knee. In this region
if we increase fiend current, voltage will not increase as the
corresponding circuit undergoes saturation.
5. If we decrease field current after saturation is achieved, the voltage
will not decrease as it increased, the decrease of voltage will follow
the path from 4-5. This will happen because of residual magnetism.
So this curve is also called hysteresis curve.

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 D.C. GENERATOR
Question: What are the key factors that cause the terminal voltage of
shunt generator to decrease as load is applied?

Answer: Three factors will cause the terminal voltage of shunt generator to
decrease as load is applied. They are:

1. Armature resistance: As other electrical circuit, armature is a

resistive circuit. No current flows through armature under no load
condition. Then the generated voltage and terminal voltage is equal.
But when current flows through the armature due to application of
load, then a resistive drop occurs in the armature due to the
resistance of armature. So the terminal voltage is decreased.
Mathematically, Vt = Eg -IaRa
Where, Vt = Terminal voltage
Eg = Generated voltage
Ia = Armature current
Ra = Armature resistance
2. Armature reaction: When current flows through the armature, a
flux is produced in the armature which opposes the conductor flux.
So the resultant flux is decreased thereby causing the reduction in
induced voltage. So, the generated voltage is also decreased.
3. Reduction in field current: In shunt generator, a field is applied in
parallel across the armature. When field current is reduced for drop,
the induced voltage is also reduced thereby decreasing the terminal
voltage.

Question: What is critical resistance? Describe the failure of the

generator to build up voltage.

Answer:

Critical resistance: The maximum field circuit (for a given speed) with
which the shunt generator would just excite is known as its critical
resistance.

We have seen above that voltage build up in a shunt generator depends

upon field circuit resistance. If the field circuit resistance is R 1 (line OA),
then generator will build up a voltage OM as shown in Fig. (a). If the field
circuit resistance is increased to R2 (line OB), the generator will build up a

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 D.C. GENERATOR
voltage OL, slightly less than OM. As
the field circuit resistance is increased,
the slope of resistance line also
increases. When the field resistance
line becomes tangent (line OC) to
O.C.C., the generator would just excite.
If the field circuit resistance is
increased beyond this point (say line
OD), the generator will fail to excite.
The field circuit resistance
Figure (a)
represented by line OC (tangent to
O.C.C.) is called critical field resistance RC for the shunt generator.
Failure of generator to build up:
1. Insufficient residual magnetism: If there is little or no residual
magnetism in magnetic circuit because of inactivity, no voltage will
be generated that can produce field current.
2. Reversed field polarity: If the field connections are reversed, the
lines of flux produced by the current flow will oppose the residual
flux so that the generated voltage is decreased when the field circuit
is closed.
3. Field circuit resistance too high: It is pointed out that a field circuit
resistance greater than the critical value will prevent an applicable
build up. At no load resistance greater than the critical may be caused
by the followings:
(i) Open field circuit connection
(ii) Dirty communication
Question: Write down the function of commutator in a dc generator.
Answer: A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the
alternating voltage generated in the armature winding into direct voltage
across the brushes. The function of commutator is to facilitate collection of
current from the armature conductors. It rectified i.e. converts the
alternating current induced in the armature conductors into unidirectional
current in the external load circuit.
Commutator is of cylindrical structure and is built up of wedge-shaped
segments of high-conductivity hard-drawn or drop forged copper. These

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 D.C. GENERATOR
segments are insulated from each other by thin layer of mica. The number
of segments is equal to the number of armature coils. Each commutator
segment is connected to the armature conductor by means of a copper lug
or strip. To prevent them from flying out under the action of centrifugal
forces, the segments have V-grooves, these grooves being insulated by
conical micanite rings.
Question: Define prime mover.
Answer: The driving engine with the help of which the armature of a
generator rotates is called prime mover. It may be an engine, a turbine etc.
Question: Define Pole pitch, Coil pitch, Pitch of winding.
Answer:
Pole pitch: Pole pitch may be variously defined as:
(i) The periphery of the armature divided by the number of poles of
the generator i.e. the distance between two adjacent poles.
(ii) It is equal to the number of armature conductors (or armature
slots) per pole. If there are 48 conductors and 4 poles, the pole
pitch is 48/4=12.
Coil-span or Coil-pitch: It is the distance, measured in terms of armature
slots between two sides of a coil. It is, in fact, the periphery of the armature
spanned by the two sides of the coil.
If the pole span or coil pitch is equal to the pole pitch then winding is called
full pitched. If the coil span is less than the pole pitch then the winding is
called fractional pitched.
Pitch of winding: In general, it may be defined as the distance round the
armature between two successive conductors which are directly connected
together. Or, it is the distance between beginnings of two consecutive turns,
Y = Y B – YF ---------------- For lap winding
Y = Y B + YF ---------------- For wave winding
Question: How to operate a generator in parallel?

Answer: The armature of generator No. 2 is speeded by the prime mover

up to its rated value and then switch S2 is closed and circuit is completed by
putting a voltmeter V across the open switch S1. The excitation of the
incoming generator No. 2 is changed till V reads zero. Then it means that its
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 D.C. GENERATOR
terminal voltage is the same as that of generator No. 1 or bus-bar voltage.
After this, switch S1 is closed and so the incoming machine is paralleled to
the system. Under these conditions, however, generator No. 2 is not taking
any load, because its induced e.m.f is the same as bus-bar voltage and there
can be no flow of current between two points at the same potential. The
generator is said to be ‘floating’ on the bus-bar. If generator No. 2 is to
deliver any current, then its induced
e.m.f E should be greater than the
bus-bar voltage V. In that case,
current supplied by it is I= (E-V)/Ra
where Ra is the resistance of the
armature circuit. The induced e.m.f of
the incoming generator is increased
by strengthening its field till it takes
its proper share of load. At the same
time, it may be found necessary to
weaken the field of generator No. 1 to
maintain the bus-bar voltage V
constant.

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Energy Conversion-II (EEE-405)