Organizing Data and

Information
CHAPTER 3

1
The Hierarchy of Data

2
 Date entries, attributes, and keys

– Entity: Generalized class of people,

places, systems for which data is
collected. (Ex. Employees, customers)
– Attribute: Characteristic of an entity (Ex.
First name, last name)
– Key: A set of fields used to identify an
entity
– Primary Key: A key that uniquely
identified the entity
3
Keys and Attributes

4
The Traditional Approach To Data
Management

– Create new
files for each
application
– Data
redundancy
– Data integrity

5
The Database Approach to Data
Management

6
 Advantages of the
Database Approach (1)
• Improved strategic use of corporate date
– Accurate information always available
• Reduced data redundancy
– Data is stored in one place
• Improved data integrity
– Changes are reflected throughout
• Easier modification and update
– No need to know where the data is
7
 Advantages of the
Database Approach (2)
• Data and program independence
– Accurate information always available
• Better access to data and information
– Simple instructions to access data
• Standardization of data access
– Each DBMS uses the same set of instructions
• Standardization for programmers
– Should only know how to access the DBMS
8
 Advantages of the
Database Approach (3)

• Better protection of data

– Require authorization on the data
• Shared data resources
– Setup the database once
– Several applications can use it

9
 Disadvantages of the
Database Approach

• Costly
– Specialized DBMS software
– Specialized DBMS administrators and
operators
• Increased vulnerability
– Single point of failure
– Targets for attacks

10
 Data Modeling
• Planned data redundancy
– To have it available in more than one place
– To improve system performance
• Data model
– A diagram of entities and their relationships
• Enterprise data modeling
– Done at the level of enterprise
• Entity-relationship diagrams
– Use graphs to show how data is organized and how it
is related
11
Entity-Relationship Diagram for a
Customer Ordering Database
Entity

Relationship
(one-to-many)

Relationship
(many-to-one)

Relationship
(one-to-one)

12
 Database Models

• Hierarchical (tree)
– Data is organized top-down
• Network
– Owner-membership relationship
– A member can have many owners
• Relational
– Uses tabular format with 2-dimensional tables
(relations)
– Relations resemble files

13
Hierarchical Database Model

14
Network Database Model

15
Relational Database Model

16
 Relational Models

Describe data using a standard tabular format with all

data elements placed in two-dimensional tables, called
relations, that are the logical equivalent of files.

– Rows represent data entity

– Columns represent attributes

17
 Relational Models

– Domain: Set of values an attribute can have

• Age: Between 0-100
• Gender: Male or female
– Selecting
• Pick rows based on certain criteria
• Select those whose gender is female
– Projecting
• Create a new table with a subset of attributes
– Joining
• Combine two or more tables

18
Linking Database Tables
to Answer an Inquiry

19
Building and Modifying a Relational
Database

20
Database Management
Systems

21
 Providing a User View

• Schema - a description of the entire database

– First create a schema, then create the tables
• Subschema - a file that contains a description
of a subset of the database and identifies which
users can modify the data items in that subset
– A sales representative has to see the data for
her office, not the company stock data

22
The Use of Schemas and Subschemas

23
 Creating and Modifying the Database

• Data definition language (DDL) - a collection of

instructions and commands used to define and
describe data and data relationships in a specific
database
• Used to define the schemas
• Data dictionary – detailed description of data in
a database
• Create a data dictionary when defining the
schemas
24
 Typical Uses of a Data Dictionary

• Provide a standard definition of terms and data elements

• Assist programmers in designing and writing programs
• Simplify database modification
• Reduce data redundancy
• Increase data reliability
• Speed program development
• Ease modification of data and information

25
Storing and Retrieving Data

26
 Data Access

• Concurrency control: Lock the record so that

only one application can access it at a time
• Data manipulation language (DML)
• Structured Query Language (SQL)
• SELECT * FROM Project
WHERE Project_number=“155”
• UPDATE Project
SET Project_number=“156”
WHERE Project_number=“155”

27
Structured Query Language

28
Database Output

29
Popular Database Management Systems

• Oracle
• MySQL
• Paradox database
• FileMaker Pro
• Microsoft Access
• Lotus 1-2-3 Spreadsheet

30
Worldwide Database Market Share
(2001)

31
 Selecting a Database Management
System (1)

• Database size: Number of records in the

database
• Number of concurrent users: People or
applications that will access it at the same time
• Performance: How fast can the DBMS access or
update records?

32
 Selecting a Database Management
System (2)

• Integration: Which operating system can it run

under?
• Features: Which security procedures or privacy
policies are in place?
• Vendor: Size and reputation of the vendor
• Cost: Initial cost, maintenance costs, hardware
costs, personnel costs

33
Database Applications

34
 Data Warehouses, Data Marts,
and Data Mining
• Data Warehouse - a database that collects business
information from many sources in the enterprise,
covering all aspects of the company’s processes,
products, and customers.

• Data Mart – a subset of a data warehouse.

– For small and medium size businesses
– Used mostly for decision support system

• Data Mining - an information analysis tool that involves

the automated discovery of patterns and relationships in
a data warehouse.
35
Elements of a Data Warehouse

36
Common Data Mining Applications

37
 Common Data Mining Applications (1)

• Branding and positioning of products

• Customer churn
– Which customers can switch to competitors?
• Direct marketing
– Who would respond to telemarketing?
• Fraud detection
– Predict transactions which are likely to be illegal

38
 Common Data Mining Applications (2)

• Market-based analysis
– Which products are bought at the same time (diaper,
beer, chips)
• Market segmentation
– Group users based on similarity of products that they
buy
• Trend analysis
– Analyze how variables change over time (e.g., sales)

39
 Business Intelligence

Gathering enough of the right information in a

timely manner and usable form.
– Competitive intelligence
• What others are doing
– Counterintelligence
• Define trade secret information
– Knowledge management
• Capture company’s collective expertise wherever it
resides
• Record knowledge and share it
40
 Others

– Distributed databases
• Data is spread over a few database
– On-line analytical processing (OLAP)
• Programs used to store and deliver data
• Used to analyze millions of customer records
– Open database connectivity (ODBC)
standards

41
Comparison of OLAP and Data Mining

42
Advantages of ODBC

43
 Object-Relational Database
Management System

• Stores the following types of data as objects:

– audio
– images
– unstructured
– text
– spatial data

44
Spatial Technology

45