CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO

PUBLIC SPEAKING

COMMUNICATING…

Welcome to the first chapter of the Public Speaking with Argumentation

and Debate course.

This chapter focuses on the introduction of public speaking which

explains communication. In this chapter, we will be covering the basics of
communication and we will be learning why it is crucial in speech delivery

This chapter will hopefully help you not only to become knowledgeable
but also understanding and respectful communicators.

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to :

A. examine the basic principles of communication;

B. identify and apply the different skills needed to communicate properly;
and

C. integrate critical thinking in decision making in the context;

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 Lesson 1 What
is Communication?
Communication is an art, a science, a process, and a
technique. It involves transaction. It is an intricate process of
sharing ideas, thoughts, and information. It is imparting ideas
in the mind of others. Communication is what connects us as
human beings. We communicate our ideas and feelings using a
language to meet our needs. Although animals can
communicate with other animals for food, safety, etc., listening and speaking
using a language is a human activity. Society cannot function without
communication, whether it is face-to-face conversation across a dinner table
or video conferencing across international boundaries. But because it is a
regular part of our lives, almost like breathing, it is often thought of, as some-
thing we are just naturally born to.

Communication is not just the mere transfer of message from one

person to another just like a balikbayan box being delivered to one’s doorstep.
It involves a speaker imparting ideas, concepts, and data to a group of listeners
(the audience) which is best illustrated by the models of communication. In
the process of sending and receiving messages, it should be noted that
communication is dynamic. All its elements interact and affect one another.

Communication is also unrepeatable and irreversible. It is never the

same. Every communication experience is unique even if people are saying the
same thing (Gamble & Gamble, 2012). Communication is a systematic process
in which individuals interact through symbols to create and interpret meaning.
Communication is a human activity that connects us as human beings. A
society cannot function without it. Monroe et al. (1982) described it as the
sharing of experiences publicly for the common good. Although it is something
we are just naturally born to, it has to be learned and mastered (Pace et al.,
1979) because it is a systematic process through which individuals interact
through symbols to create and interpret meaning. Communication is either
verbal and non-verbal, or audio and visual and in order to master it, the
process of communication should be understood first.

“When we label something as a process, we also mean that it does not

have a beginning, and ending, or fixed sequence of events. It is not static, at

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rest, it is moving. The ingredients within a process interact; each affect all of
the others.- David Berlo

Characteristics of Communication

1. Dynamic
Communication is constantly changing because it relies on the human
perception that it can change overtime. Further, it is irreversible and
unrepeatable.

2. Continuous
Communication is an ongoing exchange of meaning-sharing behaviors
between or among individuals who operate within a frame of experience. There
is no beginning, ending, or fixed sequence of events.

3. Adaptive
Communication adjusts to the changes that occurs in its physical and
psychological environment.

4. Systemic
Communication involves components that are interrelated and interacting in a
cyclical order.

5. Transactional
Every communication is a unique combination of people, messages and events,
it consists of unending sharing (transmission and reception) of messages
among people on some occasion.

Elements of Communication

1. Source – He/she is one who sends or delivers a message or

one who initiates the communication process. The source can
also be called as the sender or author. The source plays a crucial
role in the process, because if the source failed to deliver the
message properly, then the entire communication process may
fail.

2. Message – Transformed thoughts into a form (i.e. voice, audio,

text, signals, etc.) that the source sends to the receiver. It is the
information that the source wants to transmit.

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3. Channel – Type of medium used to send messages between the
source and the receiver.

4. Receiver – One who receives the message. The communication

process is considered successful when the receiver responds the
way the source intended. Like the source, a receiver’s role is vital
in the communication process. He or she must also be active and
intentional in receiving messages. In that way, the receiver can
respond the correct way.
However, the communication process does not end there. The effect of
the message and the feedback of the receiver should also be noted in order to
know the result of the communication process.

5. Effect – Response of the receiver after getting the message

from the
source

6. Feedback – An important product of the communication process.

It tells the source how effective the selected message and channel
are upon the receiver. Furthermore, it allows the source to adjust
the communication process so that it is more effective. Feedback
confirms whether there is mutual understanding between the
source and the receiver. Without it, the source would not know if
understanding took place.
The communication process is not always ideal. Sometimes, interference
can also occur when the source sends a message. This is called:
7. Noise – Disruptions in the communication process. It could be
physical “noise”, actual noise such as loud music or irritating
engine of a motorcycle. Even a seatmate who talks to you while
the teacher is explaining the lesson is noise because it prevents
you from listening to the teacher ; physiological noise, when
the body becomes a hindrance to good communication like head-
ache or a toothache, one may not be able to effectively listen to
a friend. Listen to music, or do anything for that matter; or
psychological noise. This occurs when one is thinking deeply
about something or is suffering from an emotional condition
(sadness), which discourages participation in a communication
situation.

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 Instruction: This section of the lesson will not be
recorded. It will serve as your self- assessment. Answer
the following questions.

1. In your own words, what is meant by good communication?

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

2. From your readings on the characteristics of communication, what word/s

within the descriptions is/are synonymous to the characteristics.

a. dynamic- constantly changing; can change overtime _____________

b. continuous- ongoing ; no beginning, ending, or fixed sequence of
events. ____________________
c. adaptive- adjusts to the changes ________________
d. systemic - involves components ___________________
e. transactional - unending sharing of messages _________________

3. Name the elements of communication.

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Possible answer/s:

1. Good communication means having understanding of message between

the sender and the receiver de-
spite the interruptions that may have occurred between them.
(Answers may vary)

2. a. constantly changing; can change overtime

b. ongoing ; no beginning, ending, or fixed sequence of events.
c. adjusts to the changes
d. involves components
e. unending sharing of messages

3. The elements or communication are source, message, channel, receiver,

effect, feedback, and noise.

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Lesson 2 Modes of Communication
It was previously noted that communication occurs between two people,
among a group of people, or between a speaker and a group of listeners. The
following are the modes of communication that we apply in our everyday
communication. As you read the following, please take note of the tips on how
we can use them effectively.

1. Verbal Communication—making use of words in the process of sending

and receiving messages.
This refers to the mode of communication that involves speaking. It
occurs when you speak or when you use words. This includes face-to-face
communication and communicating through a medium such as:
● Telephone
● Cellphone
● Video calls or conference calls

Tips in Communicating Verbally

a. Strive to achieve clarity. One way to achieve clarity in communication
is using the specific words that convey exactly what you want to say.
b. Respect individual differences. Be careful in describing people
considering their age, gender and gen- der preferences, political affiliations,
physical limitations, religion, economic and social status and culture
c. Avoid stereotyping. Be sensitive to cultural peculiarities, but avoid
generalizing people’s traits based on race or culture.
d. Aspire to use words that are comprehensible to your listener or
target audience. Use simple words so that your audience may understand
what you are saying.

2. Non-verbal Communication- refers to non-speech type of

communication. It is any type of communication that does not include spoken
word. It can refer to the way we say the words, surroundings that may affect
communication, objects, patterns, and more. Remaining in silence or not
responding at all is also a form of nonverbal communication. So, when it is
quiet, it does not necessarily mean that communication is not taking place.
Silence can also mean something.

a. Paralanguage- about “how” something is said, not what is said. Saying

‘I love you’ in an angry tone is a contradictory message. Word of protest may
lose their fire when said in a meek and soft voice. Tones or voices must match
the content of the message if the message is to be understood at all. It must
also reinforce the message: a message with strong points to deliver must be
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emphasized with strong paralanguage.

b. Gestures-most often used type of nonverbal communication in speeches.

This could be used for emphasizing (punctuates what one wants to highlight,
regulating (used to control the flow of communication, illustrating (used to
show height, size, distance, or similar qualities), or emblems (associated with
specific meanings

Example: hitting the lectern or the table- interjects force; emphasizing a

point being made
: nodding one’s head- somebody may continue talking; might also
mean understanding or a way of saying “yes”
: using one hand to mimic a certain height or two hands to show
distance of size
: clenched fist- activism or protest

America: The thumb between the index and middle

fingers represents the nose stolen from a kid’s face in the
“I’ve Got Your Nose” game.
Turkey: An obscene gesture similar to the middle finger,
and is also used to show disagreement or to deny a
request.

Brazil: A good luck charm to ward off the evil eye and jealousy.
Indonesia: An offensive gesture.
American Sign Language (ASL): The sign for the letter T.

America: Okay.
Japan: Money. Sometimes the
gesture is made
with the 3 fingers at the
bottom.
Brazil: A rude gesture.

c. Facial Expression- assists the listener in understanding the message

better It’s important for the listener to monitor any and all the facial
expressions of the speaker. It will guide the listener to check on the sincerity
or seriousness of the speaker or whether the listener treats the speaker with
affection or with contempt.
Example: eye contact

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d. Posture and Personal Appearance
Stand straight but not rigid, with your feet about six to 12 inches- apart
and one slightly ahead of the other. Balance your weight evenly on the balls
of your feet. Lean forward just a little. Your knees should be straight but not
locked. Relax your shoulders, but don’t let them droop. Keep your chest up
and your stomach in. Your head should be erect and your chin up, but not
uncomfortably so. Let your arms hang naturally at your sides, with your fingers
slightly curled. Take a few deep, full breaths. Your stance should be alert but
not stiff, relaxed but not sloppy.

3. Written Communication – refers to communicating through writing.

Activity 1 Instruction: Complete

the following chart by providing
examples of the different modes of
communication.

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 Lesson 3 Principles of Communication
Just like our parents who guide us as we grow, the following principles
also serve as our guides to become effective communicators. We must always
remember these as these will make us truly effective in communicating in any
context we are in.

You should know by heart your Make sure that claims are supported
purpose in communicating. by facts and essential information.

Brevity in speech is a must.

Punctuate important words with Inputs are most helpful when

your statements. provided on time.

Be guided by your purpose. Tone of writing should be friendly.

By this time, you are already done reading the principles of oral, and written
Be brief but focusedIt’s
communication. on the main
your point.
turn Include
to speak all necessary
up your and important
mind about the principles
information.
learned. Write your own belief about how one should communicate. You may
do it so by writing a poem or an essay. When you are done, post your activity
in our Face- book Group. Check
You may use the and
on grammar following space below to construct
Have
your enough facts to
initial output. spelling. Convey logical knowledge.
support your argument. Concepts should be related
Criteria: Substance of content and originality-8 to each other.
Personal Growth- 7

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CHAPTER 2 PUBLIC SPEAKING
“You can speak well if your message delivers the message of your heart.”
-John Ford

Welcome to the second chapter! In this chapter, we will be taking some

of the highlights of public speaking particularly on Speech Delivery,
Gestures, and Designing Effective Presentation Materials.

This chapter will teach you the basics of public speaking, and it will guide
you through writing your speech to delivering your speech. It also includes
ways on how speeches can be organized, and how these can be presented in
context.

There are activities within each lesson to check on your learning.

Whether the activity is graded or not, you have to do it. Remember, you are
responsibility of your own learning. Be honest all the time.

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

A. communicate ideas clearly and accurately in oral and written form;

and

B. adopt awareness of audience and context in presenting ideas.

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 Types of Speech
There are three major speech types: according to purpose, according
to occasion, and according to manner of delivery.

1. According to Purpose
a. Informative- this serves to provide interesting and useful information
to your audience like your teacher talking about earthquakes or a fellow
student preserving his research.
b. Demonstrative- this serves to instruct/teach an audience on how to do
something step by step
c. Persuasive- works to convince people to change the way they think or
do something, or start doing some- thing that they are not currently doing.
d. Entertainment – aims to provide pleasure and enjoyment that make
the audience laugh or identify with anecdotal information

2. Special-Occasion Speeches
a. The Speech of Welcome– this expresses the greeting on behalf of the
organization, identifies the purpose of the occasion or the visit, and relates
interests and aims of welcoming the guests
b. Speech of Introduction– this acquaints the audience with the upcoming
speaker, promotes the purposes of the speaker, and avoids the temptations to
talk too long or to undermine the speaker you are introducing
c. Speech of Nomination- this gives the information about the position for
which you are nominating the individual, shows your nominee is especially fit
for the position, and helps the listeners visualize the successes that your
candidate will bring to the group when he/she is chosen
d. Speech to Present Gift or Award– this gives fair but not excessive tribute
to the recipient of the award or gift
e. Speech of Tribute (Eulogy)- this allows us to pay special honor to
significant people, living or deceased; it requires true eloquence of spirit

3. According to Manner of Delivery

a. Impromptu- is a speech that has no advanced planning or practice This
is delivered “on the spur of the moment” and this depends solely on your ability
to speak in an instant. It’s sometimes called “thinking on your feet”.
b. Extemporaneous- involves the speaker’s use of notes and some
embellishment to deliver a speech and
time is given for the speaker to prepare

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c. Manuscript- speaker reads every word from a pre-written speech
which may seem easy enough
d. Memorized- speech that is fully written out like the speech that is read
from the manuscript, and fully memorized

Speech Delivery
Speech delivery refers to the presentation of the speech you have
researched, organized, outlined, and practiced. Delivery is important, of
course, because it is what is most immediate to the audience. You can
communicate your confidence and preparedness to your audience. Effective
delivery shows your audience that you have researched your topic and
understand what you are speaking about. An effective de- livery allows you to
pull it all together—to showcase your work and to speak with confidence during
your delivery.

1. Voice and Articulation

Human voice is important in any speech situation. The substance and weight
of one’s knowledge are best presented through a pleasing and audible voice.
However, the volume of the voice is dependent on the following
considerations: the size and proximity of the audience (listeners), the size
and acoustic of the venue and the material (topic) to be presented. The
pitch of the voice should also be considered when speaking particularly on
its softness and loudness. The correct breathing and pronunciation of the
words would make the delivery more comprehensible.

2. Diction
Diction is often mistaken as pronunciation only, but it also concerns good
choice of words, correct language structure, acceptable pronunciation, fluency
and proficiency of the language.

3. Tone
Tone refers to the mood or feeling the speaker creates. Sometimes the tone
is set by the occasion. Remember: You set the tone for your speech long before
you begin speaking—in fact, the tone can be set as soon as the audience sees
you. Your tone should be related to the topic of your speech. Although your
tone will run throughout your speech, it can vary as you proceed.

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Instruction: Read the following poem to
practice voice modulation and articulation, and
proper diction and tone.

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Dearest creature in creation, Study English pronunciation.
I will teach you in my verse
Sounds like corpse, corps, horse, and worse.
I will keep you, Suzy, busy, Make your head with heat grow dizzy.
Tear in eye, your dress will tear. So shall I! Oh hear my prayer.

Just compare heart, beard, and heard,

Dies and diet, lord and word, Sword and sward, retain and Britain.
(Mind the latter, how it's written.) Now I surely will not plague you with
such words as plaque and ague.
But be careful how you speak: Say break and steak, but bleak and streak;
Cloven, oven, how and low, Script, receipt, show, poem, and toe.

Hear me say, devoid of trickery, Daughter, laughter, and Terpsichore,

Typhoid, measles, topsails, aisles, Exiles, similes, and reviles;
Scholar, vicar, and cigar, solar, mica, war and far;
One, anemone, Balmoral, Kitchen, lichen, laundry, laurel;
Gertrude, German, wind and mind,
Scene, Melpomene, mankind.

Billet does not rhyme with ballet, bouquet, wallet, mallet, chalet. Blood and
flood are not like food, nor is mould like should and would.
Viscous, viscount, load and broad,
Toward, to forward, to reward. And your pronunciation's OK When you
correctly say croquet, Rounded, wounded, grieve and sieve,
Friend and fiend, alive and live.
Ivy, privy, famous; clamour and enamour rhymes with hammer.
River, rival, tomb, bomb, comb, Doll and roll and some and home.
Stranger does not rhyme with anger,
Neither does devour with clangour.
Souls but foul, haunt but aunt, Font, front, wont, want, grand, and grant,
Shoes, goes, does. Now first say finger,
And then singer, ginger, linger, Real, zeal, mauve, gauze, gouge and gauge,
Marriage, foliage, mirage, and age.

Query does not rhyme with very, Nor does fury sound like bury.
Dost, lost, post and doth, cloth, loth.
Job, nob, bosom, transom, oath. Though the differences seem little,
We say actual but victual.
Refer does not rhyme with deafer. Foeffer does, and zephyr, heifer.
Mint, pint, senate and sedate; Dull, bull, and George ate late.
Scenic, Arabic, Pacific, Science, conscience, scientific.

Liberty, library, heave and heaven,

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Rachel, ache, moustache, eleven. We say hallowed, but allowed,
people, leopard, towed, but vowed.
Mark the differences, moreover, Between mover, cover, clover; Leeches,
breeches, wise, precise, Chalice, but police and lice; Camel, constable,
unstable, Principle, disciple, label.

Petal, panel, and canal,

Wait, surprise, plait, promise, pal. Worm and storm, chaise, chaos, chair,
Senator, spectator, mayor.
Tour, but our and succour, four. Gas, alas, and Arkansas.
Sea, idea, Korea, area,
Psalm, Maria, but malaria. Youth, south, southern, cleanse and clean .

Doctrine, turpentine, marine.

Compare alien with Italian, dandelion and battalion.
Sally with ally, yea, ye,
Eye, I, ay, aye, whey, and key. Say aver, but ever, fever,
neither, leisure, skein, deceiver. Heron, granary, canary.
Crevice and device and aerie. Face, but preface, not efface. Phlegm,
phlegmatic, ass, glass, bass.

Large, but target, gin, give, verging,

Ought, out, joust and scour, scourging.
Ear, but earn and wear and tear Do not rhyme with here but ere. Seven is
right, but so is even, Hyphen, roughen, nephew Stephen,
Monkey, donkey, Turk and jerk, Ask, grasp, wasp, and cork and work.

Pronunciation -- think of Psyche!

Is a paling stout and spikey? Won't it make you lose your wits, Writing
groats and saying grits? It's a dark abyss or tunnel: Strewn with stones,
stowed, solace, gunwale,
Islington and Isle of Wight, Housewife, verdict and indict. Finally, which
rhymes with enough?
Though, through, plough, or dough, or cough?
Hiccough has the sound of cup. My advice is don’t give up!
-Written by Gerard Nolst Trenité

*Speech Sounds in voice articulation

Voicing, manners, and places of articulation are responsible for the
production (articulation) of different speech sounds. Sound is produced by
the interference of the flow of air through the mouth (and nose).
Consonants are created when the airflow is directly restricted, or
obstructed. As such, pulmonary air cannot escape from the oral cavity
without creating audible friction. By way of contrast, vowels are created
when the airflow is not crucially restricted or obstructed. Therefore,
pulmonary air can escape the oral cavity without creating audible friction.

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Defining characteristics of consonants include: (a) voicing (b) place of
articulation (c) manner of articulation. Defining characteristics of vowels
are: (a) lip rounding, and (b) relative tongue position.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
A. produce vowel and consonant sounds properly;
B. identify the manner and place of articulation of speech sounds; and
C. read poems or speeches using proper production of sounds.

Manner of Articulation
Manner of articulation refers to the nature of the obstruction of
pulmonary air flow. In order to fully appreciate the differences among
speech sounds, as well as indicating the place of articulation, it is necessary
to determine the nature and extent of the obstruction of airflow involved in
their articulation. The type of airflow obstruction is known as the manner
of articulation. The manner of articulation is particularly defined by four
major factors: (a) whether there is vibration of the vocal cords (voiced vs.
voiceless), (b) whether there is obstruction of the airstream at any point
above the glottis (consonant vs. vowel), (c) whether the airstream passes
through the nasal cavity in addition to the oral cavity (nasal vs. oral), and
(d) whether the airstream passes through the middle of the oral cavity or
along the side(s) (non-lateral vs. lateral). An example of this can be found
by looking at the following words:
nine /naɪn/ dine /daɪn/ line /laɪn/
They all begin with voiced, alveolar consonants /n/, /d/, and /l/. Yet,
they are all clearly different in both sound and meaning. The kinds of
constriction made by the articulators are what make up this further
dimension of classification. There are two common kinds of constriction that
often occur in English: plosive and fricative. Also, there are other less
common constrictions: nasal, affricate, lateral, and approximant.
Traditional phonetics, however, used three cover terms to refer to all kinds
of constriction: plosive, fricative, and affricate.
1) Occlusive and Plosive
Occlusive require a complete closure of the speech canal, not just a
restriction. This distinguishes them from the continuants. The occlusion is
two fold: (a) the airstream is halted by a sudden closure in the oral cavity;
(b) the trapped air is freed by abruptly releasing the closure. If the trapped
air is gradually released, an affricate consonant is articulated. Occlusive in
English include /p/, /b/, /m/, /t/, /d/, /n/, /k/, /g/, and /ŋ/. [p] is a voiceless
bilabial stop consonant. The lips are pressed tightly together. The air is
trapped behind the lips. The vocal cords are kept far apart, and the nasal
cavity is closed by the velum. Then the trapped air is suddenly released.
[b] is the voiced counterpart of [p]. The only difference is that the vocal
cords are close to each other and vibrate during the articulation of [b]. In
the case of /m/, the nasal cavity is open. /b/ and /p/ /t/ and /d/ /k/ and
/g/ [t] is a voiceless dental or alveolar stop. The tongue makes contact with
the front teeth or with the alveolar ridge directly above them. There is no
vocal cord vibration and the nasal cavity is blocked. [d] is a voiced dental
or alveolar stop. It is produced in the same way as [t] but with vibration of
the vocal cords. In the case of /n/, the nasal cavity is open to let the air
pass through it. [k] is a voiceless velar stop. With the tongue tip resting

16
against the lower teeth, the back of the tongue makes contact with the soft
palate. [g] is its voiced counterpart. Its articulation is the same as [k], but
with vibration of the vocal cords. The corresponding velar nasal [ŋ] is
usually voiced as well.
Occlusive can be categorized into two major types: stops and
plosives. The two categories are in inclusion distribution. That is, all plosives
are stops but all stops are not necessarily plosive. This relationship can be
schematically represented as: (PLOSIVE ➙ STOP).
Plosive sounds are made by forming a complete obstruction to the
flow of air through the mouth and nose. The first stage is that a closure
occurs. Then the flow of air builds up and finally the closure is released,
making an explosion of air that causes a sharp noise. Try to slowly say /p/
to yourself. You should be able to feel the build up of air that bursts into
the /p/ sound when you open your lips. It should be noted that a plosive
cannot be prolonged or maintained so that once the air has been released,
the sound has escaped. As such, plosive sounds lack the length feature.
Contrast this quality of plosives with a fricative in which you can lengthen
the sound. The plosive sounds in RP are: /b/, /p/, /t/, /d/, /k/, and /g/. As
it was mentioned earlier, plosive sounds belong to a more general class of
sounds called stops. A stop sound is one in which the flow of air is
completely blocked only in the oral cavity. Stops also include such sounds
as /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/. Take the following examples:
moon /mu:n/ night /naɪt/ thing /θɪŋ/
You can feel that in the production of such sounds as /m/, /n/, and
/ŋ/ the flow of air is completely blocked in the mouth. However, air can flow
through the nose. As such, the air cannot burst into these sounds because
they can be lengthened. In addition to these sounds, /ʧ/ and /ʤ/ are also
marked by a complete blockage of pulmonary air in the oral cavity. Here,
again, the blockage is not followed by an abrupt release. Rather, the
blocked air is gradually released to create friction. Some phoneticians rank
these two sounds among the stop consonants while many others classify
them as affricates. Take the following examples:
Jack /ʤæk/ chat /ʧæt/
2) Fricative
A fricative is the type of consonant that is formed by forcing air
through a narrow gap in the oral cavity so that a hissing sound is created.
Typically air is forced between the tongue and the place of articulation for
the particular sound. Say the /f/ in fin /fɪn/, the /θ/ in thin /θɪn/ and the /ʃ/
in shin /ʃɪn/.
Fricative consonants result from a narrowing of the speech canal that
does not achieve the full closure characteristic of the occlusive. The shape
and position of the lips and/or tongue determine the type of fricative
produced. Phoneticians usually distinguish between so-called true fricatives
and the related class of spirants. During the production of a fricative, the
airstream can be directed in several ways. First, in the case of true
fricatives, the tongue channels the air through the center of the mouth (like
in the case of the dorsal fricatives). Second, the tongue can also channel
the air down the side(s) of the mouth (like in the case of the lateral
fricatives). Finally, in the case of labial and dental fricatives, the shape and
position of the tongue is not important. This makes sense because the place
of articulation is not, strictly speaking, in the oral cavity at all.
3) Lateral

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 To produce a lateral sound, air is obstructed by the tongue at a point
along the centre of the mouth but the sides of the tongue are left low so
that air can escape over its sides. In fact, the tongue is strongly flexed and
the air is forced through a narrow oval cavity, producing a hushing sound.
/l/ is the clearest example of a lateral sound in English. Both the clear [l]
and the word-final dark [ɫ] allophones (i.e., the variants of the same
phoneme) of /l/ are lateral sounds. When an alveolar plosive is followed by
the lateral /l/, then what happens is that we simply lower the sides of the
tongue to release the compressed air, rather than raising and lowering the
blade of the tongue. If you say the word 'bottle' to ourselves you can feel
the sides of the tongue lower to let out the air.
4) Approximant
An approximant is a consonant that makes very little obstruction to
the airflow. Approximants are divided into two main groups: semivowels
(also called glides) and liquids. The semivowels are /h/ as in hat /hæt/, /j/
as in yellow /ˈjeləʊ/, and/w/ as in one /wʌn/. They are very similar to the
vowels /ɜ:/, /u:/ and /i:/, respectively. However, semivowels are produced
as a rapid glide. The liquids include the lateral /l/ and /r/ sounds in that
these sounds have an identifiable constriction of the airflow, but not one
sufficiently obstructive enough to produce a fricative sound. Approximants
are never fricative and never completely block the flow of air.
5) Nasal
A nasal consonant is a consonant in which air escapes only through
the nose. For this to happen, the soft dorsal part of the soft palate is lowered
to allow air to pass it, whilst a closure is made somewhere in the oral cavity
to stop air escaping through the mouth. You can feel if a sound is a nasal
sound or not by placing your hand in front of your mouth and feeling if any
air is escaping or not. There are three nasal sounds in English. The /m/ in
mat /mæt/, the/n/ in not /nɒt/ and the /ŋ/ in sing /sɪŋ/ or think /θɪŋk/. The
velar /ŋ/ does not occur in Persian. The Iranian learner of English, therefore,
replaces the /ŋ/ phoneme by a sequence of two phonemes /n/, and /g/. In
English, whenever the letter n appears before the letters g and k, it is
pronounced as /ŋ/. Nasal sounds are considered to belong to the stop
category along with plosives and affricates. The nasal “occlusive” of the
vast majority of the world's languages are voiced. Very few not-so-famous
languages have voiceless nasals too. During the production of these nasal
“occlusive”, the soft palate is lowered to a greater or lesser extent, allowing
a portion of the airstream to pass through the nasal cavity. Occlusion occurs
in the mouth only; the nasal resonance is continuous. Indeed, many
linguists rank the nasals among the continuants. /m/ is a bilabial nasal. The
mouth is configured just as for the corresponding bilabial stop /p/ and /b/.
The lips are pressed tightly together. The air builds up and is suddenly
released. /n/ is a dental or alveolar nasal. The mouth is configured just as
for the corresponding dental or alveolar stop /t/ and /d/. The tongue makes
contact either with the front teeth, or with the alveolar ridge directly above
them. /ŋ/ is a velar nasal. The configuration of the mouth is very close to
that of the corresponding velar stop /k/ and /g/. With the tongue tip resting
against the lower teeth, the back of the tongue makes contact with the soft
palate. But as the soft palate is lowered (to allow air to flow through the
nasal cavity), the tongue's movement is more important for the nasal than
for the oral sound.
6) Affricate

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 An affricate is a plosive immediately followed by a fricative in the
same place of articulation. The /ʧ/ in chap /ʧæp/ and the /ʤ/ in jeep /ʤi:p/
are the two clear affricates in English. If you think about it, the /ʧ/ sound is
made up from the plosive /t/ and the fricative /ʃ/ sounds. Likewise, the /ʤ/
sound is made up from the plosive /d/ immediately followed by the fricative
/z/.
7) Voicing (Level of Vibration)
All of us inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. Pulmonary air gets
out the lungs and enters the bronchi. The two bronchi meet each other and
form the trachea. The trachea is intercepted by the voicebox or larynx on
its way out. Inside the voice box, there are two membranes that are hinged
together at the back. These membranes are called the vocal cords or the
vocal folds. The vocal cords can make a wedge-shaped opening when they
are far apart. This opening is called the glottis. The level of vibration of the
vocal cords determines whether a sound is voiced or unvoiced. When the
glottis is open, pulmonary air passes through it easily without causing any
friction. That is, if the vocal cords are apart, then air can escape unimpeded.
Sounds produced in this way are said to be voiceless. The easiest example
of this is to whisper. When you whisper, your glottis is wide open and,
therefore, all the sounds produced are voiceless. However, when the glottis
is closed, the vocal cords are set into vibration by the impact of the
pulmonary air. When the vocal cords vibrate, voice sounds are produced.
When they do not vibrate, voiceless sounds result. That is, if the vocal
cords are very close together, the air will blow them apart as it forces its
way through. This makes the cords vibrate, producing a voiced sound. Vocal
cord vibration is technically referred to as voicing. In English, only a limited
number of consonants are voiceless. /ʧ/, /s/, /p/, /k/, /f/, /ʃ/, /t/, /θ/, and
/h/ are voiceless. All other phonemes are voiced. Voicing is important in a
language like English because the meaning of a sound often depends on
whether that sound is voiced or not.

Place of Articulation
As it was noted earlier, the distinction between manner of articulation
and place of articulation is particularly important for the classification of
consonants. The place of articulation is the point where the airstream is
obstructed. In general, the place of articulation is simply that point on the
palate where the tongue is placed to block the stream of air. However, the
palate is not the only place of articulation.
The place of articulation can be any of these points: (a) the lips
(labials and bilabials), (b) the teeth (dentals), (c) the lips and teeth (labio-
dentals—here the tongue is not directly involved), (d) the alveolar ridge
(that part of the gums behind the upper front teeth—alveolar articulations),
(e) the hard palate (given its large size, one can distinguish between palato-
alveolars, palatals and palato-velars), (f) the soft palate (or velum—velar
articulations), (g) the uvula (uvulars), (h) the pharynx (pharyngeals), and
(i) the glottis (glottals). After the air has left the larynx, it passes into the
vocal tract. Consonants are produced by obstructing the air flow through
the vocal tract. There are a number of places where these obstructions can
take place. These places are known as the articulators. They include the
lips, the teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate, and the
throat. Some phoneticians define articulators as the movable parts of the
vocal tract.

19
Assignment 1
Instruction: Make an audio-visual presentation articulating the vowel and
consonant sounds based on the manner and place of articulation. Please
see course guide for rubric.
Lesson 1 Consonants
Consonants in English are distinguished from vowels on the basis of
the modifications of pulmonary air in the oral cavity. Consonants are
distinguished from one another on the basis of their differences in three
respects: (a) manner of articulations, (b) place of articulation, and (c)
voicing. By way of contrast, vowels are distinguished from one another on
the basis of two criteria: (a) relative position of the tongue in the mouth,
and (b) lip rounding. Consonant is the general term that refers to a class
of sounds where there is obstruction of some kind (i.e., complete blockage,
or constriction) to the flow of pulmonary air. As it was mentioned earlier,
there are six different degrees of obstruction. Therefore, consonants can be
classified into six different categories on the basis of their manner of
articulation:
TYPE PHONEME
PLOSIVES /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/
FRICATIVES /f/ /v/ /θ/ /ð/ /h/ /s/ /z/ /ʃ/ /ʒ/
AFFRICATES /ʧ/ /ʤ/
NASALS /m/ /n/ /ŋ/
APPROXIMANT /r/ /w/ /j/
LATERAL /l/
There are more than one consonants fall within almost all of these
categories. Therefore, other criteria are needed to distinguish one
consonant from the other. For example, /p/ and /b/ cannot solely be
distinguished on the basis of their manner of articulation. Moreover, they
are articulated at the same place of articulation. Yet they are different since
they assign different meanings to the two English words 'pat' /pæt/ and
'bat' /bæt/. Consonants that share the same manner of articulation may be
different in terms of place of articulation. Consonants are classified into
nine different classes according to their place of articulation:
TYPE PHONEME
BILABIAL /m/, /p/, /b/
LABIODENTAL /f/, /v/
INTERDENTAL /θ/, /ð/
ALVEOLAR /t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/, /r/, /l/
PALATOALVEOLAR /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ʧ/, /ʤ/
PALATAL /j/
LABIOVELAR /w/
VELAR /k/, /g/, /ŋ/
GLOTTAL /h/
Even those consonant that share the place and manner of articulation
may be different in terms of voicing and nasality. According to the level of
vibration of the vocal cords, consonants are classified into two groups:
voiced, and voiceless:
TYPE PHONEME
VOICELESS /ʧ/, /s/, /p/, /k/, /f/, /ʃ/, /t/, /θ/, /h/
VOICED /ʤ/, /z/, /b/, /g/, /v/, /ʒ/, /d/, /ð/, /w/, /j/, /l/,
/r/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/

20
 On the basis of nasality, consonants are divided into two groups:
nasal, and non-nasal. As you have already noticed, nasality is identified by
a free flow of air through the nose.
TYPE PHONEME
NASAL /m/, /n/, /ŋ/
NON-NASAL /ʤ/, /z/, /b/, /g/, /v/, /ʒ/, /d/, /ð/, /w/, /j/, /l/,
/r/, /ʧ/, s/, /p/, /k/, /f/, /ʃ/, /t/, /θ/, /h/
These differences in place of articulation, manner of articulation,
nasality, and voicing led traditional phoneticians to assign different names
to different consonants. The name that was given to any given consonant
was based on the air stream mechanism which led to the articulation of that
consonant:
Consonant name = Place of articulation + voicing + manner of articulation
For example the consonant /p/ would be identified as bilabial
voiceless stop. By way of contrast, the consonant /b/ was defined as bilabial
voiced stop. As such /b/ and /p/ were distinguished on the basis of the level
of vibration of the vocal cords (i.e., voicing). /m/ was considered to be a
bilabial nasal. In traditional phonetics, consonants were named after their
particular characteristics:
PHONEME TRADITIONAL NAME
/p/ Bilabial voiceless stop
/b/ Bilabial voiced stop
/m/ Bilabial nasal
/f/ Labiodental voiceless fricative
/v/ Labiodental voiced fricative
/θ/ Interdental voiceless fricative
/ð/ Interdental voiced fricative
/t/ Alveolar voiceless stop
/d/ Alveolar voiced stop
/n/ Alveolar nasal
Lesson 2 Vowels
It was mentioned earlier that most sounds in speech are produced
by passing a stream of air from the lungs through one or more resonators
belonging to the phonetic apparatus. There are four principle resonators:
(1) the pharyngeal cavity, (2) the oral cavity, (3) the labial cavity, and (4)
the nasal cavity. Air flows through these resonators. The presence or
absence of obstructions in the course of the airstream modifies the nature
of the sound produced. By classifying the different types of obstructions
that are possible, articulatory phonetics distinguishes four different major
sound classes: consonants, vowels, glides or semivowels, and liquids. The
distinction between consonants and vowels is quite simple. If the air, once
out of the glottis, is allowed to pass freely through the oral cavity, the
sound is a vowel. If the air, once out of the glottis, is partially or totally
obstructed in one or more places in the oral cavity, the sound is a
consonant. It should be noted that the line between vowels and consonants
cannot be clearly drawn. A continuum exists between the two extremes.
In English, there are also intermediate instances: (a) liquids, and (b)
glides. In order for a phoneme to be a vowel, it should meet certain vowel-
hood criteria. These criteria include: (a) the degree of openness of the oral
cavity also known as the degree of aperture, (b) the degree of tension or
laxity of the vocal tract muscles, and (c) amount of duration or length of

21
 articulation.
There is a large degree of freedom in the articulation of open vowels.
However, this freedom is not endless. On the one hand, no vowel can be
more 'open' than the standard open vowels (fourth degree of aperture).
On the other hand, a vowel could not be much more 'close' than the
standard close vowels (first degree of aperture). Additionally, the close
vowels must have a certain minimum duration in order to be perceived as
a vowel rather than a consonant. The chief characteristic of vowels is the
freedom with which the airstream, once out of the glottis, passes through
the speech organs. The supra-glottal resonators do not cut off or constrict
the air. They only cause resonance, that is to say, the reinforcement of
certain frequency ranges.
A vowel's timbre (or quality) depends on the following elements: (a)
the number of active resonators, (b) the shape of the oral cavity, and (c)
the size of the oral cavity. There are three possible resonators involved in
the articulation of a vowel: (a) the oral cavity, (b) the labial cavity, and (c)
the nasal cavity. If the soft palate is raised, the air does not enter the nasal
cavity, and passes exclusively through the oral cavity; if the soft palate is
lowered, however, air can pass through nose and mouth simultaneously. If
the lips are pushed forward and rounded, a third, labial resonator is formed;
if, on the other hand, the lips are spread sideways or pressed against the
teeth, no labial resonator is formed. It is thus the number of resonators at
stake in distinguishing nasal vowels (nasal resonator active) from oral
vowels (no nasal resonance), and rounded vowels (labial resonator active)
from unrounded vowels (no labial resonator/no labial resonance).
Ordinarily, English vowels do not involve the nasal cavity. They can,
however, become nasalized in certain contexts (e.g., when they follow nasal
consonants). The shape of the oral cavity is determined by the general
position of the tongue in the mouth. This divides the vowels into three great
classes: (a) front vowels, (b) back vowels, and (c) central vowels. In the
articulation of front vowels, the tongue body is in the pre-palatal region. In
the production of back vowels, the tongue body is in the post-palatal or
velar region. Finally, in the articulation of central vowels, the tongue body
is in the medio-palatal region.
From a phonetic point of view, vowels are sounds produced with no
obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips. In
other words, air passes without any complete closure or narrowing between
speech organs. A doctor who wants to look at the back of a patient’s mouth
often asks the patient to say “ah”; making this vowel sound is the best way
of presenting an unobstructed view.
 On functional grounds, the vowel is the sound which has a central,
major, syllabic function (the vowel is usually in the middle of words).
The consonant, however, is marginal, less important in the syllable.

When describing a vowel, the following points must be noted and

taken into consideration:
1. The position of the soft palate.

2. The kind of opening formed by the lips. The lips can, generally, have
three shapes. They can be:

22
  Rounded such as in the vowel / u: / in words like: ‘group’,
‘shoes’, ‘move.’ The corners of the lips are brought together
towards each other, with the lips pushed forward. You can
notice this by looking at a mirror while trying to articulate the
examples mentioned above.

 Spread as in the vowel / i: / in words like: ‘green’, ‘achieve’,

‘please’. The corners of the lips are moved away from each
other, as for a smile.

 Neutral such as with the vowel /ɑ: / in words like ‘calm’, heart’,
and ‘father’. The lips are not noticeably rounded or spread.

3. The part of the tongue which is mainly raised: front, center, or back
( place of articulation)

4. The degree of raising of the tongue ( manner of articulation)

Categories of Vowels
Vowels can be categorized in different ways. The most common
principles of vowels classification are:
 Length. Accordingly, there are

-Long vowels where the articulation of the vowel takes more time In
English, the long vowels are /ɑ/ /i/ /ɔ/ /u/.
-Short vowels are vowels where the articulation takes less time. The
short vowels in English are /ɪ/ /e/ /æ/ /ɔ/ /ʊ/ /ʌ/ /ə/.
 The part of the tongue involved in the articulation. Indeed, this
method of categorization is very common one for vowels. Accordingly
there are three sets of vowels.

1. Front vowels or sounds in which the main raising is made by the front of
the tongue toward the hard palate.

2. Central vowels or sounds in which the main raising is made by the centre
of the tongue toward the hard palate.

3. Back vowels or sounds in which the main raising is made by the back of
the tongue toward the soft palate.

Cardinal vowel scale: Daniel Jones’ Diagram

Daniel Jones, the late 19th c and early 20th century phonetician,
introduced a diagram called the vowel Quadrilateral which is a four sided
chart used as a reference for the description of vowels. Phoneticians are
using this chart to represent the most important degrees of raising of the
tongue and the parts which are mainly raised or involved in the
articulation of vowels. In addition, the position and shape of the lips are
also represented in the chart. They put on it the vowels corresponding to
each position.

Figure 9: The cardinal vowels

23
 This chart or scheme represents the Cardinal Vowels System. It
accounts for the range of vowels that the human vocal apparatus can make.
So, when you learn the cardinal vowels, you are not learning to make
English sounds only, but rather you are learning about the human ability to
articulate those sounds. In addition, you are acquiring the ability to
describe, classify, and compare vowels.
Front vowels
There are four front vowels in English / i: / , / ɪ / , // , /æ /.
Description of the articulation of / i: /
This vowel is identified as a front, close, long vowel. During its articulation:
 The lips are spread.

 The front of the tongue is raised almost in the close

position.

 The side rims of the tongue make firm contact with the
upper molars.

The front, close, long vowel / i:/ appears in words like:

Feet Cheese Sea Receive Machine
Teeth Tree Reason Complete Clear
Bee Leave Piece These Pear
Sheep Team field Police Free
See Please belief Key Steel

Description of the articulation of / ɪ /

This vowel is identified as a front, half-close, short vowel. During the
production of this vowel:
 The lips are slightly spread.

 The front tongue is raised between the close and half-close

positions and is near to the centre.

 The rims of the tongue make a slight contact with the upper
molars.

The front, half-close, short vowel / ɪ / is found words like

Sit Flip Slip Slim Lid
Silly Village Spit Grim Fit
Hit Mitten Clip Win Bit

Description of the vowel /ɛ/

During the articulation of this vowel which is identified as a front, half-
close, short vowel:
 The lips are slightly spread or neutrally open.

 The front of the tongue is raised between the half-close and half-
open positions nearer to the half-close one

 The side rims make a slight contact with the upper molars.

24
The vowel / ɛ / can be heard in words like:
Bed Set Dead Many Friend
West Let Spread Again Guest
Went Head Bread Said Best
Description of the short vowel /æ/
This vowel is identified as a front, half-open, short vowel. During its
production:
 The lips are neutrally open.

 The front of the tongue is raised between the half-open and

open positions almost in the open one

 The side rims make a very slight contact with the back upper
molars.

This vowel /æ / can be heard in words like:

Cat
Bag
Catch
Bat
Gas
Bath
Hat
Bad
Than
Lad
Ladder
Plaid
Apt
Pan
Plan

25
Self-assessment
Instruction: Repeat the following ‘minimal pairs’ orally.
/ i: / /ɪ/ /ɪ/ /ɛ / /ɛ / /æ /
Feet Fit Lid Led Led Lad
Lead lid Sit Set Pet Pat
Seat Sit Din Den Bed Bad
Deem Dim Bid Bed Letter Latter
Bead Bid Bit Bat Then Than
Beat Bit Bitter Better Pen Pan
Feel Fill
Steel Still
Read Rid
Been Bin
Heat Hit

Assignment 2
Instruction: Write a minimal pairs poem. You may use the words listed
above or you may choose other words. Word pairs have to be used in proper
context. Please see course guide for rubric.

English Vowels in Six Types of Syllables

Vowel Digraphs and Consonant Digraphs

The notion of the syllable intuitively seems to be a very simple one. A

syllable is a basic unit of written and spoken language. It is a unit consisting
of uninterrupted sound that can be used to make up words. For example, the
word hotel has two syllables: ho and tel. These will be marked here as in ho/tel.
To find the number of syllables in a word, use the following
steps:

Count the vowels in the word.

Subtract any silent vowels, (like the silent e at the end of a word, or the
second vowel when two vowels are together in a syllable)
Subtract one vowel from every diphthong (diphthongs only count as one
vowel sound.)
The number of vowels sounds left is the same as the number of syllables.
The number of syllables that you hear when you pronounce a word is the same
as the number of vowels sounds heard. For example:
The word came has 2 vowels, but the e is silent, leaving one vowel sound
and one syllable.
The word outside has 4 vowels, but the e is silent and the ou is a diphthong
which counts as only one sound, so this word has only two vowel sounds and

26
therefore, two syllables.

There are six different kinds of syllables in English:

1. Closed Syllables: A closed syllable has one and only one vowel, and it ends
in a consonant. Examples include in, ask, truck, sock, stretch, twelfth, and on.

2. Open Syllables: An open syllable has one and only one vowel, and that
vowel occurs at the end of the syllable.
Examples include no, she, I, a, and spry.

3. Silent-E Syllables: A silent-e syllable ends in an e, has one and only one
consonant before that e, and has one and only one vowel before that
consonant. Examples include ate, ice, tune, slope, strobe, and these.

4. Vowel Combination Syllables: A vowel combination syllable has a

cluster of two or three vowels or a vowel-consonant unit with a sound or
sounds particular to that unit.
Examples include rain, day, see, veil, pie, piece, noise, toy, cue, and
true.
5. Vowel-R Syllables: A vowel-r syllable is one which includes one and only
one vowel followed by an r, or one vowel followed by an r which is followed
by a silent e, or a vowel combination followed by an r. Examples include car,
or, care, ire, air, and deer.
6. Consonant-L-E Syllables: In these syllables, a consonant is followed by
le. The vowel sound in these syllables is the schwa sound that occurs before
the l. Examples include -ble, -cle, -dle, -fle, and -gle.
Rules of reading vowels in four principal types of syllables
Letter /type of reading a o u e i/y
1 – alphabetic reading in the open syllable
[ei] name [oʊ] note [jʊ:] tune [i:] me [ai] time
2 – short vowel sound in the closed syllable
[æ] map [ɒ] not [ʌ] but [e] pen [i] sit, myth
3 – vowel+r (r+consonant)
a+r [ɑ:] park
o+r [ɔ:] fork
u+r [ər] fur
e+r [ər] her
i/y+r [ər] girl, myrtle
4 – vowel+ r + mute e
a+re [ɛə] parents
o+re [ɔ:] more
u+re [jʊə] pure
e+re [iə] here
i/y+re [aiə] fire, tyre
The term digraph can be defined as:
1. A pair of letters representing a single speech sound, such as the ph in
pheasant or the ea in beat.

27
2. A single character consisting of two letters run together and representing a
single sound, such as Old English æ.
Digraphs can be of two kinds: consonant digraphs (ch, sh, th, ng) and
vowel digraphs (au, ou, ea).s

28
Lesson 4 Gestures
“Action speaks louder than words.”
In public speaking, your body can be an effective tool for adding
emphasis and clarity to your words. Whether your purpose is to inform,
persuade, entertain, motivate, or inspire, your body and the personality you
project must be appropriate to what you say. To become an effective speaker,
you must under- stand how your body speaks. You can’t stop sending- your
audience nonverbal -messages, but you can learn to manage and control
them.
The Principle of Empathy
Part of the impact your physical behavior has on an audience can be
explained by the concept of empathy, the ability to share in another person’s
emotions or feelings. When you speak, the people in your audience tend to
mirror your attitudes. They unconsciously feel what you feel and respond
accordingly. So it’s vital that your body faithfully portray your true feelings.

Clarify
and
support
your

Types of Gestures
a. Descriptive gestures clarify or enhance a verbal message. They help the
audience understand comparisons and contrasts, and visualize the size, shape,
movement, location, function, and number of objects.
b. Emphatic gestures underscore what’s being said. They indicate earnestness
and conviction.

29
c. Suggestive gestures are symbols of ideas and emotions. They help a
speaker create a desired mood or express a particular thought.
d. Prompting gestures are used to help evoke a desired response from the
audience. If you want listeners to raise their hands, applaud, or perform some
specific action, you’ll enhance the response- by doing it yourself as an
example.

How to Gesture

5. Posture
Stand straight but not rigid, with your feet about six to
12 inches- apart and one slightly ahead of the other. Balance
your weight evenly on the balls of your feet. Lean forward just
a little. Your knees should be straight but not locked. Relax
your shoulders, but don’t let them droop. Keep your chest up
and your stomach in. Your head should be erect and your chin
up, but not uncomfortably so. Let your arms hang naturally at
your sides, with your fingers slightly curled. Take a few deep,
full breaths. Your stance should be alert but not stiff, relaxed
but not sloppy.

30
6. Body Movement

When you move your entire

body in a controlled,
purposeful manner during a
speech, you can benefit in
three ways. To begin with,
body movement can
support and reinforce
what you say. And, of
course, motion will almost
always attract an
audience’s attention.
Finally, using body
movement is the fastest,
most effective means of
burning up nervous
energy and relieving
physical tension.

All of these characteristics, however, also have the potential to work

against you. One rule for making body movement your ally and not your
enemy is this: Never move without a reason.

31
7. Facial Expression
Facial expression is often the key determinant of the meaning behind
a message. When you speak, your face communicates your attitudes,
feelings, and emotions more clearly than any other part of your body. Ac-
cording to behavioral psychologists, people can easily recognize – simply by
observing a speaker’s facial expressions – such -distinct feelings as surprise,
fear, happiness, confusion, disgust, interest, disbelief, anger, and sadness.

Why is Eye Contact Essential?

In most cultures, the act of looking someone directly in the eyes is a
symbol of sincerity. When you speak, your eyes also -function as a control
device. Eye contact can also help you overcome nervousness.

How to Use Your Eyes Effectively

Know your material.

Establish a Monitor visual

bond. feedback.

8. Overcoming Anxiety
Before we start with this part of the lesson, I would like you to watch
Be a More Confident Public Speaker in the Public Speaking folder.

Instruction: Done watching? If yes, what were the tips mentioned in the video?
Please write your thoughts below so I know that you were able to comprehend
the advises of the speaker.

32
 If you feel nervous about speaking in public, you should know that it is
normal to experience some communication apprehension, or “stage fright,”
when you deliver a speech.
As a speaker, your goal is not to eliminate feelings of apprehension, but
to use them to invigorate your presentation. Having some apprehension can
motivate you to prepare carefully; it can give you the energy and alertness
that make your presentation lively and interesting. Although you may feel that
your communication apprehension is too much to overcome, statistics are
encouraging. Researchers have found that only “one out of 20 people suffers
such serious fear of speaking that he or she is essentially unable to get
through a public speech” (Sprague & Stuart, 2000).

a.1. Preparing Carefully

Experts have discovered that it is not the amount of time you spend preparing,
but how you prepare.

a.2. Practice Your Speech Before You Deliver Your Speech

Practice means giving your speech out loud (possibly in front of a mirror)
while timing it and later asking a sympathetic friend (or friends) to listen to
it and give you feedback.

a.3. Focus on a Friendly Face

Once you are in front of your real audience, find a friendly face in the crowd
and focus on that person. The peak anxiety time for most speakers is the
first moment of confronting the audience (Behnke & Sawyer, 1999, 2004).
Receiving positive reinforcement early on is an excellent way to get over this
initial anxiety.

a.4. Try Relaxation Techniques

Effective relaxation techniques for such situations include deep breathing
and visualizing a successful speech (Behnke & Sawyer, 2004). Shallow
breathing limits your oxygen intake and adds further stress to your body,
creating a vicious cycle.

a.5. Talk Yourself into a Strong Performance

The purpose of this kind of speech is positive motivation. In public speaking,
a similar kind of psychological technique can be helpful. As you prepare your
speech, practice your speech, and get ready to give your speech, tell yourself
that you are going to do very well. Be positive and take a positive and
confident approach to the speech.

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a.6. Consider the Importance of Your Topic to Others
It may be helpful to think about the significance of your topic to others as
one way to gain the confidence to give a strong performance.

a.7. Give Speeches

It may seem simple, but this is the strategy most public speaking instructors
and students use to overcome anxiety (Levasseur, Dean, & Pfaff, 2004). In
short, it becomes easier and easier with each speech. As one seasoned speaker
said, “Learning to become a confident speaker is like learning to swim. You can
watch people swim, read about it, listen to people talk about it, but if you don’t
get into the water, you’ll never learn” (Sanow, 2005).

Instruction: This task will not be recorded, but it will count to your personal
learning. Complete the chart below. Write concepts on how to overcome
anxiety. Some clues are already given.

Key: Practice before you give it; Try relaxation techniques; Talk yourself into
a strong performance; consider the importance of your topic to others

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Lesson 5 Designing an Effective
Presentation Material
For this lesson, please listen to the lecture on Designing an Effective
Presentation Material in the Public Speaking folder. As you listen, please
don’t forget to take down your notes the keypoints that you will learn from
it. You may use the space below.

You may use the following presentation preparation checklist before

you start your public speaking engagement.
Presentation Preparation Checklist
Logistics
 Time available for the presentation
 Type of audience (faculty, students, client, etc.)
 Type of attire to wear
 Impact of the presentation (e.g. evaluated for a grade)
 Location of the presentation
 Delivery technologies available for the presentation
 Present alone, or as part of a team or panel
 Prepare handouts to distribute to audience members or any alternatives,
in case some of the above change at the last minute

Preparation and Design

 Purpose of the presentation – inform, persuade, entertain, honor,
educate, etc.
 Presentation has an outline

35
 Presentation has a beginning, middle and end
 Opening statement attracts audience’s attention
 Main points of sections have an order – chronological, causal, spatial,
topical, problem-solution, etc.
 Type of audio-visuals to use – slides, audio, video clips, real or scaled
objects, etc.
 Background of slides is simple and not distracting
 Font size (headings at least 28 pts and bullets at least 24 pts) –
large enough to read from the last row of the room
 Style of titles of slides are distinguishable from bullet points
 Each slide has no more than 5 to 7 bullet points
 Each bullet point is not more than 2 to 3 lines, and are phrases but
not complete sentences (unless it is a quote or a definition)
 Titles and bullet points are consistent in font size throughout the
presentation
 Color contrast between background and bullet points is appropriate
 Slides do not have inappropriate or unnecessary graphics or clip art
 Presentation material has been proof-read and spell-checked thoroughly
 Content (text, quotes, figures, tables) from external sources include in-
text citations and corresponding references at the end
 Sound system is adequate to listen to the video or audio clips, if any,
included in the presentation
 Screen size and resolution are adequate for viewing video clips
 Presentation has been rehearsed, and timing is adequate for the allotted
duration
 Coordinated with other presenters, if it is a team or panel presentation

Delivery
 Any planned interactions with the audience have been rehearsed
 The pace of delivery is consistent for all the sections of the presentation
 There are no unnecessary fillers or sentence starters in the delivery
 Delivery technologies have been checked and work properly
 Gestures, eye contact, and body language are appropriate for the
presentation
 Prepared responses for anticipated questions are appropriate
 Prepared conclusion ends the presentation appropriately, and does not
end it abruptly
 Attire chosen to wear for the presentation is appropriate for the
presentation context
 Any demonstration of software has been verified in advance to make
sure it works properly 47
 Handouts, if any, are readable as hardcopy of presentation slides

36
 TASK
Since we are done with designing materials for effective delivery, it
is your turn to do yours. Please be guided with our discussion. First, write
your presentation plan below.
Presentation Plan
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

Second, start making your material. While thinking about, and

making your materials, please write your notable experiences about
material making below.

37
Reference/s:
Africa, A. 2018. Purposive Communication in the now. Mandaluyong City:
Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.

Bauzon, P. 2004. Handbook in public speaking, argumentation, and debate.

Mandaluyong City: National Bookstore.

Be a confident public speaker.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tShavGuo0_E

Beverly, A. 2019. An Unbelievable Story. Toastmasters International World

Champion of Public Speaking.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xmj1LBJu_Ss

Dapat, et al. 2018. Essence and Essentials of Purposive Communication in

the 21st Century. Mandaluyong City: BOOKS ATBP. PUBLISHING
CORP.

DeVito, J. A. 2000. The elements of public speaking (7th ed.). New

York, NY: Longman.

Madrunio, M. & I. Martin. 2018. Purposive Communication Using

English in Multilingual Contexts

Nunan, D. 1995. Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for

Teachers. Retrieved https://
archive.org/stream/ilhem_20150321_1903/%5BDavid_Nunan%
5D_Language_Teaching_Methodology_A_Tex_djvu.txt

Toastmasters International. 2011. Gestures: Your body speaks.

https://www.toastmasters.org/-/media/files/ department-
documents/education-documents/201-gestures.ashx

Trenité, G. The Chaos. Learn English Network.

https://www.learnenglish.de/pronunciation/ pronunciationpoem.html

Wakat, et al. 2018. Purposive Communication Quezon City:

LORIMAR Publishing, Inc.

Wood, J. T. 2011. Communication in our lives. Cengage

Learning.

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