Diagnose and Repair Ignition Systems

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Diagnose and Repair Ignition Systems

Student Learner Resource Material
For the following units:

AURETR131 – Diagnose and repair ignition systems
AURETR131 Student Workbook Version: 1.0 May 2021 Page 1 of 83

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CONTENTS
LESSON ONE ................................................................................................... 5
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION (BREAKER POINT SYSTEM)......................... 5
Ignition System ........................................................................................ 6

Kettering ignition system ........................................................................ 9
The Conventional Coil Ignition System ............................................... 10
Faraday’s law and EMF ......................................................................... 11
Construction of the Coil ........................................................................ 12
Ignition Coil Operation .......................................................................... 14
Ignition Coil Polarity .............................................................................. 16
The Distributor ....................................................................................... 18
Remove, replace and set time of an ignition distributor. ................... 19
Distributor Speed ................................................................................... 20
Dwell Angle (or Cam Angle) .................................................................. 20
Contact Breaker Mechanism ................................................................. 21
Ignition Timing ....................................................................................... 23
Ignition coil testing procedures............................................................ 24
Adjust the ignition system timing ........................................................ 24
Pre-ignition and Detonation .................................................................. 25
Combustion Pressures .......................................................................... 30
Initial Spark Timing ................................................................................ 31
Centrifugal Timing Control.................................................................... 32
LESSON TWO ................................................................................................. 35
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION (BREAKERLESS SYSTEMS) ....................... 35
Breakerless Ignition System ................................................................. 36

Optical Ignition system ......................................................................... 37
Induction-type Pulse Generator............................................................ 37
Electronic Control Unit .......................................................................... 41

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Ignition Advance Mechanisms.............................................................. 44

Hall Generator ........................................................................................ 45
Light-operated Control Circuits ............................................................ 48
Electronic Distributorless Ignition System (EDIS) (Ford System) ..... 52
Knock Control System .......................................................................... 55
Capacitor Discharge Ignition (CDI) ....................................................... 55
LESSON THREE ............................................................................................. 61
COMPONENT / SYSTEM REPAIR ................................................................. 61
Personal Safety ...................................................................................... 62

Safety measures .................................................................................... 63
Testing the Coil and Capacitor ............................................................. 64
Dwell Angle Adjustment ........................................................................ 66
Effects of incorrect dwell angles .......................................................... 67
Contact Replacement ............................................................................ 69
Testing the Pulse-type Ignition ............................................................. 70
Ignition Advance Mechanisms.............................................................. 72
Ignition System Oscilloscope Patterns ................................................ 74
Secondary Pattern ................................................................................. 79
Diagnostic Flow Chart ........................................................................... 80

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LESSON ONE
Principles of Operation (Breaker Point System)
UNDERPINNING KNOWLEDGE
• Ignition system principles of operation
• Construction and operation of ignition systems relevant to
application
• Types and layout of service/repair manuals (hard copy and
electronic)
• Work organisation and planning processes
• Enterprise quality processes

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General Description
In all spark ignition engines which work on the four stroke cycle, and use a
carburettor or injection system, burning of the air/fuel mix is done by an electric
spark.
Ignition System
The purpose of the ignition system is to provide an electric spark to ignite the
compressed air/fuel mix in the chamber.
It must do this at the correct instant of the compression stroke in every cylinder
of the engine. It must also provide a means of varying the firing point to suit the
different operating conditions.
The function of the coil ignition system is to:

• Develop the high voltage necessary to produce a spark at the plug gap.
o Because 12 or 24 volts is too low to produce a spark in a cylinder
under compression, it must be raised to a higher value. This high
voltage production process, is initiated in the primary circuit and
completed in the secondary winding of the ignition coil.
• A firing voltage of approx. 5000 - 20000 causes the gap to become ionised
(electrically conductive) and allows the spark to jump the plug gap. The
spark has sufficient heat to ignite the air/fuel mix which then continues to
burn by itself.
• To time the spark so that the best performance is obtained from the engine
under all operating conditions.
o These conditions must be such that under all conditions of the engine
operation (speed and load), maximum combustion pressures must be
developed when the piston is at the top of the compression stroke,
with the connecting rod angled in the direction of rotation.
Figure 1. Angled Connecting Rod

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If the timing is over advanced (spark early) the engine will develop a knock and
damage will occur. Full combustion of the air/fuel mixture occurs before the
piston reaches TDC and as the piston continues to rise excessive pressures
are developed which work in opposition to the piston. At the same time
abnormally high temperatures are produced and hot spots can cause pre-
ignition.
If the timing is over retarded (spark late) full combustion of the air/fuel mixture
will not occur till after the piston has passed TDC. This results in the loss of
power and gives poor fuel consumption.
Overview of Component Purpose
Ignition switch - a switch in the primary circuit of the coil, manually operated
with the ignition key.
Ignition coil - stores the ignition energy and delivers it in the form of a high
voltage surge through the high-tension ignition cable to the distributor.
High tension ignition cable - Secondary ignition cables carry high-voltage

current from the coil to the distributor and from the distributor to the spark
plugs. They use heavy insulation to prevent the high-voltage current from
jumping to ground before it reaches the spark plugs.
Distributor - distributes the firing voltage at the instant of ignition to the spark
plugs in a pre-set sequence.
Capacitor - provides for precise interruption of the primary current and

suppresses most of the arcing between the points.
Points - open and close the primary circuit of the ignition coil for the purpose of
energy storage and voltage conversion.
Centrifugal advance mechanism - automatically shifts the ignition timing

depending on engine speed.
Vacuum advance mechanism - automatically shifts the ignition timing

depending on load conditions.
HT Leads - carry voltage surges from the coil to the distributor and from the
distributor to the plugs.
Spark Plugs - contain the electrodes which are required to generate the
ignition spark, and seal off combustion chamber.
1. The reach of a spark plug is the length of the shell from the seat to the
bottom of the shell, including both threaded and unthreaded portions
2. The Heat range of a spark plug determines its ability to dissipate heat
from the firing end.

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3. All 18-mm plugs have tapered seats that match similar tapered seats in
the cylinder head.
4. The 14-mm plugs are made either with a flat seat that requires a gasket
or with a tapered seat that does not.
5. The 14-mm, tapered-seat plugs have shells with a 5/8-inch hex and 18-
mm tapered-seat plugs have shells with a 13/16-inch hex
6. An air gap that is too narrow causes a rough idle and a change in the
exhaust emissions.
7. Resistor-type spark plugs can be used in place of non-resistor plugs of

the same size, heat range, and gap without affecting engine
performance.
8. Extended-core spark plug, this design uses a center electrode and

insulator that extend farther into the combustion chamber.
9. Some spark plugs have more than one earth electrode, a maximum of
four electrodes can be used. Using multi electrodes can extend the life of
spark plugs.
Steps to remove and replace spark plugs
A. disconnect the spark plug high tension lead by grasping the boot where
it connects to the plug, twist it and pull it firmly straight out
B. Use a spark plug socket to remove the spark plugs.
C. Turn the plug counter-clockwise to loosen it, and then turn the socket by
hand until you can remove it.
D. Check the plug specifications for the correct gap, and measure this with
a wire gauge of the correct diameter. If the gap between the electrodes
is too wide or too narrow, adjust it by bending the ground electrode with
a gap-adjusting tool.
E. Replace the spark plug in its seat, carefully screwing it in by hand to
avoid stripping the thread. When the plug is finger tight, use a torque
wrench to tighten the plug to the correct specification. Do not over
tighten as this can damage the plug.
F. Apply some silicon lubricant to the inside of the boot at the end of the
coil lead and push it firmly into place over the exposed spark plug
terminal.

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Kettering ignition system
The ignition switch in the Kettering system is connected to the battery through
the main fuse box. The ignition switch makes and breaks the ignition circuit.
When the engine is not running the switch must be off to disconnect the
electrical power supply and so prevent the coil from overheating. Switching the
ignition off also switches off other related circuits and prevents the battery from
being discharged.
The ignition coil is operated on the principle of different of turns. That is, it has
two separate windings wound around a soft iron core. The primary winding is
connected to the distributor LT; the secondary winding is attached to the
distributor HT
The battery is the source of electrical power for the ignition system. It supplies
electrical power to the ignition switch.
The spark plug of a Kettering system has two electrodes, a central electrode
and a side electrode
With the breaker points closed current from the battery can flow through the
ballast resistor, through the primary windings of the ignition coil and through the
breaker points to earth. This energises the primary winding’s.
Condenser action helps to produce a good spark and also prolongs the life of
the breaker points.
The ballast resistor helps the coil to provide a good spark during starting by
being isolated when the ignition switch is turned to start. It also helps to prolong
breaker point life by reducing the voltage to the primary coil while the engine is
running.
Secondary Section of Kettering
The secondary windings of the coil are connected to the rotor of the distributor
by the coil high tension cable. The rotor turns to distribute the high-tension
voltage to the segments in the distributor cap.
The spark plug cables connect the segments of the distributor cap to the spark
plugs in correct firing order.
The firing order is the sequence in which the power strokes of the engine occur,
and so it is the order in which the ignition system must provide a spark at the
spark plugs.

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The Conventional Coil Ignition System
In the various battery ignition systems there are two methods by which the
electrical energy is stored. One is in the magnetic field of a coil, and the other is
in the electric field of a capacitor. On this basis a distinction can be made
between these two methods:
▪ Inductive ignition systems, which use an ignition coil to store the

electrical energy.
▪ Capacitor discharge ignition systems, which use a relatively large

capacitor to store the electrical energy.
Capacitor discharge ignition system operation
1. A capacitor discharge ignition works by passing an electrical current over

a capacitor. This type of ignition builds up a charge quickly.
2. A CDI ignition starts by generating a charge and storing it up before
sending it out to the spark plug in order to ignite the engine.
3. This power passes through a capacitor and is transferred to an ignition
coil that helps boost the power by acting as a transformer and allowing
the energy pass through it instead of catching any of it.
4. The CDI ignition systems, therefore, allow the engine to keep running as
long as there is a charge in the power source.
The ignition coils of the inductive ignition systems all operate on the principle of
electromagnetic induction (EMI) irrespective of whether it is a standard system
or a semiconductor ignition system (ie. contact triggered or breakerless).
Electromagnetic induction (EMI)

Through electromagnetic induction, the ignition system transforms the low
voltage of the battery into the high voltage required to fire the spark plugs.
As a reminder of the principle of EMI (already described in each of the previous

stages of study), a voltage will be induced into a coil whenever the following
factors are present:
a. a magnetic field
b. a set of conductors
c. relative movement between the magnetic field and conductors
The source of the high voltage pulses of current, produced in the inductive
ignition system, is the coil. The inductive ignition system uses an ignition coil to
store the electrical energy. (Magnetic field)
The ignition coil operates on the principle of EMI. The three factors that
determine the value of the voltages induced into the coil windings during the
ignition cycle are:

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• The strength of the magnetic field. The stronger the magnetic field
produced in the coil primary, the greater the possibility of
producing a high secondary voltage.
• The number of conductors being cut by the magnetic field. This is

important when considering the voltages produced in both coil
windings during the ignition cycle.
• The speed of movement between the magnetic field and the conductors.
The faster the magnetic field can be made to cut the conductors, the
higher the value will be induced into the coil windings.
The coil stores energy in the magnetic field around the primary winding and at
the required instant of ignition, transforms it to a pulse of high voltage current in
the secondary.
Faraday’s law and EMF
Coil, magnetic field strength, EMF, Magnetic environment, magnetic field,

induced, voltage, magnet, rotating
Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause EMF to be
induced in the coil. No matter how the change is produced, the voltage will be
generated. The change could be produced by changing the magnetic field
strength, moving a magnet toward or away from the coil, moving the coil into or
out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil relative to the magnet, etc.

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Construction of the Coil
The source of the high voltage pulses of current produced in the inductive
ignition system is the ignition coil. The coil stores the energy in the magnetic
field around the primary winding and, at the required instant of ignition,
transforms it into a pulse of high voltage current in the secondary winding.
From here it is delivered to the correct spark plug via the high tension (HT)
system. This “inductive storage device” may vary in design between certain
manufacturers, but in general the most common construction is as shown
below.
Figure 2.
Left: Actual physical construction of a coil.
Right: Schematic diagram of same coil which, for ease of discussion, shows the cods
separate on the laminated soft iron core.
The coil contains a rod shaped, laminated soft iron core at its centre, and a soft
iron shroud surrounds both windings. Both of these soft iron components are
used to intensify and maximise the effect of the primary magnetic field, and
thus, the energy stored. The core must be laminated to minimise the effects of
eddy currents that are produced during operation and so keep to a minimum
the heat developed. The outer soft iron shroud is slotted to allow circulation of
the oil filling which is used for cooling purposes.
Around the laminated core, and insulated from it, is wound the secondary
winding. This consists of many turns of very fine insulated copper wire
(generally in the vicinity of 20000 turns). One end of this winding is connected
to the HT outlet of the coil via the laminated iron core which is used as the pick-
up point for this connection. The other end is connected to the positive low
tension primary terminal.

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Types of Magneto
1. The shuttle-wound armature type magneto consisted of a large,

stationary horseshoe magnet mounted on a frame in which the pole
shoes were locked in place, and of a wound-armature assembly which
could be rotated between the pole pieces of the frame
2. In the rotary inductor magneto both the magnet and coil are mounted in
a stationery position, a primary current being induced in the coil are
mounted in a stationery position a primary current being induced in the
coil by rotating one of both legs of the magnetic circuit.
Primary and Secondary coils
An iron core is wound with two coils, one with few turns called a primary coil
and the one with many turns is called a secondary coil. Electromagnetic
induction will induce a voltage in the secondary coil if an electric current is
turned on or off.
The primary winding is made of a hundred or so turns of heavy wire. It connects
to the battery and carries current.
The secondary winding is made of many thousand turns of fine wire. When
current in the primary
winding increases or decreases; a voltage is induced into the secondary
winding.
1. The ratio of the number of turns in the secondary winding to the number
of turns in the primary winding is generally between 100:1 and 200:1
2. Voltage applied to the coil primary winding with breaker points is about
nine to ten volts
Over the top of the secondary winding, and insulated from it, is wound the
primary winding, consisting of a few hundred turns of relatively heavy insulated
copper wire. The ends of the primary winding are connected to the two low
tension, or primary terminals. A reason for placing the primary winding over the
secondary is that it is in this coil, which carries the full primary circuit current
(approximately 2 amperes in standard systems and 10 amps or more in
electronic systems), that most heat is generated, and by placing it thus, the
cooling oil is given ready access to it.
A ceramic insulator at the base of the coil supports the core and windings, and
at the top is a plastic-type insulator which provides a location point for the high
tension and primary terminals. This top insulator is sealed into the outer case to
prevent the loss of coolant oil or the entry of moisture.

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Ignition Coil Operation
Electromagnetic induction is the creation of a voltage in a conductor by means

of relative movement between that conductor and a magnetic field. In the
ignition coil the conductors remain stationary and the magnetic field is moved
across them. To develop these necessary conditions, the first requirement in
the ignition coil is therefore the production of a magnetic field. This is the
function of the primary winding.
When the ignition switch is closed, the primary winding of the coil is connected
to the positive terminal of the vehicle battery. Now, if the primary circuit is
completed through the contact breaker points, a current will flow in the circuit,
creating a magnetic field in the coil around the soft iron core. This magnetic
field grows outwards from the core until it has reached maximum value and the
core is fully magnetised.
Figure 3. An ignition system primary circuit Note the current path and internal coil
connections.
Figure 4 When the contacts flat close and current starts to flow, the resulting magnetic
field grows outwards from the core until finally:
i. Current flow reaches the maximum value.
ii. The magnetic field thus saturation point and ceases to move.
To provide the very high voltage necessary to create a spark Across the plug
gap, the secondary winding has a very large number of turns.
NOTE: The ratio of the number of secondary turns to the number of primary
turns is very large - approximately 100:1.
The effect of this high ratio is to produce a very high voltage in the secondary
winding when the magnetic field is collapsed rapidly Across it as the contact
breaker points are opened.

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To understand the operation of the ignition coil, it is necessary to have a

knowledge of the effect of winding insulated wire into the form of a coil and then
passing a current through it. And how a magnetic field forms around a wire
when current flows through it. The development of the magnetic field around a
wire wound into a coil was also explained in previous competencies. Also the
direction or polarity of the magnetic field was shown to depend on the direction
of current flow in the wire.
A further important detail must now be introduced.
The magnetic field around a single wire springs up instantly the current starts to
flow, but the field around a coil does not. It takes a measurable length of time to
reach its saturation level.
A knowledge of this important facet is essential for an understanding of the

operation of an ignition coil.

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Ignition Coil Polarity
When the contacts in the primary circuit open, the voltage induced into the
secondary is impressed Across the HT circuit. The value to which this ‘firing
voltage” will need to rise to ionise the circuit and start current flowing, depends
on a number of factors, the main ones being related to the spark plug and
conditions existing in the cylinder at the time of firing.
Two important points to remember when considering this aspect of the ignition
system are:
▪ Current flows from negative to positive.

▪ The centre electrode of a spark plug is always the hottest part of that
plug when it is operating.
Figure 5: The graph indicates that ionising voltages Across a plug are lower when using
a negative spark polarity.
Figure 6. The sectional view of the end of a spark plug indicates that the Centre
electrode is the hottest part when operating in an engine.
During operation the centre electrode becomes very hot, and because of this
an “electron cloud” develops around it. This “cloud” is made up of negative
electrical particles which consequently make the centre electrode negative in
relation to the earth electrode. From this it can be seen that it will be easier for
current to flow from the centre electrode (negative) to the earth electrode
(positive in relation to it) than it would be for the HT current to try and flow in the
reverse direction.

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To take advantage of these conditions that exist around the electrodes of all
operating spark plugs, manufacturers make certain standard winding
connections in their ignition coils. This relates to the manner in which the
secondary winding is connected to the primary winding.
The internal connections, are:
▪ one end of the secondary is connected to the HT outlet turret of the coil
▪ the other end is connected to the positive (+) low tension terminal
This provides two features of coil operation.
i. The first is that the HT connection to the primary terminal provides

a “return path” for the HT current after it has jumped the plug gap.
The path is from the engine block and vehicle frame to the earth
terminal of the battery, through the battery, and then on through
the ignition primary circuit and back to the coil positive terminal -
thus completing the circuit back to the secondary winding.
ii. The second feature is that irrespective of whether the vehicle’s

electrical system is negative or positive to earth, if the coil is
connected as follows, then the HT system will always be provided
with a negative spark plug polarity.
a. In the negative-to-ground system the negative (-) terminal

of the coil is connected to the contact breaker and the
positive (+) to the switch.
b In the positive-to-ground system the positive (+) is

connected to the contact breaker and the negative (-) to
the ignition switch.
As previously stated, the correct connection of the coil means that the required
“firing” or “ionising’ voltage will be lower than if the coil is connected in reverse.
NOTE: Some manufacturers may use different methods of marking their coil
terminals. If this is the case and the polarity of the HT voltage is not
known, then two simple tests can be made to determine whether it is
correct.
Take a standard dc. test voltmeter and connect the positive lead to earth on the
vehicle and the negative lead to the top of one of the spark plugs. Then start
the engine and note which way the voltmeter ‘kicks”. If it reads “up scale”, then
the coil is correctly connected. If it tends to kick the other way, then the coil is
connected in reverse and the primary lead must be changed over.
Connect the cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) of an engine area tester to the
vehicle. If the ignition coil is incorrectly connected, the ignition trace will be
inverted.

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Energy transfer ignition system components
Energy transfer ignition system consists of an alternator, ignition coil, points,

points-cam, capacitor, and spark plug. The alternator of an energy transfer
ignition system consists of a rotor and stator windings. The rotor is a six-pole
magnet which spins and, through electromagnetic induction, generates current
in the six stator windings.
The Distributor
General Description
In multi-cylinder engines, the cylinders fire in a sequence known as the firing

order. This firing order is controlled by:
▪ The shape of the crankshaft, i.e. the sequence in which the pistons
move up and down in the cylinder.
▪ The design of the camshaft, which determines the valve timing. Each
cylinder has a spark plug and each plug must fire at an exact instant in
the firing order. As will be explained more fully later in this chapter, this
instant is controlled by the conditions of engine speed and load existing
at that particular moment.
From the above statement it can be seen that there are three processes that
are essential to the successful completion of the firing of the air/fuel mixture in
the cylinder to obtain maximum engine efficiency. These are:
a. Making, then breaking the primary circuit to produce the high

secondary voltage.
b. Distribution of the high voltage pulses to the spark plugs in the

correct sequence.
c. Variation of the spark timing to allow for changes in engine speed

and load.
All of these functions are performed by the distributor.
In conventional ignition systems, as the shaft of the distributor rotates, the cam
lifts the movable contact of the breaker mechanism and thus interrupts the
primary circuit.
The resulting high voltage is carried from the central HT outlet tower of the coil
to the centre connection of the distributor cap. Inside the cap the centre
terminal makes contact with the brass rotor arm which is carried in a moulding
of insulating material, and being driven off the same shaft, it rotates at the same
speed as the cam which operates the contact breaker. The rotor and cam
therefore remain in fixed angular relation to each other, so that the brass

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conductor on the rotor is in line with, and its end close to, an outer electrode of
the distributor cap at the instant the points break.
The outer terminals of the cap are connected to the spark plugs in such a way
that the rotation of the rotor arm distributes the secondary output to each spark
plug in the correct firing order.
From the foregoing description, it is apparent that the contact breaker and the
high-tension distributor are two separate devices. The relationship between
them is simply that they are driven from the one shaft and so timed that the
rotor arm registers with each outer distributor cap terminal in turn as the
contacts separate. It should also be noted that the distributor cap also serves
as a protective cover for the breaker assembly.
Remove, replace and set time of an ignition distributor.
1. Disconnect the distributor cap from the distributor.

2. Make a diagram of where all of the electrical wires are located, and mark
the wires using masking tape so that you can replace them in the same
location on the new distributor.
3. Remove all electrical wires that are attached to the distributor.
4. Before removing the old distributor, scribe two marks, one inside and the
other outside the distributor housing. This will help to re- install the new
distributor with the same orientation.
5. Take the new distributor out of the box and mark the outside housing in
the same place as on the old distributor.
6. Remove the bolts or screws that hold the distributor housing to the
engine. Then, gently pull the distributor housing out of the engine. Check
the rotor position.
7. Install the new distributor on the engine, making sure that the distributor
rotor and housing are in the same location as the old unit.
8. Re-install the fasteners that hold the distributor to the engine.
9. Reconnect all of the electrical wires as noted in your diagram, and
replace the distributor cap and spark plug wires
10. Double-check all the connections and start the engine.
11. Once the engine is running, let it warm up enough that it will idle
smoothly. Then stop the engine and put a timing light on the No. 1 spark
plug. Restart the engine.
12. Use the timing light and set the timing by following the instructions that
are specific to the vehicle. Adjust the timing mark by rotating the
distributor housing by very small amounts. After adjusting the timing,
tighten the distributor clamp fasteners.
NOTE: The cylinders are numbered in sequence from one end (usually the
radiator end of the block).
The firing order of the engine is organised at the distributor cap (1, 3, 4, 2
in this case).

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Distributor Speed
In a four stroke engine (irrespective of the number of cylinders) all cylinders will
fire within two revolutions of the crankshaft. Now, except for a small number of
special cases, there are the same number of cam lobes on the distributor shaft
as there are cylinders in the engine, and likewise, the same number of outer
electrodes on the distributor cap. From this it must automatically follow that:
▪ If the distributor is going to produce the same number of sparks as there

are cylinders in the engine in one revolution of its shaft, then it must be
driven at half crankshaft speed to fire all cylinders in two crankshaft
revolutions.
NOTE: The camshaft rotates at half crankshaft speed and the usual practice is to
drive the distributor shaft off this (by one means or another) with a ratio
of 1:1.
Dwell Angle (or Cam Angle)
The angle through which the distributor cam turns while the contacts dwell
together is the dwell angle of the cam (also known as the cam angle). The
growth of the magnetic field in the coil induces in the primary winding a voltage
which opposes the voltage applied by the battery. Therefore, to allow the
battery voltage time to overcome the primary induction and allow sufficient
current to flow and produce a magnetic field of the required energy to produce
the secondary spark, the contacts must remain closed for a definite period of
time. It is this aspect of coil operation that highlights the importance of an
accurately adjusted dwell angle.

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With everything operating perfectly, it is possible to produce a satisfactory high

tension spark after a closed circuit period of only two milliseconds (0.002
seconds), but over a period of time, as ignition component conditions
deteriorate (i.e. contacts tend to burn, dwell angle alters etc.), a longer period of
dwell is needed to produce the spark.
Ignition
Cycle 60°
Figure. 9 Cam angles of a typical 6 lobe cam.
▪ The angle between the cam lobes (60 degrees in this case) is the same
as the period from the time the points close, through the “point opening’
position to when the points close again (as indicated on the diagram)
▪ The sequence of events which occurs in the ignition circuit, from the
position of “points close’ through the period of cam rotation until the
points close again, is called one ignition cycle.
Four lobe and eight lobe cams are divided up the same way except that the
“angle between the lobes’ and the ‘ignition cycle” angles will be:
▪ 90 degree for the 4 lobe cam

▪ 45 degree for the 8 lobe cam.
Contact Breaker Mechanism
Exceptionally high mechanical and electrical demands are placed on the

contact breaker mechanism during operation. The contacts are made of
tungsten, one of the hardest metals known, which has a melting point of about
3400 degrees. Nevertheless, the metal often becomes transferred from one
contact to the other by the thermal Action that occurs at the instant of break. In
addition, at the higher speed ranges, the contact breaker can be expected to
perform up to 250 switching operations per second. As these frequencies are
reached, the spring tension on the contacts become critical. It must be at the
recommended specification otherwise point bounce may occur.
At the beginning of the closing Action, the moving contact strikes the stationary
contact with such force that it bounces off, thus breaking the primary circuit
which it has just completed. The contact spring then forces the contacts
“together” again. This phenomenon is known as point bounce and occurs at the
beginning of the dwell period. Every interruption, resulting from this bouncing,
effectively reduces the dwell time and hence the available ignition energy.
The essence of contact breaker design is in providing a satisfactory

compromise between the mass and strength of the breaker arm, the spring

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loading and the cam contour. Excessive wear of the rubbing block and cam can
be caused by making the breaker arm too heavy and setting the spring tension
too high. An excessively strong spring tension will wear the rubbing block and
“hammer” the contacts, whilst a tension setting too weak will allow the contact
arm to be thrown clear of the cam surface and the contacts will not close in time
to allow sufficient primary current to flow before the next break. To maintain the
whole balance of design, the spring tension must be kept within the limits set by
the manufacturers.
Figure 11 shows the use of a spring balance to test the spring tension of the
breaker arm. The spring balance must be applied so that its pull is at right
angles to the plane of the contact faces, and the reading must be taken at the
instant the contacts separate.
When the design of the breaker arm will permit the attachment of the spring
balance to a point in line with the centre of the contact face, this point should be
used. Where this in not practicable, the scale should be attached as close as
possible inside the contact point, in which case the test reading will be slightly
higher than the actual pressure.
Pulse generator in a distributor
A pulse generator in a distributor consist of a stator and a rotor unit. The stator
consists pf a permanent magnet and a small induction or a pickup coil. The
pickup coil is connected to the ignition control unit by two leads.
Function and Operation of Ignition control unit.
1. An ignition module is the component in electronic ignition systems that

functions as the contact breaker for the coil or coils.
2. In most basic terms, an ignition module is an electronic replacement for
old, mechanical contact breakers like ignition points.
3. These components are also referred to as “ignition control units” and
“ignitors,” and their main purpose is to interrupt the flow of current
through the primary winding of an ignition coil
4. This creates a high voltage pulse in the secondary winding.

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Current limiting devices on electronic ignition systems often display an abrupt

rise in dwell voltage called a current limiting hump. These and other waveform
characteristics are used to diagnose many primary circuit malfunctions.
At low engine speeds, the dwell period is short. As engine speed rises the dwell
period increases.
Ignition Timing
The power produced by an internal combustion engine is developed by the

expanding gases which result from the burning of the air-fuel mixture in the
cylinders. If the engine has:
▪ The correct air-fuel mixture

▪ The correct timing and the antiknock (octane rating) quality of the fuel
meets the engine requirements, then the burning process should occur
evenly and steadily.
This is normal combustion and is a process which is completed thousands of

times each minute the engine is operating. As indicated in the previous
statement, there is an interval of time from the moment the spark occurs until
the ignited mixture is sufficiently burned to exert maximum force on the piston
crown. There is a period of about three milliseconds (0.003s) between the time
the spark occurs and the development of maximum combustion pressures.
Therefore when the engine is running, the spark must occur before the piston
reaches the top of the compression stroke.
At idle speed the spark occurs just before top dead centre .The exact position
varies from vehicle to vehicle and will be in the range of 6 to 12 degrees.
At higher engine speeds the piston travels much further during the period in
which the air-fuel mixture is burning (i.e. the interval between the initiating spark
and maximum combustion pressure development), and so the spark must be
timed to occur well before TDC.
NOTE: The spark is said to be advanced when it occurs early in the compression
stroke, and retarded when it occurs late in the compression stroke (i.e. at,
or near TDC). The spark will not retard beyond the initial timing setting.
The timing of the ignition spark for internal combustion engines is an important
factor in obtaining the best performance and correct level of emissions intended
by the designer. It is essential for service personnel to recognise the
importance of spark timing and emission control.
Excessive advance can cause:

▪ Detonation (an explosion)
▪ Overheating
▪ Loss of power

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▪ Increased emissions
▪ Serious mechanical damage including burnt pistons, damaged rings,
▪ Excessive bearing loads and damage to the valves.
▪ Arranging for the spark to occur late rather than early causes:
▪ A loss of power
▪ Increased emissions
▪ Poor fuel consumption
▪ Overheating
Ignition coil testing procedures
1. Static testing procedure of an ignition system
With the number one cylinder on its compression, align the timing indicator at
the crank. Install distributor with rotor pointing to the number one plug cable.
Rotate distributor body until the armature pole piece aligns with permanent
magnet. Tighten the distributor hold-down
2. Stroboscopic testing of an ignition system
A timing light or strobe light is connected, with the spark plug of the number one
cylinder. As power is provided to that cylinder from the coil, the timing light
flashes. When the light is projected to the flywheel, the timing marks are
illuminated. Moving the distributor will make the timing mark move closer to a
fixed mark (retarded) or further away (advanced).
Adjust the ignition system timing
A. Rotating the distributor is one of the ways you can effectively adjust your
engine timing
B. Check the number of cylinders in the vehicle. The number of cylinders is
equal to the number of sparks in the vehicle.
C. Take a harmonic balancer and test the TDC (top dead centre)
D. Adjust the timing to ensure that the piston fires appropriately to the TDC
position
E. Loosen the distributor by removing the bolt, and then hook up a timing
light to the number one cylinder. With the strobe on, point it to the
harmonic balancer and look for the mark that indicates 10 degrees
BTDC.
F. Rotate the distributor until it aligns with the 10-degree mark. Once
aligned, tighten the distributor again. Double-check your timing before
you fully tighten it in place

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Pre-ignition and Detonation

Now what do these terms pre-ignition and detonation mean?
The various forms of abnormal combustion are not only troublesome but can be
expensive through damage or failures to pistons, valves, spark plugs and other
engine components. Abnormal combustion has always been a problem to
contend with in all types of engines - two or four cycle and so adherence to the
manufacturer’s specifications for types of fuels and mixtures, ignition timing,
maintenance practices, etc. is essential. Now let us consider three forms of
combustion and identify the differences between pre-ignition and detonation.
▪ Line “a” in both diagrams indicates approximately 10’ATDC at which

point maximum combustion pressures are developed.
▪ Engine design is such that the air-fuel mixture continues to burn after
this point to maintain pressures in the cylinder as long as possible.
▪ Different octane rated fuels have different burning rates, therefore this
diagram is only an indication of the effect of increased speed on spark
timing.

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The “normal” combustion process consists of four stages of progress.

▪ With the piston rising on the compression stroke, the spark occurs at a
suitable time to ignite the mixture and initiate the burning process.
▪ With the piston still rising, the mixture is burning with the “flame front”
steadily progressing across the combustion chamber.
▪ The piston reaches TDC with the mixture almost completely burned.
▪ The piston moves over TDC and at approximately 10' of crankshaft
rotation ATDC, maximum combustion pressures are developed. This
forces the piston down on the power stroke.
NOTE: It takes a measurable amount of time for the mixture to burn it is not an
instantaneous “explosion” of the compressed air fuel mixture.

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Detonation occurs when a portion of the air-fuel mixture begins to burn

spontaneously (i.e. ignition in another part of the combustion chamber is
initiated by increased heat and pressure) after the ignition spark has started the
normal combustion process. The flame fronts produced by both areas of
burning mixture meet and cause an ‘explosion” in the cylinder. This applies
extreme hammering pressures (and heat) to the piston and other engine parts.
The sequence of events that produce detonation are:

1. The piston is rising on the compression stroke and the spark initiates the
burning of the mixture.
2. The piston is still rising and the flame front progresses across the
cylinder.
3. Due to abnormal conditions existing in the cylinder, spontaneous ignition
of the mixture occurs in another part of the cylinder and its flame front
advances to meet the first area of burning.
4. As the two flame fronts near each other, detonation (or explosion) of the
remaining charge occurs.

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Factors that can cause detonation are:

1. Ignition timing advanced too far.
2. Fuel octane rating too low.
3. Lean mixtures (apart from carburettor adjustments, this can be produced
by a leaking intake manifold).
4. Excessive intake manifold temperatures.
5. Allowing the engine to lug, i.e. pulling hard at low revs.
6. Compression ratio increased due either to engine modification or buildup
of combustion chamber deposits.
Pre-ignition
Pre-ignition is exactly what the term implies, it is the ignition of the air-fuel
mixture prior to the timed ignition spark occurring. Any hot spot (i.e.
incandescent spot) in the cylinder can cause pre-ignition.
The four stages are:

1. The piston is rising on compression and the trapped air-fuel mixture is
ignited by an incandescent or glowing piece of carbon on the piston
crown.
2. The piston is still rising and the flame front of the burning mixture is
advancing across the cylinder.
3. The timed ignition spark then occurs and ignites the remainder of the air
fuel mixture near the spark plug.
4. Both flame fronts advance towards each other and detonation (or
explosion) of the remaining charge occurs.
Factors that can cause pre-ignition are:

1. Combustion chamber deposits that become incandescent.
2. Hot spots in the combustion chamber due to poor heat dissipation, e.g.
spark plug heat range too high for engine operating conditions or head
gasket protruding into the combustion chamber or thin edges of valves,
etc.

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In nearly all cases, abnormal combustion can be eliminated by:

1. Regular maintenance which includes engine tuning, with particular
attention to spark timing.
2. Using spark plugs of the correct heat range for the engine and the type
of operating conditions of the vehicle.
3. Selecting a correct octane rated fuel.
4. Keeping the engine cooling system operating at maximum efficiency.
Abnormal combustion can be troublesome and expensive - but it can be
averted with proper care and attention to the engine, the fuel and engine
adjustments.

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Summary
The following will draw together and summarise some of those points already
made some interesting facts related to the combustion process are also
included.
The flame propagation with normal combustion is approximately 10-25
metres/sec. Under knock conditions, the flame propagation is accelerated 10-
12 times, i.e. 250 to 300 metres/sec. Under detonation the rate is increased up
to 2000 metres/sec.
Combustion Pressures
Under normal operating conditions the pressure in the combustion chamber is
approximately 4 to 4.5 times cranking compression, e.g. cranking compression
of 1050 kPa x 4 = 4200 kPa. under combustion.
However, under detonation or adverse combustion conditions, the normal

combustion pressures can rise up to 2.5 times this figure, i.e. to 10500 kPa.
Detonation occurs after the normal ignition has taken place at the spark plug.
Pre-ignition takes place before the timed spark at the spark plug. Should the
spark plug be the source of pre-ignition, its destruction is rapid – the insulator
tip and centre electrode showing signs of disintegration.
Under detonation conditions, the spark plug insulator tips may split or shatter -
through the excessive directional combustion pressures as mentioned
previously. The centre electrodes, however, will show little or no adverse effect.
The earth electrodes often become overheated and severely attacked by the
excessive temperatures prevailing. The final splitting of the insulator tip under
these conditions is also accelerated by the Accumulation of deposits in the gap
between the centre electrode and insulator bore.
These deposits are hammered in by the excessive pressure prevailing,

upsetting the normal expansion ratio between these parts. It follows that from
detonation, which is mostly inaudible, other engine parts such as piston
damage, ring breakage, valve and cylinder head gasket failure, etc., will
eventuate, the excessive pressures and Accompanying abnormally high
temperatures being the destructive elements.
Factors affecting Pre-ignition and Detonation
Wrong heat range spark plugs. Ignition too far advanced. Lean fuel/air mixture
or octane of fuel too low. Valve tappet clearances incorrectly set. Excessive
deposits in combustion chamber. Sticky valves. Hot spots in engine, protruding
gasket edges. Ignition cross fire (mainly V8 engines). Improper cooling of
engine, due to clogged radiator or water passages. Clogged muffler affecting
proper scavenging of combustion chamber - thereby increasing back pressure,
etc.
It is important not to overlook that the engine may have been rebored or have
increased compression, due to the facing of the cylinder head. In such cases,
the fuel/air mixture may have to be enriched and the ignition timing may have to
be changed.

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Initial Spark Timing
The following discussion on ignition timing will include references to various

aspects or factors relating to engine operation. These must be understood and
taken into Account if the principles being described are to be thoroughly
understood. The main points are:
Complete burning of the air-fuel mixture does not occur instantaneously. There
is a time period of about 3 milliseconds (0.003s) between the production of the
spark and the development of maximum recommended combustion pressures.
Irrespective of the rate of combustion, maximum recommended force from

combustion must be developed at approximately 10' of crankshaft rotation after
TDC on the power stroke.
NOTE: Relative to the above statement, piston travel in relation to crankshaft

rotation is not constant. Irrespective of engine speed, there is a period at
the top and bottom of the stroke when the piston is almost stationary
while the crankshaft is turning. Therefore, while the crankshaft has turned
through the 10 degrees mentioned, the piston has remained stationary at
TDC.
All degrees of ignition timing are crankshaft degrees. With a standard four cycle
engine using a distributor with the same number of cam lobes as there are
cylinders, there are 720 degrees of crankshaft rotation to 360 degrees of
distributor shaft rotation. Therefore the distributor travels at half crankshaft
speed.
The rate of combustion depends on several factors, two of which are the air-
fuel ratio and compression pressures developed in the cylinder under varying
operating conditions.
For example:
A lean (sparse mixture), poorly compressed mixture burns relatively slowly

A rich (dense mixture), highly compressed mixture burns relatively quickly.
NOTE: The overriding factor in engine timing is that maximum recommended

combustion pressures must be developed in the cylinder at
approximately 10 degrees after TDC and, irrespective of engine speed or
load, the spark that initiates the combustion process must be produced at
the precise moment which will lead to this result.
It is the function of the centrifugal and vacuum advance mechanisms of the

distributor to maintain this situation after the initial spark timing has been set to
the maker’s specification for that particular engine.

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Figure 17 shows an example of the ideal piston and crankshaft position at the
combustion period when the engine is idling. In this case, the spark has
occurred at 10 degrees before TDC and in the period of time it has taken for the
air fuel mixture to burn, the piston and crankshaft have moved through the
number of degrees indicated.
If the engine speed is increased (and the combustion rate of the air-fuel mixture
remains approximately the same) the spark timing must be made to occur
earlier in the compression stroke for the maximum recommended pressures to
be produced by the 10 degrees after TDC.
Centrifugal Timing Control
The spark is advanced (i.e. made to occur earlier) automatically as engine

speed increases and “retarded” automatically as engine speed decreases.
NOTE: Once the initial timing of an engine is set, the spark cannot be retarded
beyond this point by normal distributor action.

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When the term advance is used, it means that the spark is being made to occur
earlier in the stroke by the distributor’s timing control mechanisms.
When the term retard is used, it means that the spark is being returned towards
the initial timing setting by changing engine conditions affecting the timing
control mechanisms in the distributor.
To obtain the spark advance necessary as engine speed increases, distributors

have a centrifugal advance mechanism which consists of two pivoted weights in
the lower housing of the distributor assembly. These are held in towards the
centre by springs and rotate with the shaft. As rotational speed increases, the
weights throw outward (under centrifugal force) against calibrated spring
tension to advance the breaker.
NOTE: This is a reliable calibration because centrifugal force varies with engine
speed, and when the springs are calibrated to suit varying engine speeds,
the weights (and therefore spark timing) can be made to vary precisely
with respect to engine speed.
For the above reason the weight springs of any distributor must be in good “as
new” condition, and if replacement is necessary it must be with those
recommended for that particular engine.
Centrifugal timing control varies from no advance at idle speed (or very little) to
full advance at high engine speed, when the weights reach the outer limit of
their travel. The cam is free to move on the distributor shaft and as the weights
move out under centrifugal force it is twisted, or turned, in the direction of
rotation of the shaft. This brings the breaker cam onto the breaker contacts
sooner, thus advancing the spark.

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Figure 19 shows a distributor’s centrifugal advance mechanism in:
a. The “at rest” position. Note the position of the contact breaker cam in
relation to the plate which carries the weight pivots and spring anchor
points.
b. The full advance position. Note the direction of rotation and the weights
in the fully extended position. The breaker cam has moved in the
direction of rotation to bring the cam lobes onto the contact breaker
rubbing block somewhat sooner, thus shifting the ignition point in the
advance direction.
The centrifugal timing control is used to vary spark timing according to the
engine speed.

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LESSON TWO
Principles of Operation (Breakerless Systems)
• Ignition system principles of operation
• Construction and operation of ignition systems relevant to
application
• Types and layout of service/repair manuals (hard copy and
electronic)

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Breakerless Ignition System
As time goes by, more and more requirements are placed on the spark ignition
engine to perform efficiently. To attain this peak performance, greater demands
are also placed on the ignition system.
These demands include:
▪ lower maintenance costs

▪ increased operational reliability in all driving conditions
▪ full compliance with government emission regulations
The breaker-less ignition system is more able to meet these stringent

requirements than the conventional inductive ignition system or the breaker
triggered transistorised ignition system. Triggering the spark ignition system
without mechanical breaker mechanisms has advantages which make this
triggering system especially attractive and virtually universal in application.
Advantages are:
▪ The ignition electronics and ignition pulse generator are wear-free and,
as a result, completely maintenance-free.
▪ The ignition point can be controlled more precisely for all operating
conditions of the engine than was the case up to now and remains
virtually constant over the entire life of the ignition distributor.
▪ Higher ignition reliability at high speeds and optimal input at low speed
by controlling the dwell angle and by eliminating contact bounce.
The main feature of this type of ignition system is the pulse generator which
takes the place of the cam-operated, contact breaker mechanism. The pulse
generator has the task of providing trigger pulses to operate the electronic
primary circuit. These generated pulses trigger the circuit to either turn on or
turn off at the appropriate moment.
Pulse generators can be constructed using one of a number of available

principles.
These principles include:
▪ induction-type pulse generators

▪ Hall effect generators
▪ light-operated generators.
The operating principles of each of the above systems will now be explained
and their relationship to the external electronic circuit described.

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Optical Ignition system
1. The basic construction is an infrared LED (Light Emitting Diode) facing a

phototransistor separated by a small gap.
2. Through this gap a slotted wheel passes which alternately blocks and
un-blocks the light, generating position information.
3. Since light will pass through a very narrow slot, a high degree of
positional accuracy can be obtained.
Induction-type Pulse Generator
Figure 1(a) shows the functional diagram of the pulse generator, and 1(b) the
graphical symbols of the same unit. The permanent magnet, the inductive
winding and the core form a stationary enclosed unit called the stator. the
trigger wheel (sometimes called the rotor or reluctor) is located on the ignition
distributor shaft which rotates inside this stationary component. The core and
trigger wheel are made of soft, magnetic steel and both have tooth-shaped
projections called stator or trigger wheel teeth.
Figure. 1(a) Functional diagram of inductive type pulse generator.
Figure. 1(b) Graphical symbol for inductive pulse generator.
Operating principle, application and function of the signal waveform

The PIP rotor has tabs and windows of equal size, so that as it rotates, the time
on is the same time off. This produces a signal with a square waveform.
When a tab enters the air gap, the signal voltage remains constant. On leaving
the air gap, the voltage drops.
The distributor is timed so that the rising edge of the signal occurs at 10o
before top dead centre
The electronic control unit then uses this information for a number of actions,
including spark advance and electronic fuel injection timing.

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Principle of Operation
The operating principle is based on the fact that, when the trigger wheel
rotates, the air gap between its teeth and the stator teeth is changing
periodically. The magnetic flux changes (i.e. expands outwards or contracts
inwards) together with the changes in the air gap. The changing flux induces an
alternating voltage in the inductive winding wound around the stator core teeth.
Figure 2 shows the variation with respect to time of this generated voltage.
The value of the peak voltage generated (± V) is dependent upon the speed of
rotation. these values range from approximately 0.5 volts at low speed to
approximately 100 volts at high speed. As shown in Figure 2 the A.C.
generated from this type of pulse generator is different from the sinusoidal
A.C. produced in the alternator. This different pattern is produced in the
following manner.
As the trigger wheel teeth and the stator teeth approach one another, the
magnetic flux-builds outwards and the voltage at the ends of the induction
winding increases slowly from zero. As the teeth get closer, it builds up more
rapidly up to the point where the voltage has reached its maximum value (+V)
as the teeth of both parts line up.
As soon as the teeth begin to move away from one another, the pulse
generator voltage abruptly changes its polarity because the magnetic flux is
collapsing back to its “at rest!’ position. It is at this point in time (tz.) that the
ignition spark is produced.

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Using this principle of operation, the induction-type pulse generator has the
properties of a generator in that it produces (or generates) a single phase
alternating voltage for the purpose of breaker-less ignition control.
The frequency (f) of this alternating voltage corresponds to the spark frequency
per second. This is: f = number of cylinders x r/min 2 60
The r/min are divided by 60 to bring the time back to seconds.

The number of cylinders is divided by 2 because a 4 stroke engine only
requires a spark every second revolution.
If the spark frequency of a 2 stroke engine was being calculated the division by
2 would not be used.
Because of the fact that “point bounce’ occurs in contact breaker controlled
ignition at the upper end of the revolution range, the standard ignition system is
limited to approximately 18000 sparks per minute (i.e. 300 sparks/second).
Breaker-less ignition systems are not affected by this factor and so much higher
spark frequencies are possible. Hence, the use of electronic systems in high
speed engines.
A basic circuit of a breaker-less semiconductor ignition system is shown in
Figure 3.
Figure. 3
Basic circuit of breakerless inductive semiconductor ignition system.
In general, the pulse generator is housed in the distributor, with the timer core
mounted on the distributor shaft. The pick-up coil feeds the trigger pulses to the
control unit. The control unit amplifies and shapes the pulses and switches off
the primary circuit at the appropriate time to produce a HT pulse.
These pulses are then returned to the distributor in the form of ignition pulses,
and are fed through the rotating distributor electrode (rotor) to the spark plugs.
In exceptional cases, for example in the breaker-less semiconductor ignition
systems for racing engines, the trigger pulse is taken directly off from the
flywheel. In this design, the flywheel is fitted with so-called “trigger projections”
which pass by the magnetic poles of the magnetic pulse generator and thus
produce the trigger pulses.
As the tooth on the reluctor (or rotor) rotates past the pick up coil assembly, the
magnetic field moves in relation to the coil (stronger then weaker).

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Consequently, a pulse of voltage is generated in the pick-up coil which triggers

the electronic control unit.
Operation
▪ As the tooth of the reluctor moves toward the pick up coil, the movement
of the magnetic field relative to the pick up coil is slowly moving outward.
a gradual increasing voltage is generated. Assume this voltage is
positive.
▪ As the tooth moves to a position nearly under the pick up pole, the
outward movement of the field is momentarily increased and maximum
positive voltage will be recorded.
▪ Note that the instant the reluctor tooth is directly aligned with the
extended pole of the pick up coil all magnetic movement must have
ceased. Consequently the positive voltage generated in the pick up coil
must fall to zero (there is no longer any field movement relative to the
pick up coil).
▪ As the reluctor tooth starts to move away from the extended pole of the
pick up, magnetic flux rapidly reverses its direction. Consequently the
peak of negative voltage is generated in the pick up coil.
▪ As the reluctor tooth moves further away from the extended pole the
inward or collapsing movement of the magnetic field slows and hence
the value of negative voltage falls.
▪ Mid way between two adjacent reluctor teeth the magnetic flux again
reverses its direction (magnetic field which was slowly collapsing inward)
now commences to slowly build up (outward). Voltage generated in the
coil is again positive.
Graph - It is seen that the movement of the reluctor results in an a.c. voltage
being generated in the pick up coil. The ECU that switches the primary of the
coil is programmed to interrupt primary flow at the instant the voltage in the pick
up coil is driven rapidly from positive to negative. See Figure 2.
Reluctor Sensor Reluctor Sensor

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Reluctor Senor Reluctor Sensor
Reluctor Sensor Reluctor Sensor
Figure 4.
Electronic Control Unit
The electronics in the trigger box control unit provide three important functional
stages. These are:
1. pulse-shaping circuit
2. dwell angle control circuit
3. Stabilisation circuit

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See Figure 5 for the layout of these systems.
Figure 5.
1. Pulse shaping circuit
2. Dwell angle control
3. Stabilisation circuit
4. Driver stage (control current amplifier)
5. Darlington output stage Note: Number 5 is treated as a single transistor.
The external connections are B, E, C.
The pulse-shaping circuit is a trigger circuit and has the task of converting the
control alternating voltage of the pulse generator into rectified rectangular
pulses. The pulse height (Figure 6) corresponds to the magnitude of the control
current at the trigger output. As opposed to the pulse-generator voltage, this
current magnitude is independent of the engine speed. The width of the pulses
corresponds to the pulse duration.
Figure. 6 Variation with respect to time of the control pulses. a - Voltage at the trigger input b
- Current at the trigger input
NOTE: The dotted sections of the curve are only valid if the pulse generator is
not connected.

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The dwell angle control in the trigger box varies the pulse duration as a function
of the engine speed. That is, it produces a small dwell angle at low engine
revolutions, and a correspondingly larger dwell angle as engine revolutions rise.
The operation of this control system is described in the next section. The
accuracy of the dwell-angle control is, to a large degree, dependent upon how
exactly the voltage at the input of this control stage can be maintained. The
stabilisation stage has the task of maintaining this voltage as constant as
possible.
Figure 7 shows the entire processing sequence of the pulses produced by the
pulse generator. It begins with the pulse generation by the induction type
generator and progresses through to the spark discharge at the spark plug gap.
Figure. 7
Pulse diagram of the inductive-type pulse generator.
Variation with respect to time of the voltage or current pulses - from left to right.
Ignition point is t2.
1. Induction-type pulse generator 2 Trigger box 2a - Pulse shaping circuit 2b - Dwell angle
control 2c Driver stage 2d Darlington output stage 3 Ignition coil
Look carefully at Figure 7 and follow this pulsing sequence:
The alternating control voltage reaches the pulse-shaping circuit from the
inductive-type generator (block 2a).
The pulse width (or dwell angle) is increased or reduced by the dwell angle
control (block 2b) depending on engine speed.
The rectangular pulses are amplified in the driver stage (block 2c).
These amplified pulses trigger the final transistor (block 2d) which turns the
ignition coil primary current on and off at the pulse frequency.
NOTE: The final transistor referred to above is the Darlington output stage
(described in Figure 5) which can be looked at as a single transistor. Each
interruption of the rectangular pulses results in an interruption of the
primary current and thus a spark discharge at the spark plug gap. The
ignition points are shown as tz on the block diagram.

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Ignition Advance Mechanisms
Spark advance control for the induction-type magnetic pulse system is exactly
the same as for the standard coil ignition system explained in Learning
Outcome 1.
For timing variations related to the speed of the engine, a centrifugal advance
mechanism acts on the trigger wheel. As speed rises, the advance weights
move outwards against a calibrated spring tension and so move the trigger
wheel in the direction of distributor shaft rotation.
This brings the teeth of the trigger wheel onto the poles of the stator somewhat
earlier, depending on the desired advance angle, and as a result triggers the
ignition earlier - something that must happen when speed increases. See
Figure 8.
Figure. 8 Diagram of the interaction of the centrifugal advance mechanism and the vacuum
advance mechanism in the case of ignition control by means of the induction- type pulse
generator.
1. Centrifugal advance mechanism2. Vacuum advance mechanism
3. Distributor shaft4. Hollow shaft
5. Stator pole piece6. Trigger wheel
7. Distributor HT rotor
The vacuum advance mechanism additionally alters the ignition timing (to suit
changes in load) by means of the vacuum advance arm which rotates the pole
piece with respect to the stationary carrying plate. The movement of the pole
piece will be against the direction of rotation of the distributor shaft, an action
that once again leads to the earlier triggering of the ignition. See Figure 8.

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There are certain engine operating conditions in which the combustion of the
mixture is especially poor, thus causing the exhaust emissions to contain more
than the acceptable amount of noxious substances than is permissible. These
conditions are, for example, idling or in the vehicle overrun state. To improve
emissions under these special conditions, shifting the ignition point to a more
retarded position is necessary in many cases. This is achieved by a second
vacuum control mechanism (generally incorporated in with the main vacuum
unit) which rotates the pole piece in the direction of rotation of the distributor
shaft.
Hall Generator
What is a Hall generator? The operation of this generator depends on the Hall
effect produced when a small electric current flowing through a semiconductor
layer is affected by a magnetic field which is at right angles to the layer. See
Figure 9.
Figure. 9 Generation of the Hall voltage UH

H - Hall layer Iv - Supply current Al - Terminal area – negative A2 - Terminal area –positive
B - Magnetic field
Referring to Figure 9, a current (Iv) flows through a semiconductor layer (the

Hall layer - shown as H). If this layer is placed in a magnetic field (B) which is at
right angles to the layer, a voltage in the milli-volt range, called the Hall voltage
(Uff) is generated between the contact surfaces Az and A2.
If the current Iv is held constant, the voltage UH depends only on the magnetic
field strength. The stronger the field the higher is UH. If the magnetic field
strength can be varied periodically (at the required ignition timing point) then
the generated voltage UH can be used to trigger the electronic control circuit of
the ignition coil.
The Hall generator, which is located in the distributor, consists of: a stationary
part called the ignition vane switch. This contains a permanent magnet and an
integrated circuit (IC). The Hall generator is part of the IC. a part which rotates
with the distributor rotor, called the trigger wheel.
The trigger wheel is provided with vanes which are bent downwards. The
number of vanes corresponds to the number of cylinders. The vane width
determines the dwell angle. The trigger wheel and rotor form one component.
See Figure 10.

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The graphic symbol and functional diagram are shown in Figure 11.
1- Vane with width ‘B’ 2 - Magnetically soft conductive element

3 - Hall IC 4 - Air Gap
Generated Hall Voltage is between 0 and 4.

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The Hall generator operates as follows:
As the distributor shaft turns, the vanes of the trigger wheel pass through the air
gap of the vane switch. As the vane leaves the gap, the magnetic field is
unobstructed and so it can penetrate the Hall IC. The flux density at the Hall
layer is high and so the Hall voltage is at its maximum. Hence the Hall IC is
switched on and this in turn, turns off the output transistor.
As soon as one of the vanes enters the air gap of the ignition vane switch most
of the magnetic field is intercepted by the vane and diverted away from the Hall
IC. The flux density at the Hall layer is eliminated. As the flux density falls below
a specified value, the Hall IC switches off and so the Darlington output stage is
switched on, allowing primary current to flow.
The output stage is a Darlington amplifier, the same as shown in Figure. This is
a combination of a number of transistors in a circuit, connected in such a
manner that only three terminals result on the outside (i.e. collector, emitter and
base). The Darlington amplifier can be regarded as a single transistor with high
current amplification. See Figure 12.
Pulse shaper - This is a circuit for making the generated wave forms of each
pulse a more desirable shape. The pulse shaper uses a special multi-vibrator
circuit, which can be looked at as a threshold voltage switch.
Operating principle, application and function of the hall effect device.
1. The hall effect device is arranged with a magnetic pole on one side of
the rotor and an integrated circuit sensor on the other.
2. As the rotor turns, first a window and then a tab passes between the
magnetic pole and the sensor.

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3. When a window is in the air gap between the magnetic pole and the
sensor only a weak magnetic field reaches the sensor.
4. The device is witched off and there is no signal.
Summary of Hall Generator Controlled System

If the Hall IC is switched on (vane outside air gap), the driver and Darlington
output stages are cut-off; the primary current of the ignition coil is thus switched
off.
When a vane passes through the air gap, the Hall IC switches off its signal
current and the Darlington output stage switches the primary current on (energy
storage). Ignition occurs as soon as the Hall IC switches the signal current on
again when the vane leaves the air gap thus interrupting the primary current of
the ignition coil.
1. Battery 2 Ignition switch

3. Ballast resistors 4. Switch, voltage increase for starting
5. Ignition coil 6. Trigger box
6a. Over-voltage protection 6b. Driver stage
6c. Darlington output stage 7. Hall generator
8. Ignition distributor
Light-operated Control Circuits
Some manufacturers have used light as the control medium to activate their
ignition systems. One such system uses light-emitting diodes (LED) as the light
source and these act on photo diodes which are the ignition primary circuit
actuating components.

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The total unit is a distributor like component in which the light-operating device
is mounted on the distributor shaft in the bottom of the housing. The rotor, cap
and high-tension leads are mounted on the top section. See Figures 14(a) and
14(b).
Figure 14(a)
Figure. 14(b) General view of a light sensor ignition distributor
This unit is basically a crank angle sensor and its function is to provide the
vehicle computer with two types of input signal:
Engine speed crank angle sensor consists of three sections. These are:
1. sensor section, containing two LEDs and two photo diodes.
2. rotor plate section, with two rows of slits. the rotor plate is driven by the
distributor shaft. wave-forming circuit, This shapes the signal wave form,
sent from the photo diodes, into an acceptable pattern that can be
processed by the electronic spark timing section of the on board
computer.

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3. The rotor plate is a circular disc which has 360 slits at 10 intervals on the
outside circumference to detect engine speed, and 6 slits at 60' intervals
(to represent 120' of crankshaft travel) to detect crank angle or piston
position, with the slit for No. 1 cylinder being the largest. See Figure 15
One LED and photo diode pair is used to detect engine speed; the other pair is
used to detect crank angle or piston position. An ON-OFF signal is generated
when the light beam emitted from the LED is allowed to reach the photo diode
through the slit in the rotor plate, and is then cut off as the slit moves away.
This generates a signal in the photo diode which is shaped by the wave forming
circuit into a square wave form. This is then transferred to the computer control
unit operation.
If, for example the engine speed is 2000 r/min and the ignition timing
requirement is 40' BTDC, the reference signal of the crank angle sensor (the
120' slits) is generated 70' BTDC. It can be seen from this, that if the spark is to
be produced at a timing point of 40' BTDC, then the l’ signal pulses (or slits)
must be counted, starting with the arrival of the 70' signal. After counting thirty l’
signal pulses (because 70 - 30 = 40) the power transistor in the ignition primary
circuit must be turned off to produce the ignition spark.
The vehicle’s on board computer therefore fully controls:
▪ Spark timing: It computes this requirement from a number of sensors

including engine speed and throttle position.
▪ Dwell angle: This will be a function of engine speed. That is, at idle or
low speed the dwell angle will be small, and as speed rises, the dwell
angle will be gradually increased.
▪ As well as electronically controlling spark timing, the computer also

controls other operating functions such as fuel injection, fuel pump
operation etc.

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Simple Pulse-Triggered System Operation
Operation
Consider initially the current flow paths for the system in the “on” condition. The
ignition switch is closed and the distributor is not generating a pulse.
First Current flows via resistor R4 through the base-emitter circuit of the
transistor T2. This flow of current turns the transistor on
Second Current can now flow via resistor R3 and the emitter-collector
circuit of T2 to the base of transistor T3. The current now flowing through R6
produces a forward biasing voltage across the base-emitter circuit of T3 which
turns on.
Third When T3 is in this conducting condition, battery current will flow in the
primary winding of the ignition coil, completing its circuit back to battery positive
via the collector-emitter circuit of T3.
Fourth At the same time as the above sequence of operations occurs, capacitor
Cl charges up. Because of the high volt drop across R4 (approximately 11
volts) the capacitor charges up with the potential shown in Figure 16.
It is the remaining 1 volt that applies the negative value to the base of T2 to turn
it on. As the distributor starts to rotate, an electrical pulse is generated as the
reluctor tooth lines up with the magnetic pole of the pick-up coil. The voltage
generated will have a polarity as shown in the circuit (Figure 16.21). With the
voltage applied in this direction, it forward biases transistor Tl which then turns
on. This produces the following sequence of events:

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1. When transistor Tl becomes conductive through its emitter- collector

circuit, capacitor Cl is then shorted out through this circuit.
2. The negative potential of Cl is now momentarily applied to the emitter of

72. This produces the situation where negative potential is now applied
to both the emitter and base of T2 and so it turns off.
3. As 72 switches off, it interrupts the base circuit of T3 and turns it off also.
4. Turning T3 off breaks the coil primary circuit which causes the magnetic
field to collapse in the ignition coil and produce the very high secondary
voltage.
The time it takes for capacitor Cl to discharge is controlled by resistors R4 and

R5. This period is fixed by the manufacturer to provide sufficient time for the
energy in the ignition coil to be dissipated - yet still provide an extended dwell
period sufficient to enable full magnetic saturation of the coil primary to be
achieved over the full speed range of the engine.
Magnetic saturation
Primary current causes a magnetic field build-up around the windings. Building
up a complete magnetic field is called magnetic saturation, or coil saturation.
The Zener diode, Zl, is used to bypass any self-induced voltage pulse which
may exceed the voltage rating of the output (or power) transistor T3.
This type of protection is often incorporated with any transistor which is

switching an inductive circuit. For example.
▪ The power transistor of a TAC ignition system.
▪ The power transistor of the electronic voltage regulator used with most
alternators.
Electronic Distributorless Ignition System (EDIS) (Ford System)
Description And Operation

EDIS consists of the following parts:
1. Crankshaft Position Sensor (CKP sensor) and timing wheel: the sensor
is a single pole inductive pickup; the toothed wheel has 35 teeth at 10°
intervals, with the 36th tooth missing. The CKP sensor reads both the
crankshaft speed and the crankshaft position.
2. Coil pack: the coil pack contains 3 or 4 separate coils with a common B
+ terminal. The other end of each coil is connected to the EEC module.
Inside the EEC module, each coil is connected in series to a 100 mW
resistor (for current sensing) and a transistor that connects the coil to
ground.

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Each ignition coil fires two spark plugs simultaneously:

▪ One spark plug on the compression stroke. This spark plug uses
the majority of the ignition coil energy.
▪ One spark plug on the exhaust stroke. This spark plug uses very
little of the ignition coil stored energy
Waste spark ignition
Ignition coils have two towers providing spark for two different cylinders
simultaneously. One cylinder is on its compression stroke and the other is on its
exhaust stroke
Inert exhaust gases
The plug that fires during the companion cylinder's exhaust stroke is “wasted”;
this is because it fires into inert exhaust gases.
Cop Ignition system
A COP ignition system has no spark at any of the coils. No power to PCM
BAT+. is MOST likely causing this loss of spark
Distributor-less ignition systems pair two cylinders, called companion cylinders,

and fire both spark plugs at the same time
Since these two spark plugs are connected in series:

▪ The firing voltage of one spark plug will be negative with respect
to ground.
▪ The voltage of the other will be positive with respect to ground.
3. EDIS CPU (built into the EEC module). The EDIS CPU processes the
signals from the CKP sensor, and sends a synthesised Profile Ignition
Pick-up (PIP) signal to the EEC CPU. It receives timing information from
the EEC CPU and controls both the spark timing and the coil dwell.
When the crankshaft rotates, the CKP sensor produces a signal as shown in
figure 1. This signal voltage Vp varies from 150 mV at 30 RPM to 200 V at 5500
RPM. The missing tooth produces a distortion of the sine curve, and the EDIS
CPU uses this point to determine the position of TDC cylinder 1. After the
missing tooth has passed the sensor for the first time, EEC starts to operate the
coils and the injectors.
The sensor produces a sine wave; the failing edge of the sine wave crosses the
0 V line when the tooth centre is opposite the sensor.
The EDIS CPU uses the CKP signal to synthesize a PIP signal, as
demonstrated in figure 2 for six cylinder engines

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The PIP signal is not produced until the missing tooth has passed the sensor
for the first time. After the missing tooth has passed the sensor, the EDIS CPU
can calculate the position of TDC, and produces a PIP rising edge (‘A’ in the
figure above) to start at 10° BTDC. Each PIP lasts for 60° of crank rotation for 6
cylinder and 45° for 8 cylinder. For ignition to occur, only the PIP signal is
needed. For full synchronisation of the fuel system, and for proper self test, the
EEC CPU also needs to know which part of the engine cycle the crank is in. It
uses the signal from the Camshaft Position (CMP) sensor for this. The CMP
Variable
Reluctance (VR) sensor consists of a sensor which produces a sine wave pulse
at cylinder 1 TDC. The CMP signal is also used by the EEC CPU if one of the
coils fails to fire. This would normally result in two cylinders misfiring, and an
accumulation of unburnt fuel in the catalytic convertor, which could lead to
failure of the convertor. To prevent this type of failure, EEC checks the coil
primary current each time a coil is energised. If one of the coils fails to charge
(repeatedly), the EEC CPU turns off the two injectors associated with that coil.

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Knock Control System

A knock sensor is fitted to the six cylinder engine to sense the onset of engine
knock and return this information to the EEC V module. The EEC V module can
then adjust the timing appropriately.
The knock sensor is fitted to the engine block, next to number 5 cylinder, under
the inlet manifold. If engine speed is below 4500 RPM and load is above
50%, EEC will ‘listen’ for knocking. When the sensor ‘hears’ detonation in the
engine, EEC retards the timing at each PIP signal until the knocking stops.
Each step is about 1-2°, depending on the current engine speed and load.
When the knock stops, EEC will start ramping up the advance in steps of 1/4°
at each PIP signal until the knock starts again. This allows the engine to
operate with maximum advance, limited by the speed and load, the octane
rating of the fuel and the engine condition, to give maximum engine
performance. This is illustrated in figure 3.
Capacitor Discharge Ignition (CDI)
1. The CDI system contains two coils that are triggered by magnets in the
flywheel or AC generator. The larger coil is the charging or exciter coil,
and the smaller coil is called the trigger coil. The trigger coil controls the
timing of the ignition spark.
2. As the flywheel rotates past the exciter coil, the alternating current
produced by the exciter winding is rectified and changed to direct current
by the diode in the CDI unit. The capacitor in the CDI unit stores this
energy until it is needed to fire the spark plug.
For many years the most popular type of electronic ignition system was the
capacitor discharge ignition (CDI) type. The mechanical contact breaker
assembly is replaced by a small 'pick-up' or 'pulse generator' coil mounted
close to the flywheel generator or alternator rotor (sometimes as part of the
stator plate assembly, sometimes mounted separately) (see illustrations 3.8a, b
and c). At the firing point a small trigger magnet on the rotor sweeps past the
coil thereby inducing a tiny signal current which is fed to the COI unit indicating

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a spark is needed. For more on the different types of pick-up coil/pulse

generator and how they work, see below under 'Sensors'.

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How it works
Most COI units contain a thyristor, a capacitor and a couple of diodes, though
there will also be additional circuitry to control ignition advance. The first of
these items, the thyristor, functions as the electronic switch (see illustrations
3.8d, e and f). Its two main connections control the flow of current, much the
same as the contact breaker. To replace the mechanical cam arrangement (the
switch actuator), the thyristor has a third connection, and when a small current
is applied to this (sent by the pick-up coil as the magnet passes it), the device
conducts the main current and will remain conductive until this falls to a low
level. At this point the thyristor reverts to an 'off' state until it receives the next
trigger signal from the pickup.
The thyristor is also known as a silicon-controlled rectifier and often abbreviated

to the initials SCR. The next important element in the CDI black box is the
capacitor, which is similar in function to the capacitor we know from the earlier
systems. As before, this device stores a charge, in this case a few hundred
volts derived either from the source coil or the battery supply, according to
power supply type. When the trigger current is applied to the thyristor, the
capacitor discharges rapidly, sending a short pulse of energy through the
ignition coil primary windings. This in turn induces a powerful HT spark from the
secondary windings to ignite the mixture, and therefore works on the 'field
build-up' principle mentioned earlier. The characteristics of CDI ignition are
such that the secondary voltage produced is higher than normal (around 40,000
volts) and so the spark at the plug is far more precise and powerful than in a
conventional system. Ignition is thus more accurate and less prone to failure.
Since there are no mechanical parts there can be no wear and once correctly
set the timing will not require further adjustment.

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Advance and retard control

On early CDI systems automatic ignition advance was achieved using a
secondary pickup circuit to modify the trigger point by the desired amount, and
on later systems by using the effect that a change of engine speed causes in
the properties of magnetism and induction (measured in voltage rise time)
between the trigger magnet and the pick-up COIl.
Transistorised ignition
In many respects transistorised ignition is similar to CDI in that it has no moving
parts and relies on a magnetic trigger and pick-up system to signal the control
unit to produce a spark (see illustration 3.8g). One difference is that it uses the
'field collapse' principle of the battery and coil system, as opposed to the 'field
build-up' principle of the CDI system. CDI had been the preferred method of
ignition control for many years, but with the development of transistors coupled
with the move from analogue to digital control of the switching devices,
manufacturers soon began to favour the fitting of digital transistorised ignition
systems. Circuit design began using analogue technology to keep the energy at
the coil constant and to produce an ignition advance curve to suit the engine.
However, and especially with the increasing use of fuel injection, the need for
more and more variable parameters such as throttle position, crankshaft
position, engine speed, road speed, intake air temperature and pressure,
engine temperature and engine load information resulted in a change to digital
control. Digital control could handle varying parameters much more quickly and
efficiently and led ultimately to the development of engine management
systems for control of the fuel injection and ignition systems.
Digital ignition and engine 'mapping'

Today, the most advanced and precise ignition systems, as used on the
majority of modern 'superbikes', are digital (or to be more accurate digitally
controlled transistorised systems). Information on one, some or all of the
variable parameters (throttle position, crankshaft position, engine speed, road
speed, intake air temperature and pressure, engine temperature and engine
load) is picked up by sensors and transmitted to the electronic control unit
(ECU). If the information is sent in analogue signals (as some of the sensors
do) they are converted to digital form. All the information is then processed by a
computer for control of voltage and timing of the pulse that generates the spark.
Not all systems use all of the sensors mentioned, and some of the earliest
systems only used one sensor, the pulse generator coil/pick-up coil/crankshaft
position sensor (basically the same thing), which gives information on

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crankshaft position and engine speed (see illustration 3.8h overleaf). The signal
receiver in the ECU receives the information from the sensor and then converts
it to digital if necessary. The signal is then sent to the processor, which relays it
to the read only memory (ROM). The ROM has been pre-programmed with the
optimum timing characteristics for the information it is being sent, and so
determines when to switch the transistor on and off, which generates the spark
via the coil. When the transistor is turned on, the ignition coil's primary windings
are saturated. The memory then turns the transistor off when it is time to create
a spark, which is induced via the secondary windings as the field in the primary
windings collapses. The key is the pre-programmed ROM which stores all the
correct ignition advance settings for all the possible variations in all the
parameters used by the particular system.

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LESSON THREE
Component / System Repair
• WH&S regulations/requirement, equipment, material and personal
safety requirements
• Testing and fault identification procedures
• Adjustment procedures of systems/components
• Repair/removal and replacement procedures

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Personal Safety
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is an effective and necessary part of

Accident Prevention Programs. Protective equipment will prevent or decrease
the severity of many potential injuries and illnesses.
We all have our own ‘DUTY of CARE’ and are required to use the PPE that is
provided for us.
If the necessary equipment is not available to safely proceed with your task DON’T
TAKE THE RISK, take the time and make the effort to obtain what is required to
complete the job.
As Apprentice Mechanics there are some items of PPE that you should wear at all
times such as FOOT PROTECTION (steel capped shoes or boots) and OVERALLS
or work shirts and pants.
Other items of PPE you may be required to use include:
✓ Safety Glasses or Face Shield
✓ Hearing Protection (Ear Muffs or Plugs)
✓ Gloves (Not to be worn when using rotating

equipment e.g.
Pedestal drills or Bench grinders)
✓ Hair Protection (Tie long hair back or wear a

cap when operating rotating equipment)
✓ Dust Masks or Respirators
CAUTION: An additional hazard to be aware of in the automotive trade is

the wearing of RINGS, BRACELETS or WATCHES with a metal body or wrist
strap. These items pose a risk of serious injury if they short out electrical
equipment while working on a vehicle or may become entangled in rotating
equipment

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Safety measures
Specialised Safety precaution

tools
Scan tool Keep the Tool dry, clean and free from oil, water and grease.
Use a mild detergent on a clean cloth to clean the outside of the
Tool, when necessary.
Multimeter De-energize and discharge the circuit completely before

connecting or disconnecting.
Never apply power to the circuit while measuring resistance.
Connect in series with the circuit for current measurements,
and in parallel for voltage measurements.
Be certain to switched to ac before attempting to measure ac
circuits.
Observe proper dc polarity when measuring dc.
When you are finished, switch it to the OFF position, if
available. If there is no OFF position, switch to the highest ac
voltage position.
Always start with the highest voltage or current range. Select a
final range that allows a reading near the middle of the scale.
Oscilloscope Do not connect the ground clip of the probe to either side of
the line. The clip is already at earth ground and touching it
to the hot side of the line cause possibly injury, plus
possible damage to the scope or probe.
Do not obstruct the ventilating hole in the case as this will
increase the scope’s internal pressure
Do not apply excessive voltage as that may damage the
tool
Ensure the tool has sufficient bandwidth
Use of personal protective equipment;
Work clothing – such as coveralls and steel-capped footwear

Eye protection – such as safety glasses and face masks
Ear protection – such as earmuffs and earplugs
Hand protection - such as rubber gloves and barrier cream
Respiratory equipment - such as face masks and valved respirators
Working with High tension cables and jewellery;
If you touch a voltage source, your body’s resistance can be very low if you
have a ring on your finger. In that state, even a lower voltage jolt could do you
serious damage.
Another good reason to avoid jewellery is that it can snag on things. For e.g.
you could damage a component or wiring.
When removing spark plug wires from any ignition system, be careful of the hot
exhaust manifolds or the headers. Make sure the engine has cooled down
before removing wires and spark plugs.

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Develop Safety Awareness
Awareness is an essential part of your skill and training. As long as you are
learning anything about your job, you should be learning how to do it safely. It
is a lifetime business
Testing the Coil and Capacitor

During the servicing of an ignition system it will be necessary to conduct tests
on both the coil and capacitor to determine their serviceability. Explanations of
the construction and operation of both these components (given earlier in the
chapter) will be used as background to explain the reason for each of the tests
carried out.
The Ignition Coil
To test the ignition coil connect the ohmmeter's two test leads to the coils
primary terminals (+ and -). Most coils should read between 0.4 and 2 ohms.
Zero resistance would indicate a shorted coil while a high resistance reading
would indicate an open coil.
As with any device that contains coils of wire in which each turn is insulated
from the next and the winding as a whole is insulated from earth, there are
certain basic tests carried out and these are usually:
a. Continuity - To make sure that there are no broken wires or connections

in the circuit.
b. Resistance - To make sure that there are no short circuits between the
insulation of a winding.
Because a winding contains a certain length of wire, a resistance test can
determine if insulation has broken down between the turns, allowing individual
turns to “short together”. In effect, the shorted out turns reduce the length of the
operative winding and thus will show up in a resistance reading.
c. Earth Faults - To make sure that there is no electrical connection
between any of the windings and earth.
To test the ignition coil, both tests (a) and (b) can be combined into one.
To test the primary winding, a low reading ohmmeter is connected across both
primary terminals, and the reading Accurately taken. It must match up to the
manufacturers specifications and will fall somewhere in the following range:
Conventional systems: primary resistance = approx. 3 ohms

Ballast systems: primary resistance = approx. 1.3 to 1.5 ohms
Electronic systems: primary resistance = approx. 0.4 to 0.5 ohms.
NOTE: The manufacturers specifications should always be referred to for

accurate values.

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A correct reading will indicate both a continuous circuit and the fact that there
are no shorted turns.
Next, a resistance and continuity test must be made on the secondary winding.
The ohmmeter (set on one of the high ranges) is connected between the HT
outlet and one of the primary terminals. Once again the manufacturer will
specify a resistance range into which the value of the secondary must fall.
A common set of values is between 9000 and 12000 ohms.
NOTE: Either primary terminal may be used in this test because the low ohmic
value of the primary winding will make no appreciable difference to the
reading of the secondary resistance if it is included.
A correct reading within the specified range will indicate both a complete circuit,
with a good connection to the primary winding, and that the windings are not
shorted together.
To check for earth faults (test ‘C”), a series test lamp is connected between one
of the primary terminals and the metal container of the coil.
The lamp must not light. If it does, the coil is faulty and must be replaced.
An HT output test should also be applied to a coil by connecting it to a test
machine that will provide a regularly interrupted current to the primary winding.
NOTE: This simulates the operation of the ignition primary circuit when the
engine is running.
By connecting HT outlet to a variable spark gap, the maximum “size” of the

spark (or energy available) capable of being produced, can be gauged. It
should compare favourably with a new ignition coil.
Figure 7. The ohmmeter connections for checking both windings of an ignition coil.

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The Capacitor
There are three tests that must be carried out on a capacitor. They are:
a. Leakage
b. Capacity
c. Series resistance
These tests are carried out on a specially manufactured capacitor testing

device.
Test a
With the machine turned on (they generally operate from the AC mains) and the
selector switch connected to leakage test, the amount of electrical leakage from
the capacitor plates can be measured and this must be within specified limits.
Leakage in a capacitor occurs when the stored electrical charge discharges
from one plate to the other across the dielectric insulation.
Test b
When the capacity test is selected, the device charges up the capacitor and the
amount of electricity required to fully charge the plates is measured. This must
come up to the rated capacity of that particular capacitor.
This will range from 0.2 to 0.3 microfarads for automotive work.
Test c
When the series resistance test is selected, the machine measures the actual
resistance of the connections between the capacitor plates and:
▪ the insulated flexible lead

▪ the earth connection to the metal container Once again this must fall
within the specified limits set by the manufacturer
NOTE: With the price of labour as high as it is, it may be more economical to
replace the capacitor (without testing it) if the contacts show signs of bad
arcing.
Dwell Angle Control
Dwell control section of the control circuit determines when the primary circuit
will be switched on, and how long current will flow in the primary winding.
Dwell Angle Adjustment
The dwell angle is adjusted by setting the contact opening to the specified
clearance and this is done by moving the adjustable contact plate. The point
where the cam meets the insulated rubbing block of the movable contact will

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depend on how far away from the cam the breaker points are held by the fixed
(adjustable) contact.
The correct gap for the points is usually given by manufacturers in two forms:
▪ A point gap given in millimetres. In this instance the gap is adjusted
using the appropriate “feeler gauges”.
▪ A dwell angle given in degrees of distributor shaft rotation. This
specification is Achieved by connecting a dwell meter Across the
distributor, running the engine to check the reading, then making any
necessary adjustments to the point gap to obtain the correct dwell angle
reading.
NOTE: As it is relatively difficult to obtain a perfect point gap using feeler gauges
(especially if the contacts are not new), the general practice is to initially
set the points using this method, then make the final, Accurate
adjustment using a dwell meter.
The dwell angle of the contact breaker is the angle through which the distributor
shaft rotates during which the contacts are closed.
The angle of shaft rotation during which the points are open is usually kept
somewhat smaller than the dwell angle. (Dwell angle is usually about 60% of
the ignition cycle).
As the number of engine cylinders increases (and hence the number of ignition
cycles per revolution of the shaft increases), so the dwell angle must be
reduced. For example:
In a 4 cylinder engine:
a. Ignition cycle is 90 degrees

b. Dwell angle approx. 550 degrees
▪ Ignition cycle is 60 degrees

▪ Dwell angle approx. 38 degrees
▪ Ignition cycle is 45 degrees

▪ Dwell angle approx. 320 degrees
Effects of incorrect dwell angles
If the dwell angle of a distributor alters during operation for one reason or
another (e.g. wear occurs on the insulated rubbing block) then engine timing
must also be affected. As the rubbing block wears so the dwell angle increases
and the timing becomes retarded. The reason for this is that the contacts are
opened at a later position.

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The other aspect of incorrect dwell angle is its effect on coil operation. The
smaller the point gap is made between the contacts, the larger will be the dwell
angle and vice versa.
Small Point Gap
This results in a large dwell angle which is good for ignition performance over
the high speed range of engine operation. This is because of the longer dwell
period allowing more time for the required energy to be stored in the magnetic
field.
A detrimental effect occurs over the lower engine speed range where the
primary current can flow for a longer period of time with the consequent
tendency to overheat the points. The small point gap also tends to increase the
danger of arcing across the points as they break, resulting in premature wear.
Large Point Gap
This results in a small dwell angle which may be quite adequate for low engine
speeds but as the speed rises, there will be a tendency for the coil to become
starved”, with a consequent spark failure, producing “missing”.
NOTE: Since it is normal practice to adjust the point gap before setting the
ignition timing, it is possible for the above situations of incorrect dwell
angles with correct ignition timing to exist together.
Adjust the breaker contact points using a dwell meter.
A. Adjust the contact points as outlined above using the feeler gauge.
B. Connect the dwell meter to the engine as specified by the dwell
manufacturer. Crank the engine with the coil tension lead disconnected.
C. Note the dwell angle reading on the dwell meter. Compare the reading
with manufacturer’s specification.
D. Adjust the ignition points gap according to manufacturer specifications.
E. When the correct dwell angle has been obtained, secure ignition points
clamp screws and recheck dwell angle reading.

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Contact Replacement
Replacing the contacts is usually a part of the tune-up inspection, but

occasionally, it is required more often. When too frequent replacement is
needed, check to find the cause of the contact failure. Most premature contact
failures can be traced to foreign matter on the contacts, high primary current
draw or to a faulty capacitor.
When a coating of oil or dirt is on the contacts, an arc is formed which burns the
oil and causes poor contact. In the early stages, the contacts appear darker
than their normal grey colour, while later, they may develop pitting.
When too much current flows through the contacts, it causes overheating as
well as an arc, and the contacts are usually rough with some traces of tungsten
oxide, which has a bluish colour. If the condenser is faulty, the contacts transfer
material so that one has a large build-up and the other has a corresponding pit.
The first two of these causes are the most common. However, in advanced
stages the contacts may appear very much like the last condition described.
When replacing contacts, inspect carefully for an oily film on the breaker plate,
which would indicate over-lubrication of the cam, sleeve or breaker arm. After
installing new contacts, clean all film from the contact faces by rubbing briskly
with linen tape. Be sure no lint or dust is left on the contacts, as it will burn with
a result similar to oil.
Check the primary current draw to be sure it is within specifications, as

occasionally an incorrect or faulty coil or ballast may have been installed. Also
check to see that the operating voltage of the system is correct, as high
voltages, usually due to improper regulator adjustment, can also cause
excessive primary current. Check with the manufacturers recommendations
when checking coils off electronic ignition systems.
The capacitor can be checked for capacity, leakage and resistance with a
capacitor tester and should be replaced if not in good condition.
After installing new contacts, they should be aligned for centre-to-centre contact
by twisting or bending the stationary contact bracket. The breaker arm spring
tension should be checked.
Lubricate the breaker arm pivot with one drop of fight oil and apply a thin film of
grease to the cam. A high temperature grease is recommended for this cam
lubrication, as it will withstand the high temperatures encountered due to the
distributor position on today’s engines.
Clean the new contacts with linen tape as mentioned previously to remove any
trace of oil or dirt resulting from the installation, lubrication or handling.

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Factors affecting Dwell Angle
When adjusting and checking the ignition contact setting with the dwell meter,
the setting should be checked initially at engine idle speed. After the setting has
been adjusted correctly, then the engine speed should be increased and the
dwell angle reading noted. A variation of more than 2' on the dwell meter, over
the engine speed range, indicates a fault in the distributor.
Testing the Pulse-type Ignition
NOTE: An elimination type test sequence will be used again. It is assumed that
the secondary distribution system has already been checked for possible
faults and found to be functioning normally.

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Figure. 6 Variation with respect to time of the control pulses. a - Voltage at the trigger input b
- Current at the trigger input
The dotted sections of the curve are only valid if the pulse generator is not
connected.
The dwell angle control in the trigger box varies the pulse duration as a function
of the engine speed. That is, it produces a small dwell angle at low engine
revolutions, and a correspondingly larger dwell angle as engine revolutions rise.
The operation of this control system is described in the next section. The
accuracy of the dwell-angle control is, to a large degree, dependent upon how
exactly the voltage at the input of this control stage can be maintained. The
stabilisation stage has the task of maintaining this voltage as constant as
possible.
Figure 7 shows the entire processing sequence of the pulses produced by the
pulse generator. It begins with the pulse generation by the induction type
generator and progresses through to the spark discharge at the spark plug gap.
Figure. 7
Pulse diagram of the inductive-type pulse generator.
Variation with respect to time of the voltage or current pulses - from
left to right.
Ignition point is tz.
1. Induction-type pulse generator 2 Trigger box 2a - Pulse shaping circuit 2b - Dwell angle
control 2c Driver stage 2d Darlington output stage 3 Ignition coil

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Look carefully at Figure 7 and follow this pulsing sequence:

▪ The alternating control voltage reaches the pulse-shaping circuit from
the inductive-type generator (block 2a).
▪ The pulse width (or dwell angle) is increased or reduced by the dwell
angle control (block 2b) depending on engine speed.
▪ The rectangular pulses are amplified in the driver stage (block 2c).
▪ These amplified pulses trigger the final transistor (block 2d) which turns
the ignition coil primary current on and off at the pulse frequency.
NOTE: The final transistor referred to above is the Darlington output stage
(described in Figure 5) which can be looked at as a single transistor.
Each interruption of the rectangular pulses results in an interruption of the

primary current and thus a spark discharge at the spark plug gap. The ignition
points are shown as tz on the block diagram.
Ignition Advance Mechanisms
Spark advance control for the induction-type magnetic pulse system is exactly
the same as for the standard coil ignition system explained in the first part of
this book.
For timing variations related to the speed of the engine, a centrifugal advance
mechanism acts on the trigger wheel. As speed rises, the advance weights
move outwards against a calibrated spring tension and so move the trigger
wheel in the direction of distributor shaft rotation.
This brings the teeth of the trigger wheel onto the poles of the stator somewhat
earlier, depending on the desired advance angle, and as a result triggers the
ignition earlier - something that must happen when speed increases. See
Figure 8.

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Figure. 8 Diagram of the interaction of the centrifugal advance mechanism and the vacuum
advance mechanism in the case of ignition control by means of the induction- type pulse
generator.
1. Centrifugal advance mechanism2. Vacuum advance mechanism
3. Distributor shaft4. Hollow shaft
5. Stator pole piece6. Trigger wheel
7. Distributor HT rotor
The vacuum advance mechanism additionally alters the ignition timing (to suit
changes in load) by means of the vacuum advance arm which rotates the pole
piece with respect to the stationary carrying plate. The movement of the pole
piece will be against the direction of rotation of the distributor shaft, an action
that once again leads to the earlier triggering of the ignition. See Figure 8.
There are certain engine operating conditions in which the combustion of the
mixture is especially poor, thus causing the exhaust emissions to contain more
than the acceptable amount of noxious substances than is permissible. These
conditions are, for example, idling or in the vehicle overrun state. To improve
emissions under these special conditions, shifting the ignition point to a more
retarded position is necessary in many cases. This is achieved by a second
vacuum control mechanism (generally incorporated in with the main vacuum
unit) which rotates the pole piece in the direction of rotation of the distributor
shaft.

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Ignition System Oscilloscope Patterns
The ignition primary waveform is a measurement of the voltage on the negative

side of the ignition coil
Fast, accurate diagnosis of ignition faults may be made by studying the
oscilloscope patterns produced by both the primary and secondary circuits of
the ignition system.
When the scope is connected into the ignition system, the operator can select
each circuit in turn and by comparing each trace pattern with the pattern
produced by a perfect system, faults can be located.
Primary and secondary ignition waveform
1. The horizontal voltage line at the centre of the oscilloscope is at fairly

constant voltage of approximately 40V, which then drops sharply into
what is referred to as the coil oscillation. The length of the horizontal
voltage line is the ‘spark duration’ or ‘burn time’, which in this particular
case is about 1 ms.
2. The ignition secondary waveform is a measurement of the HT output

voltage from the ignition coil.
In the trace shown it can be seen that the horizontal voltage line in the
centre of the oscilloscope is at fairly constant voltage of approximately 3
or 4kV, which then drops sharply into the ‘coil oscillation’ period. The
plug firing voltage is the voltage required to jump and bridge the gap at
the plug’s electrode, commonly known as the ‘plug kV’. The plug firing
voltage is about 12 or 13kV.

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1. The Primary Pattern
This pattern is produced by the battery (or primary) side of the ignition system
(Figure 9) and is a product of the battery voltage applied throughout the primary
circuit and the time for which it is applied.
Figure. 9 Primary circuit of an ignition system.
The oscilloscope trace pattern produced by this primary circuit when it is in

perfect operating condition is shown in Figure 10.
Each part of this trace relates to certain components in the primary circuit, each
of which takes its part in the sequence of circuit operation. By dividing up this
trace into its various components, the operation of each part can be seen (see
Figure 11).
By reading the trace from left to right, the components can be identified and
their operation examined.
During that part of the ignition cycle when the distributor contacts break, the
capacitor absorbs the high self induced voltage and the spark occurs at the
plug gap. After this the capacitor discharges back and forth through the primary
circuit to dissipate the stored energy ready for the next ignition cycle. Consider
each part of the trace shown in Figure 11.

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Capacitor
This part of the trace shows the capacitor and its oscillations. It represents a
capacitor in good working condition and any deviation from this pattern
indicates a capacitor fault.
Coil Windings
Current oscillations in the coil, as the stored energy is dissipated, are

represented in this part of the trace and any coil fault will cause a deviation
from this pattern.
Points Close
The break in the trace at this point is the position where the distributor contacts
close. As long as there is a good, clean line break, the contacts are functioning
normally.
Dwell Angle
The length of this line represents the closed circuit period of the primary. A
measure of the length of this line can be calibrated in rotational degrees and
thus represent the dwell angle. Variations in length represent variations in point
opening.
Point Open
This is the position at which the distributor contacts break the primary circuit.
NOTE: It is important that the primary trace be studied before going on to the
secondary pattern, because faults in this part of the ignition system will
be “reflected” into the secondary trace and could give a false indication
of a secondary fault when in fact it is a primary fault.

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2. The Secondary Pattern
This trace is representative of the secondary circuit voltage patterns. It shows

the secondary ionising voltage and spark plug “firing line” as well as the coil
oscillations and reflection of some of the primary circuit functions. These are all
relative to the time over which each function extends.
Figure.12
Typical trace Pattern of an ignition secondary circuit. The letters “a” to “e” indicate the
different parts of the trace.
By reading the trace in Figure 12 from left to right the corresponding ignition
function can be identified and checked.
(a) Spark Firing Line
This section of the trace relates to the high energy discharge arc across the
plug gap. Variations in the height (representing voltage values) and shape of
this part of the trace will indicate faults in the high tension circuit.
(b)Coil Windings
This is the section relating to the coil operation during the period when coil
voltage has fallen below the value necessary to maintain the spark across the
plug gap. Deviations from the shape of the pattern indicate coil faults in the
secondary winding.
(c) Breaker Points Close
At this moment, battery voltage is impressed across the primary coil and a
voltage is generated in the secondary winding as the primary current builds up
towards the saturation point.
(d) Dwell Angle
This part of the trace covers the length of time over which the primary current is
flowing in the circuit.
Breaker Points Open
This is the point at which the high secondary voltage is induced. The patterns
shown in Figures 10, 11 and 12 are superimposed patterns, i.e. each sequence
of operation is shown virtually one on top of the other. The beauty of this type
of pattern is that problems of a common nature can be readily identified. The

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cathode-ray oscilloscope also provides a control circuit which will allow this
pattern to be “spread” (sometimes called “raster’) and thus allow individual
patterns for each cylinder to be viewed.
3. Parade Pattern
This pattern, when selected by the operator, shows the complete secondary
pattern of all engine cylinders set out sequentially in the engine’s firing order.
The peak ionising voltages can be read off and compared, separate plug firing
voltages can be compared, and each individual cylinder can be identified.
Figure 13 shows one sequence of ignition operation selected from a “parade
pattern”. The high tapered line indicates the peak ionising voltage applied
across the plug, and this is followed by the “spark line” and coil oscillations
(similar to those shown in pattern in Figure 11 and 12).
The parade pattern shown in Figure 14 is that of a typical 6-cyhnder engine and
shows (by the number inserted at the base of each ionising voltage peak) the
corresponding cylinder of the engine. Note that these are in the usual firing
order of a 6-cyhnder engine.

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Summary
When using the cathode-ray oscilloscope as a diagnostic aid, the previously

described tests must be carried out in a sequential manner. Ihe sequence is:
Primary Pattern
The pattern produced on the scope is compared with those supplied by the
manufacturer and a decision made on the operational condition of the primary
circuit.
Secondary Pattern
The scope pattern produced is once again compared to the manufacturers

recommendations and a decision is made on the functional ability of the
secondary components.
If this sequence is not adhered to, a false diagnosis may result. The
manufacturers presentation of the “correct’ and “faulty” trace patterns should be
closely followed until the operator is fully conversant with the machine.
Conduct a visual and a probe test in the ignition system
Heat generated on the terminal due to long term use can cause connector
damage.
1. Conduct visual check of the headlamps connector to the globe for signs
of burns, and wear
2. Switch the headlamps on
3. Connect the earth lead of a circuit tester to a suitable earth, such as the
car body, and with the probe check each of the connector terminals in
turn
4. Make sure not to damage connectors, fuse holders or wiring in the
process.
5. One of them is the earth. If there is only one other terminal, it is for the
main beam. If there are three terminals altogether, the connector is for
both main and dipped beam. Use the car's headlamp switch to check all
the terminals.
6. If any of the positive terminals do not work, check the wiring and the
snap connectors back along the wiring loom to the bulkhead. Clean all
the terminals before refitting

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Diagnostic Flow Chart

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Spark Plug Faults

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Ignition Lead Testing
▪ Visual check of ignition leads to ensure that they are not shorting out
onto the engine or engine components. Look for grey marks on the
surface of the lead that indicate arcing.
▪ Using a multimeter check the resistance of the ignition lead. Lead
resistance should be approximately 100 ohms per cm or 8000 ohms per
meter.
▪ Ensure leads clip onto the coil and sparkplug ends securely.
Conduct an electrical resistance check
1. Turn power to circuit OFF. If a circuit includes a capacitor, discharge the

capacitor before taking any resistance reading.
2. Turn dial to Ω (resistance, or ohms), which often shares a spot on the
dial with one or more other test/measurement modes (continuity,
capacitance or diode; see illustration below).
3. First insert the black test lead into the COM jack.
4. Then insert the red lead into the V Ω jack. When finished, remove the
leads in reverse order: red first, then black.
5. Connect test leads across the component being tested. Make sure that
contact between the test leads and circuit is good.
6. Read the measurement on the display.
Conduct voltage drop test of ignition system
a) With the voltmeter connected to battery, and key and engine off, record
a "base" voltage reading
b) If it is less than 12.4 volts, charge the battery and repeat the test.
c) If the voltage is greater than 12.6 volts, remove surface charge
d) To remove surface charge, turn on the headlights and blower motor for
one minute. Then turn off the devices and wait two minutes for the
voltage to stabilize.
e) Once you have a reading that is between 12.4 and 12.6 volts, start the
engine and bring it to normal operating temperature.
f) With the engine at 1,500 to 2,000 rpm, turn on all electrical loads. The
charging voltage should be at least 0.5 volt above base voltage reading.
If not, excessive resistance could be present.

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Steps to test the current flow
1. Turn off the power in the circuit being measured

2. Insert multimeter and connect in series according to the wiring diagram
and with the load in a circuit in order to measure current.
3. Turn the dial on the meter to the highest current range.
4. Turn on the power
5. If the range is too high switch to a lower range to get an accurate
reading.
6. Return the positive probe to the V socket when finished measuring
current

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Diagnose and Repair Ignition Systems

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Diagnose and Repair Ignition Systems

For the following units:

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LESSON ONE ................................................................................................... 5

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION (BREAKER POINT SYSTEM)......................... 5

Ignition System ........................................................................................ 6

LESSON TWO ................................................................................................. 35

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION (BREAKERLESS SYSTEMS) ....................... 35

Breakerless Ignition System ................................................................. 36

AURETR131 Student Workbook Version: 1.0 May 2021 Page 3 of 83

Ignition Advance Mechanisms.............................................................. 44

LESSON THREE ............................................................................................. 61

COMPONENT / SYSTEM REPAIR ................................................................. 61

Personal Safety ...................................................................................... 62

AURETR131 Student Workbook Version: 1.0 May 2021 Page 4 of 83

Principles of Operation (Breaker Point System)

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The function of the coil ignition system is to:

Figure 1. Angled Connecting Rod

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Overview of Component Purpose

High tension ignition cable - Secondary ignition cables carry high-voltage

Capacitor - provides for precise interruption of the primary current and

Centrifugal advance mechanism - automatically shifts the ignition timing

Vacuum advance mechanism - automatically shifts the ignition timing

AURETR131 Student Workbook Version: 1.0 May 2021 Page 7 of 83

7. Resistor-type spark plugs can be used in place of non-resistor plugs of

8. Extended-core spark plug, this design uses a center electrode and

Steps to remove and replace spark plugs

AURETR131 Student Workbook Version: 1.0 May 2021 Page 8 of 83

Kettering ignition system

Secondary Section of Kettering

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The Conventional Coil Ignition System

▪ Inductive ignition systems, which use an ignition coil to store the

▪ Capacitor discharge ignition systems, which use a relatively large

Capacitor discharge ignition system operation

1. A capacitor discharge ignition works by passing an electrical current over

Electromagnetic induction (EMI)

As a reminder of the principle of EMI (already described in each of the previous

AURETR131 Student Workbook Version: 1.0 May 2021 Page 10 of 83

• The number of conductors being cut by the magnetic field. This is

Faraday’s law and EMF

Coil, magnetic field strength, EMF, Magnetic environment, magnetic field,

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Construction of the Coil

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1. The shuttle-wound armature type magneto consisted of a large,

Primary and Secondary coils

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Ignition Coil Operation

Electromagnetic induction is the creation of a voltage in a conductor by means

AURETR131 Student Workbook Version: 1.0 May 2021 Page 14 of 83

To understand the operation of the ignition coil, it is necessary to have a

A further important detail must now be introduced.

A knowledge of this important facet is essential for an understanding of the