III - PHOTOVOLTAICS

Photo courtesy of SunPower Corporation

© 2010, Brunel University, Dr. Z. Dehouche 284

Chapter 3
Photovoltaic (PV) cells: Solar electricity
Learning Objectives
• Understand the creation of p-n
junctions in solar photovoltaic
cells
• Understand the formations of
PV modules and Panels and
measuring the power output at
the STC (Standard Test
Conditions)
• Understand the series and
parallel operations of PV
Source: www.solarcentury.com
modules
• Be able to carry out a preliminary design and sizing of
photovoltaic systems
285
PHOTOVOLTAICS
III.1- Photovoltaic Materials and
Electrical Characteristics
III.2- Photovoltaic Systems

PV system integration
286
III.1- Photovoltaic Materials and
Electrical Characteristics
Outline
• Overview of solar power
• How photovoltaic (PV) cells work
• Principle of p-n type semiconductor
junctions
• How solar PV cells are made
• Solar PV electric characteristics
• Solar PV system integration Image: Matra Marconi Space

Boat driven exclusively by solar energy

*PlanetSolar 2010 - First
solar boat expedition
around the globe
30-meter long catamaran
covered with 470 m2 of
photovoltaic solar panels.
http://www.pv-tech.org Source: www.planetsolar.org
287
III.1-1 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Energy
• Solar cells convert sunlight into a useable energy source (electricity)
• It’s the process that can power everything from household appliances, lights to
commercial building and power plants
• Solar PV is one of the fastest growing forms of renewable energy
• As manufacturing becomes more efficient, the cost of PV systems continues to
drop (Prices have reduced 25 fold over the last 20 years)

TOP 5 Cell Producers

Solar cell

Source: PHOTON International (March 2008/2007) 288

Photovoltaic Module Survey Retail Prices

• The Solar Photovoltaic modules are sold on a $/Wp (or €/Wp) basis (Wp
is the power in Watts for Peak sun hours)
• In November 2010, the retail prices for solar photovoltaic module were
for the Us index at 3.51 $/Wp (4.34 $/Wp in Nov. 2009) and the European index
at 3.19 €/Wp (4.24 €/Wp in Nov. 2009)
• Note: As a guide, the industry is looking to drive module prices down to
1.5-2 $/Wp over the next decade (DOE Photovoltaic Goal: $1 per Watt)
289
History Photovoltaic Energy
• Photovoltaic (PV) cells or solar cells, convert solar
radiation (photon energy) directly into electrical current
(DC power)
• The PV effect was first reported by Edmund Becquerel
(French physicist) in 1839. It remained in the laboratory
until 1954, when Bell Laboratories produced the first
silicon solar cell (which converted sunlight with an
efficiency of 6%)
1954: The Birth of Solar Photovoltaic cell

290
History Photovoltaic Energy
• Solar electricity has been a prime
source of power for space
programs for its high power
capacity per unit weight
• It has also been used to power
small electronics and rural and
agricultural applications for three
decades
• During the last decade, a strong solar
electric market has emerged for powering
urban grid-connected homes and buildings
as a result of
 advances in solar technology along
with government incentives and global
Photo: Sunlight glints off the Hubble’s
changes in electric industry solar array
restructuring
291
Photovoltaic (PV): Solar Electricity
• Direct conversion of sunlight to
electricity
Advantages
• Modular (mW to many MW). Wide range of
applications.
• Free and abundant resource
• No moving parts in PV cells
• Noise and exhaust free (carbon neutral energy)
• Reliable (>20 years); Low operating costs
• Allow the use of renewable electricity in rural and
remote areas
• Production of convenient DC current for battery
Disadvantages storage
• Doesn't produce power during night and cloudy • Plentiful supply of raw material (silicon)
days
• Reduce utility bills and stop the rise in energy
• Requires south facing for optimal output
• Low efficiency and large areas of PV are needed
prices
for high power output • Can be grid connected
• Very expensive to build solar power stations
• Need inverters for AC appliances use
• Some toxic materials are used in PV production
• Storage needed for remote applications
(batteries)
• PV has variations in energy output (daily and
seasonal)
• Shading dramatically reduces generation
292
Photovoltaic Energy System
• Solar electric systems consist of basically three main items:
 Modules that convert sunlight into electricity;
 Inverters that convert that electricity into alternating current for
household appliances;
 Batteries that store excess electricity produced by the system
The remainder of the system comprises equipment such as wiring,
circuit breakers, and support structures.

General schematic of a residential PV system with battery storage

293
Photovoltaic Energy System
Operation strategy of an electricity generation
system with energy storage to balance
consumption fluctuations

294
Photovoltaic (PV) Cell
• A PV cell is a solid-state electrical device that converts light directly into
electricity of voltage-current characteristics that are a function of the
characteristics of the light source, the materials and design of the device
• Solar photovoltaic devices are made of various semiconductor materials
including silicon (Si), cadmium sulfide (CdS), cadmium telluride (CdTe),
and gallium arsenide (GaAs) , and in single crystalline, multicrystalline, or
amorphous forms

Solar cell materials and solar radiation spectrum PV solar cell

295
Photon Energy & The Photovoltaic Effect
• Solar photovoltaic energy conversion is a one step process which
generates electrical energy from light energy
• Light is made up of packets of energy (electromagnetic waves), called
Photons, whose energy depend only upon the frequency ν and
wavelength λ of the radiation

* Frequency ν - The number of repetitions per unit time of the oscillations of an electromagnetic wave (Hz=1/S)
296
Photon Energy
• The energy (eV) of the Photons is given by (Planck’s Law):

C
E=h = hν ; C = λν
λ
Where, h is the Planck’s constant and C the speed of the
light. C=299,792,458 m/s in free space
• The most energetic photons are those of high frequency (ν
ν)
and short wavelength (λ
λ)

h = 6.62606885 × 10-34 J.s = 4.14 × 10-15 eV.s

Joule
Volt = 1 coulomb = 6.24 × 1018 electrons
Coulomb -19
Coulomb = Amp x s 1 eV = 1 .6 × 10 J
* eV - A unit of energy used to describe the total energy carried by a photon
297
Photon Energy
•All sun’s radiation energy
is emitted in a spectrum of
wavelengths ranging from
0.2 to 4 µm
• Each wavelength of solar
radiation corresponds to a
frequency and energy
• Within visible radiation
Properties of Light
red light is at low energy
and violet light is at high
• Photon energy (eV) for λ=0.2 µm
energy
m
• The entire spectrum of 3 ×108
C s
E = h = 4.14 ×10-15 eVs
sun light covers a range λ 0.2 ×10-6 m
from 0.3 eV to 6.2 eV E = 6.2eV
298
Photon Energy & the Photovoltaic Effect
• In a photovoltaic device, Photovoltaic Effect: Photon
the energy of photons In, Electron Out
liberates electrons, bound
into solid (semiconductor),
up to higher energy levels
• And drive the excited
electrons through external
circuit
• The semiconductor is the
material that readily
absorbs photons to
generate charge carriers
(free electrons or holes)
299
Photon Energy & the Photovoltaic Effect
• Light has the properties of a wave and a
particle
• A. Einstein described light as a
conglomeration of projectiles (photons)
• If the photons have sufficient energy and hit
a free electron in a suitable semiconductor, it
is set in motion. Electricity begins to flow
• When this property of light is combined with
the properties of semiconductors, electrons
flow in one direction across a junction,
setting up a voltage
• The electricity generated is removed from
the top surface of a solar cell with silver
contacts
• Several cells are connected via these
Cross section of a solar cell
contacts to form a module
300
Photon Energy
•The critical characteristics of the incident solar energy
interacting with a photovoltaic converter are:
The spectral content of the incident light;
The angle at which the incident solar radiation strikes a photovoltaic
module; and
The radiant power density from the sun throughout a year or day
Spectral distribution of solar radiation

Source: Kassel University

Monthly values of available

insolation in Wm-2 for the equator,
30, 60, and 90 North
301
UK Solar Resource
• Inclining the solar panels towards the sun will increase the level of light falling
on the surface and will therefore increase its power output
• The UK annual PV output is greatest for south-facing panels at a tilt of about 30
degrees from the horizontal UK solar irradiation:
Annual Total kWh/m2

Photovoltaic output in relation to orientation 302

Map showing average solar radiation
and tilt angle based in London, UK on a 30 incline facing due south 302
Photovoltaic Effect
• When light is absorbed by matter, photons
are given up to excite electrons to higher
energy states within the material, but the
excited electrons quickly relax back to their
bond state
• In photovoltaic device, however, there is
some built-in asymmetry which pulls the
excited electrons away before they can relax,
and feeds them to an external circuit
• The extra energy of the excited electrons
generates a potential difference, or
electromotive force (e.m.f) The photovoltaic effect & the p-n junction
source: http://www.rise.org.au

• This force drives the electrons through a load in the external circuit to
do electrical work
• The effectiveness of a photovoltaic device depends upon the choice of
light absorbing materials and way in which they are connected to the
external circuit
303
Photovoltaic Effect
• Photovoltaic converter are semiconductor materials
• The most common PV cells are made of crystalline silicon (Si)
wafers
• The bond structure of a semiconductor determines the energy
level of the bond (Band Gap) and the degree of freedom of
electrons in the crystal lattice

Crystalline silicon forms a 3-D tetrahedral structure

Schematic representations of covalent bonds in a silicon crystal lattice 304
Photovoltaic Effect
•Silicon (Group IVA) is the most commonly used semiconductor material for solar
cells fabrications. It is also the most mature technology
• Other type of semiconductor materials are shown in blue in the periodic table
below
• A semiconductor can be either of a single element, such as Si or Ge,
compounds, such as GaAs, InP or CdTe, or alloys, such as SixGe(1-x) or AlXGa(1-
x)As, where X is the fraction of the particular element and ranges from 0 to 1
• The valence bands in silicon and germanium solids are completely filled at 0 K (4
valence electrons in outer orbit). The valence energy level is called the Fermi level

Section from the periodic table

Shell structure: 2.8.4

305
Photovoltaic Effect
• Electrons in solids have bands of allowed energy levels
• Pauli exclusion principle says each allowed energy state can be
occupied by 2 electrons (spin up and spin down)
• At T=0K in a solid structure all available energy states are occupied up
to an energy level called the Fermi Level, EF
• In general, the probability that any given energy
level is occupied is given by the Fermi function:

1
f (E ) =
 E − EF 
1 + exp  
 kT 
Fermi level for semiconductor

Where, k = 1.38 x 10-23 joule/K= 8.61 x 10-5 eV/K , is the Boltzman’s constant
• At T 0K and E < EF then f(E) = 1 and the level is full
• If E > EF the exponential is infinite f(E) = 0 and the level is empty
• The Fermi energy is the energy at which the probability of a state being
filled is 1/2 306
Photovoltaic Effect
• The Semiconductors are characterized by
two similar electron energy band structures:
The valence band which is completely
filled with electrons and empty
conduction band
The two band are separated by an
narrow energy band gap (<2 eV)
• The number of electrons excited into the
conduction band depends on the energy band
gap width as well as temperature
• The elemental semiconductors, silicon (Si)
and germanium (Ge) have band gap energies
of approximately 1.1 and 0.7 eV, respectively.
Both are covalently bonded
• At absolute 0K temperature, silicon is a Semiconductor occupancy of
perfect insulator (no free electrons) electron states

• Semiconductors are Materials with intermediate electrical conductivity,

generally from 10-6 to 104 (Ω
Ω.m)-1
•The larger the band gap, the lower the electrical conductivity at a given
temperature
307
Photovoltaic Effect
• To become free, electrons must be promoted (excited) across the energy band
gap and into empty states at the bottom of the conduction band
• This is possible only by supplying to an electron the difference in energy
between these two states, which is equal to the band gap energy Eg
• The excitation energy is from a non-electrical source such as light or heat
• In semiconductor, after an electron excitation from the valence band into the
conduction band, both a free electron and a vacant electron state are generated

308
Photovoltaic Effect
• Only photons with a certain level of energy
(band-gap energy) are able to free electrons
in a PV cell from their atomic bonds to
produce an electric current
• The band-gap energy (Eg) of a
semiconductor is the minimum energy
required to dislodge an electron from its
covalent bond state to a free state where it
can be part of an electric circuit Solar cell materials and solar radiation spectrum

• Each semiconductor is restricted to converting only a part of the solar spectrum.

• The shaded area represents the photon flux that can be converted by a silicon
cell
The photons interact weakly with the
Photon Energy = hν  E g  semiconductor, passing through it or create
heat
The photons have just enough energy to
Photon Energy = h ν ≅ E g  create mobile electrons and are efficiently
absorbed
The photons are strongly absorbed and
Photon Energy = hν  E g  electrons from the outer shells of the
semiconductor atoms are freed. The extra
energy expend as heat
309
Photovoltaic Effect
• The movement of an electron to the conduction band leaves
behind an empty space in the valence band
• This empty space is commonly called a hole, and is similar to
an electron, but with a positive charge
• Both the electron and hole participate in electronic conduction
and are called carriers
• Incident light generates mobile charge carriers (electron-hole
pairs) and only absorbed photons generate electricity
•A solar cell is a device that transforms this electron traffic
across the band-gap into electric current
• Band-gaps of different PV materials:
The generation of
1.Photon energy electron-hole pairs
by light
2.Silicon  absorbs  1.1eV
3.Ga − As  absorbs  1.43eV
4. Al − Ga − As  absorbs  1.7eV
5.  1.1eV
6.  1.43eV
7.  1.7eV
* Effective PV semiconductors have band-gap energies from 1.0 to 1.6 (eV), this level of energy is good for
freeing electrons without causing extra heat
310
Spectral (Intrinsic) efficiency
• For silicon semiconductor, the cut-
off wavelength (minimum energy
level of photons) is 1.129 µm (1.1 eV)
•Radiation at higher wavelengths
does not produce electron-hole pairs
but heats the cell
• The spectral (Intrinsic) efficiency of
silicon solar cell (28.22%) is
calculated from:

1.129 µm
ηs = = 28%
4 µm Photon absorption coefficients of
various semiconductors

Band Gap Energies and Cut-off wavelength above which electron excitation
doesn’t occur

311
Photovoltaic Effect
• To get maximum efficiency when converting solar
power into electricity, we want a solar panel that can
absorb nearly every single photon of light
• Multijunction Cells are developed for better
utilisation of solar spectrum
• The higher band gap must see the light first and the
voltages of the cells add

312
Measured Efficiency vs Time for Various Technologies
• Multijunction: 37.3% efficiency record set by Boeing-Spectrolab in 2004
•New World Record in 2009: 41.1% efficiency reached for multi-junction solar cells
at Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems made out of GaInP/GaInAs/ Ge

UNSW: University of New South Wales 313

Solar Cell Structure
• Immediately after their creation, the electron and hole decay to states
near the edges of their respective bands (electron recombines with hole)
•The excess energy is lost as heat and cannot be converted into useful
power
• The recombination process can be reduced by building into the cells a
potential barrier or junction which pulls the excited electrons away before
they can recombine with holes, and feeds them to an external circuit

The generation of
Crystalline silicon solar cell design electron-hole pairs
by light
314
Solar Cell Structure
• Thisjunction is created by doping the silicon (chemical vapor
deposition method):
 On one side of the junction with thin film of Boron (three valence electrons,
supplied in B2H6) to form P-silicon (positively charged), which has a
deficiency of electrons (abundance of holes)
 On the other side with phosphorus to form n-silicon (negatively charged,
supplied in PH3), which has an excess of electrons (five valence electrons)
P-type semiconduction (one valence n-type semiconduction (one extra
electron deficiency) bonding electron)

315
Solar Cell Structure
• The PV cell are made by sandwiching together the two silicon
layers to create a p-n junction at their interface and an built-in
electric field (enables the spliting of charges - drift current):
Excess electrons in n-layer (donor) created by absorption of
photons, flow through the external circuit to the p-layer (acceptor)
Excess holes created during the flow process to n-layer

• The built-in electric field provides the force, or voltage, needed to

drive the current through an external load (light bulb)

(drift current)

Conventional p-n junction photovoltaic

PV cell Semiconductor Layers (solar) cell 316
 The structure of a typical
Solar Cell Structure crystalline silicon solar cell
• The electrical current
generated in the
semiconductor is extracted
by top contacts (fingers),
to the front and rear of the
cell
•The fingers supply current
to a larger bus bar
•The cell is covered with a thin layer of dielectric
(non-conducting) material: the antireflection
coating (silicon nitride), to minimise light reflection
from the top surface
• Surface texturing techniques for high light-
trapping
 The nanoengineered coating developed by RPI
boosts the amount of sunlight captured by solar
panels (prevent reflections) and allows those
panels to absorb the entire spectrum of sunlight
from any angle, regardless of the sun's position in
the sky RPI = Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
317
Photovoltaic Cell Structure
•The presence of electric field in
the junction pulls the excited
electrons and holes in opposite
directions
• The potential barrier of a
junction permits the flow of
electric current in only one
direction
Operation of a Photovoltaic Cell
• The junction acts as a rectifier,
or diode
• Electrons flow from the n-side
contact, through the load, and
back to the p-side where they
recombine with holes
• Conventional current I is in the
opposite direction
318
Solar cell materials - Production
• The most important material for solar
cells production is silicon
• In nature it can be easily found in large
quantities as Silicon oxide

Silicon dioxide
(SiO2)

319
Solar cell materials - Production
• Pure silicon is produced from silica by reduction (using carbon
electrodes) in specially designed furnaces at 1800C:

SiO2 + C → Si + CO2
•The produced material contains 98-99% of pure silicon. The SiHCl3 gas is
synthesized by chlorination of granular silicon in special reactor

From Quartzite rock and coal to silicon metal 320

Solar cell materials - Production
•The purified SiHCl3 gas is then reduced in hydrogen atmosphere at
950C:
4SiHCl3 + H 2 → 2Si + SiCl4 + SiCl2 + 6 HCl

From Hyper-pure SiHCl3 to solar-grade silicon (Siemens)

321
Solar cell materials - Production
• Mono-crystalline silicon of defined orientation is produced via the melt, spinning
and pulling: Czochralski method (crystal growth rate between 1 µm/s to 1 mm/s)
• Poly-crystalline silicon can be extracted from silicon by heating it up to 1500C
and then cooling it down to 1412C, which is just above solidification of the
material

From solar silicon feedstock to silicon wafers 322

Solar cell materials - production
• The silicon ingot sawn with diamond saw into thin silicon
wafers of 300 µm in thickness, is a foundation for solar cell
production

Ultrathin Crystalline
Silicon Wafer Solar Cells

Silicon ingots

Silicon Bricks

From silicon crystals to solar cell modules 323

PV cells A PV solar cell
• Solar cells are the basic elements of solar
modules (panels) that convert around 15% of the
solar energy they receive into electricity
• A typical modern solar cell is a thin slice of
squared monocrystalline or polycrystalline silicon
wafer of around 100 cm2 in area
• 80% of all modules are fabricated using
crystalline silicon cells (single and poly-
crystalline) and 20% are based on amorphous
silicon thin film cells

Amorphous silicon thin film cells

324
 PV cells
• When charged by sun, this basic unit
generates a DC photo-voltage of 0.5 to 1 volt
and, a photo-current of 10 mA/cm2 (which is
directly proportional to cell's surface area) at
25 C and AM1.5 illumination
• In UK, 1 m2 of monocrystalline or
polycrystalline array can supply 100 watts
and generate 90 to 110 kWh per year
(CIBSE), depends on the amount of sunlight
received

• 1 m2 of amorphous thin-film array

will provide a useful output of 30-70
kWh/year.
• A system with a PV array tilted
towards the south will generate
approximately 750 kWh/year per kWp
(peak) installed, or approximately 100
kWh/m2 per year
325
PV Systems
• To produce useful DC voltage, the cells are connected together in series and
encapsulated into modules
•A module typically contains 28 to 36 cells in series, to generate a DC output
voltage of 12 V in standard radiation conditions
• The 12 V modules can be used singly, or connected in parallel and series into an
array with a large current and voltage output, according to the power demanded
by the application.
• For building products, modules may be designed for 24 V or 48 V output, with 72
or 144 cells in series

326
PV Systems
• Arrays can supply up to several
MW electrical power
•The DC supply from the solar cell
needs to be converted to AC for
residential and commercial uses.
• A 20 to 30 m2 array, can provide
enough power for an entire
household in Southern Europe
Solar power system in Berlin’s government
district

327
Price curve of crystalline Si modules
• The manufacturing costs of a crystalline silicon PV module
are about 2 €/Wp
• For large-scale introduction of solar electricity generation it
is needed to reduce these costs to 1€/Wp, and on the long
term even to below 0.5 €/Wp

328
Outline
• Shockley I-V diode equation (dark and illuminated
PV cell)
• Equivalent circuit for PV cell
• I-V and Power curves
 Isc, Voc , Pmax , Imp , Vmp
• Fill factor (FF)
• Efficiency of PV cell
Nominal efficiency
• Impact of Insolation and Temperature on PV cell
electrical characteristics
• Examples
329
III.1-2 PV Electric Characteristics – The p-n Junction Diode
• The voltage-current characteristic curve for the p-n junction
diode (dark) is described by the following Shockley diode
equation:
  qVd  
I d = I 0 exp  − 1
  nkT  
Where, I0 (A) is the reverse (dark) saturation current (the leakage
current in the absence of light)

Diode I-V characteristic curve p-n junction diode 330

And Id is the diode current (A), Vd is the voltage
across the diode terminals from the p-side to the
n-side (V), q is the electron charge (1.602x10-19
C), k is Boltzmann’s constant (1.381x10-23 J/K),T
the junction temperature (K), and n the ideality
factor (n=1, for an ideal diode)

At junction temperature of 298 K, the thermal

voltage, VT is:
kT
VT = = 25.7 mV
q

331
PV Electric Characteristics – The p-n Junction Diode
• When the light hits the solar cell, the energy of the photons
generates free charge carriers (hole-electron pairs)
• An illuminated photovoltaic cell consists of a diode in parallel
with a power source
•The power source produces the photo-electric current (IL), which
is proportional to the irradiance
•The light has the effect of shifting the I-V curve down where
power can be extracted from the diode

Solar cell under constant irradiance

The effect of light on the I-V characteristic of a p-n junction 332

PV Electric Characteristics – The p-n Junction Diode
•A simple equivalent circuit for PV cell consists of a current source driven
by sunlight in parallel with a real diode

• At a fixed temperature and solar radiation, the net current produced by

the PV cell circuit is given by:
  qV  
I = I L − I d = I L − I 0 exp  − 1 ( A)
  nkT  
•The power output of the PV cell is the product of the voltage and the
current outputs, and is given by:
P = I .V (W ) 333
PV Electric Characteristics
•Two important parameters for photovoltaics are the short-circuit
current Isc and the open-circuit voltage Voc
•The current axis (V=0) is the short-circuit current Isc= IL . And the
intersection with the voltage axis (I=0) is the open circuit voltage Voc

Current-voltage (I-V) curves for dark (no sunlight) and an illuminated cell. The dark curve is
the diode curve turned upside-down. The light curve is the dark curve plus ISC
334
PV Electric Characteristics
The current-voltage equation for the equivalent circuit of the
PV cell can be re-written as
  qV  
I = I SC − I d = I SC − I 0 exp  − 1 ( A)
  nkT  
The open-circuit voltage, Voc, is the maximum voltage from a
solar cell (it occurs when the leads from the PV cell are left
open, I=0), and is found by setting the net current equal to
zero in the solar cell equation to give:

nkT  I SC 
Voc = ln  + 1 (V )
q  I0 
• The equation shows that Voc depends on the saturation
current of the solar cell and the short-circuit current 335
PV Electric Characteristics
At PV cell temperature of 298 K, the current-voltage equation
become

I = I SC − I 0 {exp(38.9V ) − 1}
And the open-circuit voltage

 I SC 
Voc = 0.0257 ln  + 1
 I0 
The short-circuit current ISC is directly proportional to solar
insolation
336
Example 1- The I-V curve for a photovoltaic cell
Consider a 100-cm2 photovoltaic cell with reverse
saturation current I0=10-12 A/cm2. In full sun, it
produces a short-circuit current of 40 mA/cm2 at
25˚C. Find the open-circuit voltage at full sun and
again for 50% sunlight. Plot the results.
Solution
The reverse saturation current I0 is 10-12 A/cm2 x 100
cm2 = 10-10 A. At a full sun ISC is 0.04 A/cm2 x 100 cm2
= 4.0 A. The open circuit voltage is

 I SC   4.0 
Voc = 0.0257 ln  + 1 = 0.0257 ln  −10 + 1 = 0.627 V
 I0  10 

337
Since short-circuit current ISC is proportional to solar
intensity, at half sun ISC = 2 A and the open circuit voltage is

 2.0 
Voc = 0.0257 ln  −10 + 1 = 0.610 V
10 
Plotting the current-voltage equation gives us the following:

338
PV Electric Characteristics
• The cell generates no power in short-circuit (when current Isc is
produced) or open-circuit (when cell generates voltage Voc)
• The cell delivers maximum power Pmax when operating at a
point on the characteristic where the product I-V is maximum
(Imp, Vmp)
•The maximum power Pmax is given in units of Watt peak (Wp)

The I-V curve and power output of a PV modules 339

PV Electric Characteristics
• To compare different cells or PV modules, uniform testing conditions are
specified for determining the electrical characteristics of solar cells.
•The standard test conditions (STC) according to the International Electro-
technical commission (IEC) procedures are:
Irradiance (Insolation) G= 1000 W/m2
PV Cell temperature =25°°C with a tolerance of ±0.2°°C
Defined light spectrum with an air mass AM=1.5

Isc= short circuit current = 3.36A

Voc= open circuit voltage = 0.6V
Pmax=maximum power point = 1.5Wp
Imp= 3A, the current at Pmax
Vmp= 0.5V, the voltage at Pmax
Source: Sandia National Laboratories

*Insolation=incident solar radiation

The I-V curve for a typical crystal silicon cell under STC 340
PV Electric Characteristics: Q-Cells

Source: Leah Lucien L3-Dissertation (2010)

341
PV Electric Characteristics: Q-Cells

Source: Leah Lucien L3-Dissertation (2010)

342
PV Electric Characteristics
•The Fill factor (FF) describes the quality of solar cells
• It is defined as the ratio of the maximum power from the
solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc, given by:

Pmax I mpVmp FF=0.75

FF = =
I SCVoc I SCVoc
FF=0.45

• For crystalline solar cells,

the fill factor is around 0.70-
0.75, and for amorphous-Si
solar cell around 0.45-0.60
• Cell 1 has higher power The I-V curves of two cells with
output and maximum power different fill factors
point than cell 2.
343
PV Electric Characteristics
• Graphically, the Fill Factor can be visualized as Area B
the ratio of the area (B) at MPP to the area (A)
formed by a rectangle with sides VOC and ISC
FF =
Area A

344
PV Electric Characteristics
• The maximum power point from a solar cell is found for
V=Vmp, by solving:

∂P ∂ (IV )  ∂I 
= = I + V  = 0
  mp
V =V mp V =V mp V = V
∂V ∂V ∂V
• M. Green (1982) give the following empirical expression for
the Fill Factor :
kT  VOC 
VOC − ln q + 0.72
q  kT 
FF =
kT
VOC +
q
* M. Green, Solar cells: operating principles, Technology, and System Applications, Chap.5 , Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 85-102 (1982)
345
PV Electric Characteristics
•Another useful parameter in solar cell analysis is the Characteristic
Resistance (RCH)
• The characteristic resistance of a solar cell is the output resistance of
the solar cell at its maximum power point
• If RLoad = RCH, then the maximum power is transferred to the load and
the solar cell operates at its maximum power point, RCH is given by:

VMP VOC
RCH = =
I MP I SC

The short-circuit current

can alternately be given by:

1
I SC = VOC
RCH
346
Efficiency of Solar Cells and PV Modules
• The efficiency (η
η) is the ratio of the power delivered
by the solar cell to the power of incident solar
radiation (or the fraction of incident power which is
converted to electricity)
• It is calculated from the maximum power Pmax(Wp),
the solar irradiance G(W/m2) and the surface area
A(m2) of the solar cell:

Pmax FF .VOC I SC
η= =
A.G A.G
347
Efficiency of Solar Cells and PV Modules
• InPV modules, the efficiency is always specified under
standard test condition (STC):

η n = η STC
• This
yields the nominal efficiency of the solar cells and
modules: Pmax ( STC )
ηn =
W
A.1000 2
m
• Theefficiency η of the solar cells is dependent on irradiance
and temperature
•The efficiency η at a particular irradiance or temperature is
the result of the nominal Efficiency minus the change in
efficiency:
η = η n − ∆η 348
Impact of Insolation and Temperature on I-V Curves
• The electrical performance and the characteristic curves of the
PV modules are dependent on temperatures and irradiance
Irradiance (Insolation) Effect:
• The irradiance changes most frequently during the course of a
day
• With the irradiance factor S, the change in efficiency with
irradiances deviating from STC can be calculated:
G
S=
W
1000 2
m
The approximate change in efficiency with constant temperature
for crystalline silicon solar cells is given by :

∆η ≈ −0.04η n ln (S ) 349
Irradiance Effect on the Short-Circuit Current, Isc
• The changes in
irradiance affect the
module current the most
as this current is directly
proportional to the
irradiance G (W/m2):

 W 
I SC (G ) ≅ S .I SC 1000 2 
 m 

• Power output and Current-voltage characteristic curves

current increases as under various irradiance levels for a
crystalline silicon solar cell at 25°C
insolation increases.

• Voltage change is negligible with increase in insolation

350
Temperature Effect on the Open-Circuit Voltage, VOC
• The change in efficiency with constant irradiance (temperature
coefficient) for PV solar cells is calculated by:

(
∆η ≈ − β p 25 C − TC η n o
)
Where βp is the temperature coefficient for the cell efficiency and TC is the
cell temperature, which is dependent on the irradiance, ambient
temperature and solar cell material. For crystalline silicon βp=0.45 [%/C]

∆η ≈ −0.0045 25 C − TC η n ( o
)

PV Module Characteristics for Standard Technologies

351
Temperature Effect on the Open-Circuit Voltage, VOC
• The open-circuit Irradiance: 1kW/m2 - AM1.5

voltage decreases with

an increase in
temperature
• While the short-
circuit current
increases only slightly
Current-voltage characteristic
• Moreover, the curves under various cell
efficiency of crystalline temperatures for a crystalline
silicon solar cell
solar cells falls with
increasing temperature
352
Temperature Effect on the Open-Circuit Voltage, VOC
• For crystalline silicon, the reduction in the open-circuit
voltage for an individual module consisting of nc cells
connected in series is given by:

dVOC VOC (TC ) − VOC (25°C )  mV 

≈ = −2.3nC  
dT TC − 25°C  °C 

Thus

VOC (TC ) = VOC (25°C ) − 2.3nC (TC − 25°C ) (mV )

• For crystalline silicon cells, VOC drops by about 0.37%/°C, ISC

increases by approximately 0.05%/°C and the maximum
power available decreases by about 0.5%/°C 353
Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)
• The cells in an illuminated module operate hotter than
ambient temperature
• NOCT is an indicator of this temperature differential, and is
the cell temperature under Standard Operating Conditions:
Ambient temperature of 20°C
Solar Irradiance of 800 W/m2
Wind speed of 1 m/s
• To account for other ambient conditions, the following
expression may be used to evaluate the cell temperature:

 NOCT − 20° 
TC = Tamb +  G (°C )
 800 
• And G is the insolation in W/m2. Module temperature will be
lower when wind velocity is high 354
Example 2- Impact of cell temperature on power for a
PV module
Estimate cell temperature, open-circuit voltage, and
maximum power output for 150-W BP2150S module
under conditions of 1 kW/m2 insolation and ambient
temperature 30˚C (see table 3.1 for electrical
specification of the module). The module has a NOCT of
47˚C
Solution
With G= 1 kW/m2, the cell temperature is estimated to be

 NOCT − 20°   47 − 20° 

TC = Tamb +  G = 30 +  1000 = 64°C
 800   800 
From Table 3.1, for this module at standard temperature
of 25˚C, VOC=42.8 and the number of cells nc=72 .
355
356
357
 VOC (TC ) = VOC (25°C ) − 2.3nC (TC − 25°C )
VOC (64°C ) = 42.8 − 2.3x10 −3 x 72(64 − 25) = 36.3 V

The maximum power point is determined using the

simplifying assumption that the Fill Factor is
independent of the temperature and irradiance:
Pmax 150
FF = = = 0.74
I SCVoc (4.75 X 42.8)

Pmax (G, TC ) = I SCVOC FF = 4.75 X 36.3 X 0.74 = 127.6 W

Thus, noting the manufacturer’s value of Pmax we see that the
module will operate at 85% of its nominal rating
358
•Since VOC drops by 0.37%/˚C, the new VOC can be
alternatively calculated as follow:

VOC (TC ) − VOC (25°C )

= −0.37%(TC − 25°C )
VOC (25°C )
VOC (TC ) = VOC (25°C )[1 − 0.0037(TC − 25°C )]
VOC (64°C ) = 42.8[1 − 0.0037(64 − 25)] = 36.6 V
With maximum power expected to drop about 0.5%/˚C, this
150-W module at its maximum power will deliver
Pmax (TC ) = Pmax (25°C )[1 − 0.005(TC − 25°C )]
Pmax (64°C ) = 150 W [1 − 0.005(64 − 25)] = 120.75 W
Which is a rather significant drop of 19.5% from its rated
power
359
360
Example 3
The following properties describe a PV module at
standard conditions (solar radiation of 1000 W/m2
and cell temperature of 25°°C); Voc=15 V, Isc=1.2 A,
Imp=1.0 A, Vmp=12.5 V. The module operate at a solar
radiation level of 750 W/m2 and a cell temperature of
15°°C
A- What will be the maximum power delivered to a
resistive load of RL=13.48Ω
Ω?
The resistive load was chosen to correspond to the
maximum power output.

361
Solution:
A- The maximum power point is determined using the
simplifying assumption that the Fill Factor is independent of
the temperature and irradiance:

I mpVmp 1X 12.5
FF = = = 0.694
I SCVoc 1.2 X 15
And,

Pmax (G, TC ) = I SCVOC FF

362
1. Short-circuit current

 W   W 
I SC  750 2  ≅ S .I SC 1000 2 
 m   m 

The irradiance factor S is given by:

W
750 2
G m = 0.75
S= =
W W
1000 2 1000 2
m m
I SC (G ) = 0.75 X 1.2 = 0.9 A
2. Open-Circuit voltage

VOC (G ) = I SC RCH
363
At the maximum power output, the resistance of the load is
equal to the characteristic resistance of the solar cell, thus:

VOC (G ) = 0.9 X 13.48 = 12.13 V

Thus, The maximum power is

Pmax (G , TC ) = I SCVOC FF = 0.9 X 12.13 X 0.694 = 7.6 W

Thus, the module will operate at 60.8% of its nominal rating

364
Example 4
A typically PV module with 36 cells in series and an
area of 0.633 m2 has the following measured
characteristics at standard conditions: Isc=4.5 A,
Voc=21.4 V, Imp=3.95 A and Vmp=16.5 V. Estimate the
maximum power efficiency at a cell temperature of
67°°C and an incident radiation of 648.3 W/m2 on
June 1st at latitude 39.2°°
Solution:
The maximum power output at the operating
condition (incident radiation 648.3 W/m2 and a cell
temperature of 67.2°°C) is found from the equation of
the efficiency:

365
 Pmax FF .VOC I SC
η= =
A.G A.G
The maximum power output is then:

Pmax = η . A.G
•The efficiency η at the operating temperature is
given by:

η = η n − ∆η = [1 + 0.0045(25°C − TC )]η n
•The nominal efficiency ηn of the solar module is
calculated from: 366
 Pmax ( STC ) I mpVmp 3.95 X 16.5
ηn = = = = 0.103
W W
A.1000 2 A.1000 2 0.633 X 1000
m m
The efficiency η is then:
η = [1 + 0.0045(25°C − 67.2°C )]0.103 = 0.0834 or 8.34%

The maximum power output is then:

Pmax = η . A.G = 0.0834 X 0.633 X 648.3 = 34.2W

Thus, the module will operate at 52.4% of its nominal rating

367
PV Electric Characteristics
• In the solar cells, a voltage drop occurs as the charge carriers
migrate from the semiconductor to the electrical contact: This is
described by the series resistance Rs
• In addition the leakage currents arise (shading impact), which are
described by the parallel shunt resistance RSH
• The simple equivalent circuit of a string of cells in series suggest
no current can flow to the load if any cell is in dark
••A more accurate equivalent circuit for a PV cell includes both
parallel and series resistances

Generalized PV equivalent circuit

A string of cells in series 368
PV Electric Characteristics
• The current-voltage characteristics of this model is given
by:   
  (V + IR )   (V + IR )
I = I SC − I d − I SH = I SC − I 0 exp  S
− 1  − S

  nkT  RSH
  q  
• Series and parallel
resistance in the PV I SC
1
equivalent circuit slope =
RSH

decrease both
voltage and current
delivered For aacell
For cellto to have
have losses
losses of less
than 1% than
of less : 1% :
• To improve cell 100VOCOC 00.01 VV
RRSHSH>> 100V and S S<<
and RR
.01 OCOC
performance, high I SC
I SC I SC
I SC
RSH and low RS are VOC

needed
369
PV Electric Characteristics
• At PV cell temperature of 298 K, the current-voltage
equation become

I = I SC − I 0 {exp[38.9(V + IRS )] − 1}− (V + IRS )

RSH
• The equation above has no explicit solution for either voltage V or
Current I
• The solution approach is based on incrementing values of diode voltage
Vd in the spreadsheet
• Using the sign convention
show in figure below and
applying Kirchhoff’s current
law to the node above the
diode, we can write:

I = I SC − I d − I SH
Generalized PV equivalent circuit 370
Rearranging and substituting the Shockley diode equation at
298 K gives:

Vd
I = I SC − I 0 {exp[38.9Vd ] − 1}−
RSH
Voltage cross an individual cell can then be found from

V = Vd − IRS

371