BM Study Guide HL

BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Introduction to business and management 1
1.1 Introduction to business and

management
1.1.1 The role of a business in combining

resources
The role of business is to combine human, physical and financial resources to create
goods and services.
Inputs Processes Outputs

Resources that a
Turning the inputs
business uses in the The output or
into manufactured
production process provision of final
goods or the
(i.e. labour and goods and services
provision of services
raw materials)
1.1.2 Functions of a business
Human resources
• Manages personnel of the organisation.
• Deals with: workforce planning, recruitment, training, appraisal, dismissals and
redundancies, and outsourcing human resource strategies.
Finance and accounts
• Manages the organisation’s money.
• Deals with: reporting and recording financial records, abiding by legal
requirements (e.g., tax), produces final accounts.
Marketing
• Identifies and satisfies the needs and wants of customers.
• In charge of ensuring that a firm’s products sell.
• Deals with: market research, test marketing, advertising and branding.
Operations (management)
• Converts raw materials and components into finished goods.
• For a service this can be the process of giving that service.
1.1.3 Business sectors
Primary sector
• The extraction, harvesting, and conversion of natural resources.
• Most prevalent in LEDCs. Primary sectors in MEDCs use more automated
methods.
• The primary sector has little added value.
9
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Introduction to business and management
• Examples: coal mining, vegetable harvesting.

Secondary sector
• Manufacturing or construction of products by transforming the raw materials
produced in the primary sector.
• Economically developing countries tend to dominate this sector.
• Examples: clothing production, car manufacturing.
Tertiary sector
• Provides services to the general population.
• Tend to be dominant in MEDCs.
• Examples: haircuts, taxi service.
Quaternary sector
• A subcategory of the tertiary sector.
• Involved in intellectual, knowledge based activities that generate and share
information.
• Requires a highly educated workforce, and therefore is most prominent in
MEDCs.
• Example: law firms, training and development firms.
Primary Secondary sector Tertiary sector

sector
manufacture transport advertising
extraction assembly warehousing selling
10
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Introduction to business and management 1
1.1.4 Sectoral change
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quarternary
A shift in the relative share of national output and employment that is attributed to each
business sector over time.
As countries become more developed, they move towards secondary sectors, and
eventually tertiary and quaternary sectors.
Primary sector production yields low added value, in order to develop economically, a
shift in business activity must occur to ave higher added value.
Reasons for sectoral change
Higher household income: higher demand for services as people have available money
to spend on ‘wants’.
More leisure time: with higher standards of living, people have more time/money to
do recreational activities.
Greater focus on customer service: firms realise the importance of customer service.
Increasing reliance on support services: businesses use more sophisticated services
such as subcontractors and specialists to help the business grow.
1.1.5 Entrepreneurship vs. intrapreneurship
Entrepreneur an individual who plans, organises and manages a business,

taking on financial risks in doing so.
Intrapreneur the act of being an entrepreneur but as an employee within a

large organisation.
Entrepreneur Intrapreneur
• Owners/operators. • Employees of the organisation.

• Takes substantial risks. • Takes medium- high risks.
• Rewarded with profit. • Rewarded with pay.
• Failure incurs personal costs. • Failure absorbed by the organisation.
• Visionary. • Innovative.
• Responsibility for the workforce. • Accountable to the owner.
11
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Introduction to business and management
1.1.6 Reasons for starting up a business
• Growth.
• Earnings.
• Transfer and inheritance: used for something that they can pass on (transference) to
their children (inheritance) to give them a sense of security.
• Challenge: drive to have personal satisfaction, being successful boosts self-esteem.
• Autonomy: being your own boss, making decisions about the business, work hours,
holidays etc.
• Security: if you are your own boss, you cannot be made redundant, dismissed, or be
replaced with technology.
• Hobbies: just for fun, or because you are passionate about something.
1.1.7 Steps in the process of starting up a

business
1. Write a business plan.

2. Obtain startup capital.
3. Obtain business registration.
4. Open a bank account.
5. Marketing.
1.1.8 Factors to consider when starting up a

business
• Business idea.
• Sources of finance.
• Human resources: who will you hire, will they need training, etc.
• Enterprise: who will lead, organise and manage the business.
• Fixed assets: land and machinery needed.
• Suppliers.
• Customers.
• Marketing.
• Legal issues: do you have all of the patents, legislations, and documentation needed.
1.1.9 Problems that a new business might face
• Lack of finance.
• Cash flow problems.
• Marketing problems.
• Poor location.
• External influences: competition in the area, economic recession.
12
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Types of organisations 1
• Unestablished customer base.

• People management problems: poor choice of employees or leadership.
• Legalities.
• Production problems.
• High production costs.
1.1.10 Elements of a business plan
• Details of the business and the owners.

• Information about the product.
• A preview of the market.
• Finance.
• Personnel and the workforce.
• Marketing of the firm/product.
1.2 Types of organisations
1.2.1 Public vs. private sectors
Private Public
• Owned and controlled by private • Owned by the government.

individuals. • Provide essential goods and services
• Can be owned by one person or by that would be otherwise inefficiently
many. provided by the private sector.
• Aim is to make profit. • Organisations wholly owned by the
• E.g., H&M and Walmart. government are state owned
enterprises.
• E.g., electricity and water companies.
Businesses
Private sector Public sector
Unincorporated Incorporated
businesses businesses
Sole traders Private limited companies (Ltd.)

Partnerships Public limited companies (PLC)
13
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Types of organisations
1.2.2 For profit (commercial) organisations
Types of for-profit organisations
Unincorporated businesses businesses where there is no legal distinction

between the owner of the business and the business itself–everything is
carried out in the name of the owners.
E.g., sole traders and partnerships.
Incorporated businesses businesses that have a separate legal entity from

their owners.
E.g., private limited companies and public limited companies.
• Unincorporated.
• Individual who owns a personal business.
• Responsible for success or failure.
• May work alone or employ others.
• Startup capital usually includes personal savings and borrowing.
Sole trader an individual who runs and owns his own business.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Fewer legal formalities. • Unlimited liability (unincorporated).

• Profit goes directly to one owner • Limited sources of finance (hard to
(direct). obtain bank loans).
• Autonomy. • High risk.
• Personalised service. • Workload and stress.
• Privacy of financial accounts. • Limited economies of scale.
• Setup costs are inexpensive and • Lack of continuity.
time-saving.
14
Partnerships a profit-seeking business owned by multiple people (at least

two).
• Unincorporated.
• Ordinary partnerships have a maximum of 2–20 people.
• Money can be pooled from partners’ personal funds which have financial stake but
don’t actually make decisions (silent partners).
• At least one partner must have unlimited liability.
• Set up costs are inexpensive and quick. • Unlimited Liability (unincorporated).

• Financial strength (more partners • Prolonged decision making.
means more personal funds). • Lack of harmony.
• Specialisation and division of labour • Profits must be shared among multiple
due to multiple partners. partners.
• Financial privacy (no need to publish
accounts).
Private Limited Company (Ltd.) a company that cannot raise share capital
from the general public. The shares are sold to private family members
and friends.
E.g., IKEA, Lego, Rolex, Chanel, etc.
• Limited liability. • Profits have to be shared among much

• No limit on the number of owners. larger number of members.
• Shares can only be sold privately. • Setting up business takes time and it’s
• Better decision making. costly.
• Easier to raise additional funds. • Company’s financial accounts are
public.
• No member has full control of the
company.
• Firms are not allowed to sell their
shares to the public.
15
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Types of organisations
Public Limited Company (PLC) Often big, multinational companies

boasting large numbers of employees that are able to advertise and sell
its shares to the general public via the stock exchange.
E.g., China mobile, HSBC, Samsung, Nike, etc.
Flotation occurs when a business first sells all or part of its business to
external investors (shareholders). This process is known as an initial
public offering (IPO).
• Shares can be sold to the public. • Takes time due to bureaucratic nature
• Efficient sources of finance are more of big companies.
available (bank loans). • Communication issues due to size.
• Limited Liability. • Final accounts are public.
• Possibility of market dominance. • Less able to offer personal services to
• Economies of scale. customers.
• Tax benefits. • Compliance costs.
• Loss of control.
1.2.3 For-profit (social) enterprises
Social Enterprise revenue generating businesses with social objectives at the

centre of business operations. These run according to business
principles but do not aim at making profit. Their surpluses from
trading may be shared with employees and customers, passed on to a
third party, used to buy resources, raise finance, employ staff etc.
Cooperatives businesses owned and run by their members, including

employees and customers. The common goal is to create value for the
members by engaging in socially responsible business activities.
• All employees have a vote.
• Profits earned are shared between members.
• More incentive to work. • Disincentive effects.

• Employees have decision making • Limited sources of finance.
power. • Slower decision making.
• Social benefits (CSR). • Limited promotional opportunities.
• Public support.
16
Microfinance providers a financial service aimed at financing disadvantaged

members of society and helping to stop the poverty cycle.
E.g., small businesses, women, minority groups.
• Disadvantaged people have access to • Immorality (micro-finance providers

this. benefit from the poor/unemployed).
• Job creation. • Limited finance.
• Social well-being incentives. • Limited eligibility (not everyone
qualifies).
Public-private partnerships when the government works together with the

private sector to jointly provide certain goods or services.
1.2.4 Non-profit social enterprises
Non-profit social enterprises businesses run in a commercial manner but

without profit being the main goal. These companies use surplus
revenues to achieve social goals.
Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) non-profit social enterprise

that operates in the private sector, (i.e., it is not owned or controlled by
the government). Set up to benefit society.
E.g., UNICEF.
Charities provides voluntary support for good causes (from society’s point
of view), such as the protection of children, animals and the natural
environment. Reliant on donors, endorsements, promotion etc.
E.g., WWF.
• Social benefits. • Bureaucracy.

• Tax exemptions. • Disincentive effects.
• Tax incentives for donors. • Charity fraud.
• Limited liability. • Inefficiencies.
• Public recognition and trust. • Limited sources of finance.
17
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Organisation objectives
1.3 Organisation objectives
1.3.1 Vision and mission statements
Vision statement specifies the long term aspirations of a business; where it

ultimately wants to be. It often describes how the organisation wants to
be perceived. They aim to influence the consumers’ perception of the
business.
Mission statement a declaration of the underlying purpose of an

organisation’s existence and its core values. This statement is updated
more frequently than a vision statement.
Three levels of objectives can be distinguished: AIM

Strategic objectives: the senior leadership sets the
long-term goals, determines the actions necessary
to achieve the goals and mobilises resources to Strategic
execute the actions. (affects: whole company) How Objectives
will the goals/aims be achieved by the resources?
Tactical objectives: middle management develops
medium-term action plans to achieve the strategic
objectives of an organisation. (affects: department) Tactical Objectives
Operational objectives: lower management develops
short-term, day-to-day action plans to achieve the
tactical objectives of the organisation as efficiently
as possible. (affects: teams) Operational
Objectives
1.3.2 The need for change in objectives

• Changing corporate culture. • Risk Profile.
• Type and size of the organisation. • State of the economy.
• Private vs. public organisations. • Government constraints.
• Age of the business. • Presence and power of pressure groups.
• Finance available. • New technologies.
18
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Organisation objectives 1
1.3.3 Corporate social responsibility and business

ethics
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) the consideration of ethical and

environmental issues relating the business activity, towards all
stakeholders and not just to owners or shareholders.
E.g., the treatment of employees or how local communities would react
to new projects.
CSR aims to:
• Treat customers and suppliers fair and equally.

• Compete fairly (i.e., not engaging in predatory pricing).
• Treat the workforce with dignity and listening carefully to their needs.
1.3.4 Purpose of ethical objectives
Altruistic attitude: the company genuinely does it for social benefits, they actually care
about the impact of the company.
Strategic attitude: businesses ought to be socially responsible only if such actions help
them to become more profitable.
Self-interest attitude: the belief that it is the government’s job to protect society.
1.3.5 The evolving role and nature of CSR
• Becomes more important as companies become more competitive.

• Because of globalisation we have so much choice, meaning that companies need a
competitive edge, social responsibility might be this.
• More and more governments are imposing penalties on socially undesirable or
unethical behaviour (e.g., carbon tax).
• Increase in education means people are more aware.
• Pressure groups raise awareness and affect consumer perceptions.
19
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Organisation objectives
1.3.6 SWOT Analysis
SWOT analysis aims to identify the key internal strengths & weaknesses and
external opportunities & threats, seen as important to achieving an
objective.
The analysis of the internal Helpful Harmful

to achieving the objective to achieving the objective
strengths & weaknesses helps
S W
attributes of the organization
business owners determine their
Internal origin
current market position, which
is crucial to know before Strengths Weaknesses
planning and implementing
SMART objectives. A useful
tool for:
attributes of the environment

External origin
O T
• competitor analysis;
• assessing opportunities;
Opportunities Threats
• risk assessment;
• reviewing corporate strategy;
• strategic planning.
Examples of strengths Examples of weaknesses
• Products X is market leader in terms of • Workers are striking demanding higher

sales. wages.
• Customers are loyal to the brand. • Machinery is obsolete, lowering
production output.
The analysis of the external opportunities & threats provides businesses with the
information needed to respond to external factors that can impact the ability of the
business to achieve its strategic goals and objectives.
1.3.7 Ansoff matrix

Existing products New products
Market penetration: selling an
Existing markets
existing product in an existing

market, with the aim of Market Product
increasing the market share of penetration development
Increasing risk
said product (e.g., promotions).

Product development: changing or
creating new products for the
New markets
same market.
Market development: selling the same Market
Diversification
development
products to a new market.
Diversification: selling new products
to new markets.
Increasing risk
20
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Stakeholders 1
1.4 Stakeholders
Stakeholders individuals or groups that may hold interest in the business or

may be affected by its decisions.
We distinguish between two groups of stakeholders:
Internal stakeholders who are directly involved in the running of the business;
External stakeholders who are indirectly involved in the running of the business or are
simply affected/interested in its activity.
Stakeholders
Internal External
Owners (shareholders) Suppliers

Employees Customers
Management Communities
Pressure Groups
Competitors
Government
The interests of internal stakeholders
Owners or shareholders put up the capital which runs the business. The reward is the
gain they make from owning the business. If there was no reward, no one would
bother to invest.
Directors and senior management in small businesses, the owners are quite likely to
be involved in the daily running of the business. This is not in case in bigger
companies, where a board of directors may be involved and monitor the business’
activities. The performance of the business has a direct impact on them — if the
business performs poorly, they might be made redundant. If the business performs
well, they might be promoted or receive bonuses.
Employees are involved in daily activities and bring projects to life. If the business
underperforms, employees are often the first to fall victim and get dismissed. If the
business performs well, they might be promoted or receive bonuses.
21
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Stakeholders
The interests of external stakeholders
Suppliers: businesses depend on suppliers for resources otherwise production may be

reduced.
Customers: one of the most important external stakeholders. Businesses need
customers to sell goods and services in order to remain operational. Additionally,
many customers depend on the goods and services provided by businesses.
Communities: businesses could play important roles in a community’s development by
supporting charities, collaborating with schools or expanding projects to create
jobs.
Pressure: groups they are interested in the business as they attempt to influence its
decision making processes (e.g., forcing the local council to act against industrial
pollution).
Competitor: other firms operating in the same market want to observe their
competitors in order to predict future activities and to react accordingly.
Government: legal institutions are interested in a company’s lawful conduct. For
example, they could inspect a business’ licenses or tax records.
Mutual benefit and conflict between stakeholders’ interests
Conflicts may arise when there are many stakeholders, each with different objectives.
For example, there might be a conflict between customers and shareholders as customers
want the highest quality products for more affordable prices. Spending more on research
and development to create new products might lower the amount payable in dividends to
shareholders. Improving quality might also lead to higher costs and lower profits,
directly affecting shareholders.
As it is impossible to satisfy all stakeholders simultaneously, businesses need to focus on

the ones that are important to them. In order to determine which stakeholders need to
be satisfied, businesses compile a stakeholder analysis: visualising which stakeholders
have the most interest in the company’s activities, and which have the most influence
over the company.
Power Government
Consumers
Example of a stakeholders analysis
showing the interest and power of
four stakeholders: government,
pressure groups, consumers and Suppliers
suppliers. Pressure groups
Interest
22
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT External environment 1
1.5 External environment
External factors outside influences that can impact a business such as laws,
market trends or political changes.
A civil war for example could significantly harm businesses selling luxury goods as the
demand will drop severely.
In order to monitor all these changes in the external environment, businesses conduct a
combined SWOT and PEST analysis. These analyses take external factors into
consideration that may affect economic activities, so that businesses are able to set
SMART objectives.
PEST analysis evaluates opportunities & threats on Political, Economic,

Social and Technological factors.
Examples of opportunities Examples of threats
Political: political situation in the Political: stricter employment laws

country is very stable. increases business risk.
Economic: the economy is booming and Economic: high competition in
people have growing income. particular market segment.
Social: increasing average living Social: healthier lifestyle of consumers
conditions means more people can afford reduces sale of soft drinks.
luxury items. Technological: the invention of a better
Technological: faster 4G mobile internet medicine obsoletes the current.
network allows development of more
complex apps like voice recognition.
STEEPLE the same analysis as is done in PEST, but also includes Legal,
Environmental and Ethical.
Note: If the exam asks you to design a SWOT analysis, this automatically means you will
need to do a PEST analysis as well in order to be able to properly analyse the external
environment. Application is key – you have to look carefully through the case study in
order to be able to create a SWOT analysis explicitly applicable to the company in the case
study, and justify your answers at all times! You have to explain why something is a
strength, weakness, opportunity or a threat. Without arguments your answer will not be
considered complete.
23
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Growth and evolution
1.6 Growth and evolution
1.6.1 Economies and diseconomies of scale
Growth and evolution refers to the expansion of sales and the increased scale of
production. Growth is an important factor for businesses to consider due to the costs
involved – these can increase or decrease.
Economies of scale as the production output of an enterprise increases, the

cost per unit output decreases as fixed costs are spread out over more
units of output.
Diseconomies of scale as the business expands and the scale of its operations
is beyond the minimum efficient scale, the average costs per unit output
rises.
Diseconomies of scale may occur when:
• Communication becomes more complicated and coordination more difficult

because a large firm is divided into departments.
• The control and coordination of large businesses is very demanding; more
supervision leads to more costs.
1.6.2 Small vs. big businesses
Small business Big business
• Closer to its customers: ability to offer • Economies of scale: larger production

more personal services. output = decreased cost per unit.
• Less competition: small businesses can • Market leader status: big firms tend to
create a monopoly in a niche market. be more influential.
• Greater focus: they do not offer • Survival: greater capacity is used to
products to mass markets. spread the risk.
24
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Growth and evolution 1
1.6.3 Internal vs. external growth
Internal/organic growth a business grows using its own resources to

increase the scale of its operations and sales revenue.
External growth a business grows by collaborating with, buying up or

merging with another firm.
Organic growth can be achieved by selling new products, increasing production and sales
through marketing or finding new markets. For most businesses internal growth is slow,
but it does so at less risk than external growth and can be financed through internal
funds. External growth is a much quicker alternative to organic growth. External growth
can be a quick way to reduce competition in a market, gain economies of scale, gain
entry into foreign markets or achieve synergy.
1.6.4 External growth methods

The terms mergers and takeovers both describe the situation when firms join together
and operate as one organisation, albeit with one important difference. The term mergers
is used to describe two businesses that join to create a third new company, whereas the
term takeover refers to the purchase of one business by another.
There are few different types of mergers:
Horizontal integration: firms are in exactly the same line of business and at the same
stage of production.
Backward vertical integration: firms are at different stages of production. The merger
occurs with a business which is in the previous stage of production.
Forward vertical integration: firms are at different stages of production. The merger
occurs with a business which is in the next stage of production.
Lateral integration: merging of firms with related goods which do not compete
directly with each other.
Diversifying merger (conglomerate): merging of firms in completely different lines of
business.
Joint venture a type of external growth strategy that combines the

contributions and responsibilities of two firms to a shared project by
forming a separate legal enterprise.
The reason why firms form a joint venture is to enjoying the advantages of mergers, such
as economies of scale and reduced competition, without losing their identity. Most joint
ventures are friendly, allowing businesses to share their areas of expertise.
25
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Growth and evolution
Strategic alliance an agreement between parties to pursue shared objectives

while remaining independent organisations, and without forming a
legal partnership entity. These are often formed to share costs and
risks, information and expertise.
E.g., sharing R&D costs, manufacturing capabilities, distribution
channels etc..
Franchising an arrangement where the franchisor sells the rights to sell their
products or use the company name or brand to the franchisees.
1.6.5 The impact of globalisation on the growth

and evolution of businesses
Globalisation worldwide movement toward economic, financial, trade, and

communications integration.
• Increased competitiveness.
• Increased difficulty of meeting customer expectations (because of high
competitiveness).
• Larger customer base.
• Economies of scale.
• Broader choice of location.
• More external growth opportunities.
• More opportunities for sources of finance.
1.6.6 Reasons for the growth of multinational

companies
• Increased customer base.

• Cheaper overseas production costs (e.g., China, India, Bangladesh).
• Economies of scale.
• Companies can avoid protectionist policies.
• Spread risks by being in multiple markets.
26
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Organisational planning tools 1
1.6.7 The impact of MNCs on the host countries
• Creates jobs. • Profits are sent back to home country.

• Can boost GDP. • Can push local companies out of
• Introduces new skills and technologies. business causing unemployment.
• Introduces competition. • Low CSR: exploits the country’s
natural resources.
1.7 Organisational planning tools
1.7.1 Decision tree
Everyday business decisions in any department involve risks. This can be because the
business has limited information on which to base the decisions or the outcome of a
certain decision is uncertain. In such situations, the business will make a decision that
minimises risk with the greatest possible return. Decision trees are used to quantify the
alternative outcomes of any decision, combining the likelihood of an outcome and the
loss/gain.
Every decision tree consists of:
Decision points: (represented by squares)

when a decision needs to be made between certain courses of action.
Chance nodes: (represented by circles)

decisions have different possible outcomes.
Probability or chance: the decimal value below every outcome branch of the tree,
explaining how likely each outcome is. The sum of all the possible outcomes of
one decision should be 1.
Expected values: the financial outcome of each decision.
Steps to completing a decision tree
1. Based on the information given to you, draw the layout of the tree diagram.
2. Fill in the nodes with numbers.
3. Write the forecasted costs on the first branch.
4. Write the successful revenue and the unsuccessful revenue on each final branch.
5. Write the probability of success or not success on each final branch.
6. Complete the calculations for each strand:
27
BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Organisational planning tools
(probability of success ⇥ forecast revenue if successful) +

(probability of not success ⇥ forecast revenue if not successful) forecast costs.
7. The strand with the highest expected earnings is the one that yields the highest
forecasted returns.
8. Based on your choice, put a line through the strands not taken.
9. Draw a key, this is necessary for full marks.
10. Label your decision tree.
• The visual nature of constructing a • All figures are estimated which means
decision tree diagram may show that businesses might make a decision
possible courses of action not that is not as profitable in reality.
previously considered. For example, • Do not take into account the dynamic
the management of ABC Ltd. could nature of business. For example, a
have thought of another course of sudden change in the economic climate
action (e.g., modifying the current might render a decision based on a
advertising campaign), which could decision tree obsolete. For example,
have been examined as well. due to the economic crisis, the profit
• It is a numerical model – it involves and loss figures have to be re-estimated
placing numerical values on decisions, to take into account the decrease in
which improves results, as only the demand, which means the whole new
most profitable course of action will be decision tree needs to be made.
taken. In our example, ABC Ltd. chose
to retain the current advertising
campaign because it is the most
profitable choice.
.
Example exam question

Example
Lights and Co. is a mass-market lighting company. The company is concerned about
their falling market share and profits, so they are conducted market research.
Managers are considering two options:
Option 1: research and develop new, automated lights.

Option 2: buy new machinery to produce more of the current products.
The probabilities and forecast costs and revenues of each option are given:
28
Options Forecast Forecast Forecast

.
Example
costs revenue if revenue if

successful not
successful
Probability: Probability:
0.45 0.55
Option 1 Research and develop 990 000 1 700 000 550 000
new, automated lights
Option 2 Buy new machinery 450 000 100 000 250 000
without training
Buy new machinery 475 000 1 250 000 200 000
with training
Probability Forecast revenue

successful 0.45
$1 700 000
Option 1
$990 000
1
not successful 0.55
$550 000
//
successful 0.60
$1 000 000
Option 2a
$450 000
2a
not successful 0.40
// $250 000
2
successful 0.60
$1 250 000
Option 2b
$475 000
2b not successful 0.40
$200 000
Key
Decision point
Possible outcomes
// Rejected options
EMV1 = (1 700 000 ⇥ 0.45 + 550 000 ⇥ 0.55) 990 000 = $77 500
EMV2a = (1 000 000 ⇥ 0.60 + 250 000 ⇥ 0.40) 450 000 = $250 000
EMV2b = (1 250 000 ⇥ 0.60 + 200 000 ⇥ 0.40) 475 000 = $335 000
Best option: 2b, buy new machinery with training to produce more of the current
products.
29
1.7.2 Fishbone diagrams
Fishbone diagram a visual tool that identifies successive layers of causes that
could potentially contribute to an effect or problem.
General cause
Retired cause
Problem
As presented, the main problem is identified. Once the main problem has been
identified, its causes can be defined. Each cause is represented as an arrow that feeds into
the main problem. As you can see, the refined causes are fed into the general causes. To
use this method, first the main issue needs to be identified and then, its general and
refined causes. This way you will be able to visualise the sources of the main problem.
There are general sets of causes that decision makers can use:
Manufacturing: the 6Ms – machine, method, materials, measurement, man, mother

nature.
Marketing: the 8Ps – price, promotion, people, process, place/plant, policies,
procedures, product.
Service: the 4Ss – surroundings, suppliers, systems, skills.
• Very visual and simple to use in order • Do not show how to fix the problem.
to pinpoint the key causes of a • Problems as different stakeholders may
particular problem a firm is facing. view different causes as the most
• Could represent a good way to bring important ones, which causes disputes.
several different stakeholders together
(e.g., workforce). This could make
them feel part of the decision-making
process which can prove to be
motivating.
30
1.7.3 Force-field analysis
Force-field analysis a framework for looking at the factors (forces) that

influence a movement toward a goal. Forces that promote movement
toward a goal are called driving or helping forces, those blocking
movement toward a goal are called restraining or hindering forces.
Forces for change Forces against change
Loss of staff overtime 3

Customers want
4
new products
Staff frightened of
3
new technology
Improve speed
2 Plan:
of production
upgrade factory
Environmental impact
with new 1
of new techniques
manufacturing
3 Raise volumes of output machinery
Cost 3
Maintenance
1
costs increasing
Disruption 1
Total: 10 Total: 11
• Helps identify key factors affecting a • The numbers assigned to different

particular decision according to their forces are very arbitrary – they only
importance. reflect how a certain force is important
• Could represent a good way to bring in the eyes of the decision maker.
several different stakeholders together • Different decision makers might
(e.g., workforce). This could make include different forces – the forces that
them feel part of the decision-making will be identified highly depend on the
process which can prove to be interpretations of the issue different
motivating. decision.
31
1.7.4 Gantt chart
Gantt chart a bar-chart showing how tasks in a project or production

process can be sequenced over time.
In order to construct a Gantt chart all the tasks or steps of the process have to be known,
including when each will be completed. Once the Gantt chart is constructed, it can be
used to figure out the most efficient ways to use resources. Here is an example of a Gantt
chart showing all the necessary steps in the production of a T-shirt:
Task Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun

Choosing materials
Drawing the design
Cutting
Putting together
Packing
• Very visual allowing the management • Based on estimates – some actions may
to clearly set out the timeline of a take longer to complete and the
particular project. This could help set management did not predict that.
deadlines or even look at which • Becomes very difficult to present when
processes can be done faster. a project consists of many steps.
• Useful to look at in order to allocate
resources efficiently (as explained
earlier).
32
HUMAN RESOURCE 2
MANAGEMENT
2.1. Functions and evolution of 35

human resource management
– Human resource planning – Internal and external factors
that influence human resource planning – Common steps in
the process of recruitment – Types of training – Types of
appraisal – Dismissal, termination and redundancy
– Common steps in the process of dismissal – Changing
employment patterns and practices – Outsourcing,
offshoring and re-shoring
2.2. Organisational structure 43

– Changes in organisational structures
2.3. Leadership and 46

management
– Key functions of management – Management vs.
leadership – Leadership styles
2.4. Motivation 49
– Taylor – Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – Herzberg’s
motivation-hygiene theory – Adam’s equity theory
– Pink – Types of financial rewards – Types of
non-financial rewards
33
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
2.5. Organisational (corporate) 59

culture
– Organisational culture – Determinants of organisational
culture (NORMS) – Four types of organisational culture
– Organisational cultural clashes – Individuals and
organisational culture
2.6. Employer and employee 61

relations
– Employee/employer representatives
– Industrial/employee relation methods used by employees
– Industrial/employee relation methods used by employers
– Sources of conflict in the workplace – Approaches to
conflict resolution – Reasons for resistance to change
– Dealing with resistance to change
34
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Functions and evolution of human resource management 2
2.1 Functions and evolution of human

resource management
2.1.1 Human resource planning
Human resources (HR) all the people working in a business.
Workforce/HR planning a process that identifies current and future HR

needs to ensure that staffing is sufficient, qualified, and competent
enough to achieve the organization’s objectives.
There are four key parts of HR planning (which will be further examined later):
Recruitment hiring the right person for the right job.

Training ensuring an employee receives proper professional development (i.e., acquires
the necessary set of skills needed to complete the tasks efficiently).
Appraisal evaluating an employee’s job performance.
Termination or dismissal managing the situation of employee’s voluntary or
involuntary leave.
Labour turnover a measure used in HR planning of how many people leave

a business over a given period of time, usually expressed as a percentage
of the total labour force.
number of staff leaving over a year

Labour turnover = ⇥ 100
average number of staff employed in a year
High labour turnover
• This means that there is a reason why staff do not stay in the firm for a long period of
time.
• Perhaps there is an aspect of the business that demotivates the workforce and lowers
their productivity (resulting in extra costs for the business as it constantly needs to be
on a lookout for new staff).
• High labour turnover suggests that staff may only be staying for a short time for a
certain reason.
• There may be a key factor such as motivation, packages etc. that are affecting
retention.
• Staff hired may be incompetent.
• Remuneration packages might not be competitive.
35
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Functions and evolution of human resource management
Low labour turnover
• Fresh blood may encourage innovation and new ideas.

• Existing employees are loyal to the business, and likely more motivated to work.
• Managers have recruited the right people for the right job.
• A very low labour turnover means that the business is stable but also lacks progress;
‘fresh blood’ in the business is important to stimulate innovations and new ideas.
2.1.2 Internal and external factors that influence

human resource planning
External factors impact the size and availability of the pool of potential
employees for the business.
These can include:
Technological change: e.g., better technology can lead to more working from home.
Demographic change: e.g., an aging population, reduced birth rate or migration etc.
These factors affect the size of the labour pool and the skills they have to offer.
The state of the economy: e.g., in a recession, the unemployment rate is higher which
allows business to ‘pick and choose’ people with right skills and experience (also
they are willing to accept lower wages).
Demographic change
• Changes in demographic populations.
• Ageing populations: Increased dependent population, reduced labour mobility,
changes in consumption patterns, change in employment patterns.
Changes in labour mobility
• Friends and family affect geographic mobility.
• Relocation costs.
• Cost of living.
• Language and cultural differences.
New communication technologies
• Electronic/online recruitment.
• Online meetings.
• Flexitime and teleworking.
• Online training courses.
36
Internal factors changes from within the business itself.
These can include:
Changes in business organisation: businesses change the way they are organised in
order to better meet their strategic objectives.
Changes in labour relations: labour unionisation causes businesses to give in to some
of their requirements in order to keep the business running and the workforce
motivated.
Changes in business finance: financial difficulties cause businesses lay off some
workers to minimise the costs.
2.1.3 Common steps in the process of recruitment
Due to changes in internal circumstances (e.g., higher demand, introduction of a new job
etc.), a business may need to start the process of recruitment. Recruitment can be
divided into 3 steps:
1. Identification: recruitment starts with defining the job description: details the
basic roles and responsibilities of a job, and a person specification: to
communicate what skills, qualifications and experience candidates need for the job.
The business also needs to decide whether it is best to recruit internally: find a
current employee that could carry out the new job or recruit externally: find a
completely new person from outside the business.
2. Application: to find the best applicants, businesses make a job advert:
communicating the job description and person specification to inform potential
candidates. The job advert should be placed so that it reaches its target audience.
The business can decide to process the applications externally: hire a recruitment
agency to handle the application process for them.
3. Selection: after some time the applicants may be shortlisted based on how well
they fit the job, interviews may be scheduled in order to select the best applicant
for the job.
Internal recruitment hiring people from within the firm to fill a new
position.
External recruitment the process of hiring people from outside the

organisation.
37
2.1.4 Types of training
On the job training done while the employee is doing their normal job
while at the workplace.
E.g., a senior employee helps the junior employee comprehend all the
tasks and acquire new skills needed to carry out the job efficiently.
• Cost effective: using in-house • Trainees may pick up bad practices.

specialists. • Internal trainers may lack up to date
• Training is more relevant as it is training.
specifically for the firm. • Trainers cannot complete their own
• Reduces disruption to daily operations work whilst training new workers.
as it is on site. • May be incomplete due to a lack of
• Helps establish relationships and resources.
promote teamwork. • Productivity may be low until all skills
• The location is convenient for workers are learnt.
and trainers.
Induction training the training received when first starting a job, this is a
type of on the job training.
• Establishes expectations and good • Can be time consuming.

working habits from the start. • Key staff need to be freed from their
• Helps new workers understand the duties.
corporate culture. • Information overload for new recruits.
• Speeds up settling in process. • Induction can be lengthy in large firms.
• Morale is boosted when new recruits
feel more confident.
Mentoring another type of OTJ training involving a dyad of a mentor and a

mentee. The mentor shares their experiences with the mentee to help
them gain skills and knowledge.
• Synergy is created as it shares personal • Time consuming for mentors.

experiences. • Mismatched pairings can be stressful.
• Mentoring can be informal/formal. • Requires long-term commitment which
• Good mentors create a positive can disrupt business operations.
environment for mentees to act • Training mentors might be costly.
without fear of punishment.
38
Off the job training happens outside working hours, where the employees
are being trained away from the job. This could involve workshops,
conferences etc.
• Experts who may not exist internally • There is a potential loss of output
are able to be used. whilst workers attend the offsite
• A wider range of training can be training course.
provided. • Hiring specialist trainers can be very
• There are no distractions from expensive, and
colleagues at an offsite venue. transport/accommodation costs may
• Networking can take place, so add cost.
employees can meet new people. • It is debatable whether all skills are
transferable to the business.
• Finding time for staff to get off work
can be difficult.
Cognitive training focuses on helping employees develop their thinking and

processing skills. This type of training is of crucial importance for
businesses that require their employees to make quick, wise and
effective decisions, link investment banking, marketing departments of
companies etc.
• Helps workers improve their mental • May not cater for workers with
processes acquire new knowledge, aid different goals.
decision-making and solve work-related • Can be expensive.
problems. • Might not meet the needs of an
organisation.
• Difficult to measure effects of the
training.
Behavioural training focuses on helping employees develop certain

interpersonal skills such as stress management, communication, dealing
with emotions etc.
39
2.1.5 Types of appraisal
Staff appraisal is the processes of reviewing the performance of employees

against pre-set objectives.
There are four different appraisal strategies:
Formative appraisal: an ongoing process that focuses on giving the employees

recognition for what they have done well and indicating possible mistakes so that
they can learn from them.
Summative appraisal: measures an employee’s performance based on standards set by
the business, making it easy for the business to sum up how a particular employee
performed against the standards. Usually done at the end of a particular project.
360 degree appraisal: feedback on the employee’s performance is not only received
from the manager, but also from co-workers (appraisal from multiple perspectives).
This type of appraisal is usually combined with one of the previous two to give
another perspective on the performance.
Self-appraisal: employees reflect on their own performance by rating themselves on
various performance indicators. This type of appraisal is usually combined with
those explained earlier.
2.1.6 Dismissal, termination and redundancy
Business can deal with voluntary or involuntary leave of employees in several ways:
Termination: happens when employees leave the business at the end of their contract
because they want to work on their professional development, change career, retire
etc. These employees expect to receive a reference from their ex-employer.
Dismissal: happens when an employee has broken some of the terms of their contract,
which could be due to missing work, poor discipline, dishonesty etc. These
employees do not receive a reference from their ex-employer.
Redundancy: happens when a job is no longer required, making the employee
redundant through no fault of her own. Causes can be, e.g., a drop in production,
a merger or takeover, automation etc.
40
2.1.7 Common steps in the process of dismissal
Evidence must be gathered during all stages of the dismissal process. Managers must
effectively communicate the message to avoid rumours spreading.
1. Verbal Warning
2. Official written warning if misconduct is repeated
3. Dismissal
2.1.8 Changing employment patterns and

practices
New technologies and new social trends have influenced work practices in many
countries. Some examples are:
Teleworking: employees work a set amount of hours at the office and the remainder
from home.
Flexitime: employee has to work a set amount of hours per week, the allocation of time
spent completely depends on employee’s preferences.
Migration for work: due to better infrastructure and better connectivity of the whole
world, people can easily migrate daily, sometimes even great distances, for work.
Portfolio working: a person employed in a number of different jobs, carried out
simultaneously, usually on a part-time or temporary basis.
Part-time employment.
Migration of workers: a person who works in a country or state of which he/she is not
a national.
2.1.9 Outsourcing, offshoring and re-shoring
Outsourcing the process of transferring internal business activities to an

external firm in order to reduce costs.
• Outsources may carry out work to • To cut costs, subcontractors may ‘cut
higher quality standards. corners’ (unethical).
• Outsourcers will bid for work (i.e., try • Quality management can become more
to give you the best price). difficult.
• Reduces labour costs when workers are • Subcontractors must be monitored to
outside the business. ensure quality standards are being met.
• Allows the business to concentrate on • Outsourcing may cause redundancies.
core functions. • May be unethical due to the
exploitation of workers in LEDCs.
41
Offshoring relocating business activities and processes abroad.
• Companies can benefit from external • To cut costs, subcontractors may be

factors such as currency exchange. ‘cutting corners’ (unethical).
• Cheaper wage costs overseas. • Quality management can become more
• Overseas locations may have better difficult.
access to raw materials. • May be unethical due to the
exploration of workers in LEDCs.
• Companies have been seen to evade tax
by doing this.
Reshoring the transfer of business operations back to their countries of

origin.
• Improves quality management. • Can be more expensive.

• Transporting goods from overseas to • Provides a USP.
home countries is expensive.
42
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Organisational structure 2
2.2 Organisational structure
Levels of hierarchy the level of responsibility in the business. Each level

means that there is a senior and a junior.
Chain of command the formal route that a decision in an organisation must

follow. Traditionally, this means that decisions travel from the top
(CEO) to the bottom (workers) of the hierarchy.
Span of control the number of subordinates directly under the authority of

a manager and whom managers are responsible for.
Delegation giving one’s subordinate the authority to make a particular

decision or carry out a particular task while still keeping the
responsibility for the outcome of that task or decision. This usually
happens when the span of control is wide.
Centralisation indicates that all major decisions in the business are made by
a small group of employees (usually managers) that work closely with
the head of the business (CEO).
Decentralisation the opposite of centralisation. The core strategic decisions

made by senior managers, while middle managers have other
decision-making responsibility.
Bureaucracy the relative importance of rules and procedures. If a business is

relatively bureaucratic, there are many rules, regulations and set ways
of doing things; this means that personal initiative or delegation is not
expected.
De-layering removing a layer in the hierarchy of the business. It means the

removal of a layer of management. It is intended to make the business
less bureaucratic, which increases the decision-making capability of
middle managers. Also, it reduces costs as not so many managers need
to be employed.
43
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Organisational structure
Types of organisational structures
Tall organisational structure common in well-established businesses; it is

characterised by many levels of hierarchy, narrow spans of control, long
chains of command, centralised decision-making and limited delegation.
Flat organisational structure the opposite of the tall structure; it is

characterised by few levels of hierarchy, wider spans of control, shorter
chains of command, decentralised decision-making and increased
delegation.
Organisational structure by hierarchy a traditional way of representing

structure of a business. It shows the chain of command in a particular
business.
E.g., senior managers > middle managers > junior managers >
workers.
Organisational structure by function an organisational structure where

employees are grouped by departments they belong to (marketing,
finance, HR). After that has been determined, employees are then
organised by seniority.
Organisational structure by product an organisational structure based on

what a particular business produces. This involves dividing workforce
based on what a company produces.
Organisational structure by region present in businesses that carry out

certain aspects of the business activity in different parts of the world.
E.g., they have departments in Europe, America, Australia etc.)
Note: When asked to analyse any of these organisational structures on the exam (i.e.,
advantages and disadvantages), you will need to (1) use the specific terminology outlined
in the syllabus point but also (2) refer to leadership in the organisation and motivation of
the workforce — how does a particular organisational structure affect motivation of the
workforce compared to another.
44
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Organisational structure 2
2.2.1 Changes in organisational structures
Along with the basic organisational structures, some businesses have attempted to adapt
their structure in accordance with the changes in the business environment. Two
different ways to deal with changes in business environment are project-based
organisation and shamrock organisation.
Project-based organisation a market structure in which employees are

organised around different projects that a firm carries out.
Project-based organisation is supposed to be more flexible and responsive to market

demand (therefore more typical of market-oriented businesses). There are project
managers that delegate and are responsible for a particular project. After the project is
done, the team is split up and reassembled to begin another project. Each team
“borrows” members of different departments to complete the projects such as
accountants, operations managers etc.
• Higher level of delegation: the project • Increased training costs.

manager delegates tasks to different • Not all members of the workforce will
team members, which tends to be be able to fit into this organisation
motivating for those workers as they structure.
feel empowered.
• Each team member will do their part of
the job efficiently since they are
specialists in their field.
Shamrock organisation a market structure in which a business trims its

workforce to retain only multi-skilled core, which is concerned with
the creation of a product. All other supporting, non-central functions
are outsourced to the periphery.
This model suggests that businesses can reduce costs and gain competitive advantage by
trimming their workforce.
Thus, on the shamrock, we have 3 leaves:
1. Core managers: employees that are essential for the business

2. Contractual fringe: activities that are outsourced to specialist businesses
3. Flexible workforce: made up of part-time, temporary or seasonal workers that are
employed when necessary
45
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Leadership and management
• Allows for complete specialisation of • The insourced workers will suffer from
the core: they will concentrate on lack of job security which might lead to
innovations and gathering new ideas. decreased motivation and lower
• The flexible workforce will be easier to productivity.
hire and fire. • Not all members of the workforce will
• Can save on staffing costs. be able to fit into this organisation
• Can hire experts in certain fields due to structure.
outsourced workers.
2.3 Leadership and management
2.3.1 Key functions of management
There are 5 major functions of management:
Planning: managers need to set strategic, tactical and operational objectives that affect
different parts of the organisation.
Organising: managers need to make sure the business has sufficient resources to achieve
objectives, which requires good organisation.
Commanding: managers need to make sure all individuals know which duties they are
to perform and to provide instructions if needed.
Coordinating: managers must bring together the various resources to achieve objectives.
Since many different tasks happen at the same time, managers need to make sure
that all these are done at the specific time and place they are supposed to be done.
Controlling: managers have power to control for quality of different processes and
change them if necessary. They also have the power to increase or decrease the
scale of operations depending on the circumstances in the market.
46
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Leadership and management 2
2.3.2 Management vs. leadership
Management Leadership
Time and devotion • Management is more 9–5. • 24 hours a day.
• Handles strategic decisions.
Roles and • Administer day to day • Accountable for more.
responsibilities operations. • More innovative.
• Deal with how and when. • Deal with what and why.
Influence on others • Adhered to due to power. • Inspire and motivate by
• Focus on tasks. example.
• Focus on people.
Risk taking • Follow predetermined rules. • More radical.
• Tackles tasks by abiding by • Take risks to move the
policies. organisation forward.
Vision • Deal with stable • Create a culture of hope.
environments. • Shine during times of
change.
2.3.3 Leadership styles
Autocratic
• Leader holds as much power and decision-making authority as possible.

• Consults minimally with the senior management.
• Typical for companies that have a lot of unskilled and untrusted workers.
• Close supervision and detailed instructions.
• Usually associated with the tall organisational structure.
• Authority is clear; decisions are made • Employees do not develop

quickly. decision-making skills and cannot
operate independently.
47
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Leadership and management
Paternalistic
• Leader aims to assume the role of a ‘father’ figure, where the employees are
his or her family.
• Has great concerns for the employees and provides them with a sense of
safety.
• Extreme loyalty and trust with employees and their full commitment.
• Employees take great pride in the • Leaders might not have an objective eye
organisation, and do whatever is when assessing the performance of
necessary so they don’t let the leader workers.
down.
Democratic
• Employees are usually involved in the decision-making process, but the

leader still has the final say.
• One of the most popular leadership styles since it is motivating for
employees and they feel empowered and part of a team.
• Usually associated with the flat organisational structure and with
project-based and shamrock organisation.
• Workforce is motivated since they are • Since the workers are involved,
consulted in the decision-making decision-making process is longer.
process. • Not efficient when it comes to making
quick decisions.
48
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Leadership and management 2
Laissez-faire
• In French: “to leave alone”.

• A lot of freedom is given to the employees.
• Extremely democratic form of leadership.
• Tends to work when the workforce is extremely motivated, skilled, educated
and open-minded.
• Usually associated with the flexible forms of organisational structures.
• Employees enjoy the freedom this • Interests of individuals might differ

leadership style provides; they are more from the interest of the organisation.
innovative and creative. • Reduced productivity if the workforce
is not in the same ‘mental state’ as the
leader.
Situational
• No leadership style is deemed the best.

• The type of leadership that will be pursued will depend on the situation.
• In emergency situations, businesses • Changing leadership style too often

might switch the leadership style to the might result in confusion of the
most convenient one. workforce.
49
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Motivation
2.4 Motivation
Theorist Theory Findings

Taylor Scientific management Pay, above all is the main source of motivation
Maslow Hierarchy of needs Levels of human needs, from physiological to

self actualisation
Herzberg Two-factor theory Hygiene factors (which do not motivate alone)

and motivators
Adams Equity theory Workers are motivated if there is fairness in

remuneration packages
Pink Drive theory Autonomy, mastery and purpose are the drivers
of motivation in modern societies of
the 21st century
2.4.1 Taylor
• Employees are primarily motivated by money.

• Productivity can be improved by aligning output and efficiency targets with
remuneration.
• Division of labour (scientific management): breaking down different aspects of a job
or task and assigning different people to each particular part of the work.
• Piece rate system: workers are paid a standard level of output and receive a higher
rating they exceed that level.
Drawbacks
• Ignores the non-physical contributions of workers.

• Hard to measure in some professions.
• Ignores non-financial factors that motivate people.
• Fails to acknowledge that workers can be innovative and independent.
• Entails monotonous tasks, leading to employee dissatisfaction.
• Sets clear goals for the workforce and the consequences of their work are transparent.
• Gives workers a sense of target.
• Does not take into account individual differences.
• Views workers as machines with only financial needs.
50
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Motivation 2
2.4.2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s theory is based on the hierarchy of needs, where every level of that pyramid
has a certain class of needs.
Se
lf-f
ulfi
l me
ntn
eed
s Being promoted and given more responsibility,
Ps Self- introducing new ideas, taking on challenging
yc
ho new job assignments.
log actualisation
ica
l ne
ed Esteem needs Being given recognition for doing a job well.
s
Working with colleagues that support you at
Ba Love and belonging
sic work, teamwork, communication.
need
s Safety needs Having job security, safe working conditions.
Receiving a wage high enough to meet weekly

Psychological needs
bills, food, shelter.
Needs at the bottom of the pyramid are the basic ones as they are concerned with
survival. Once these are satisfied, the worker moves to the next level, and once a level is
‘passed’, the needs on that level become less important. In practice, very few manage to
reach the top of the pyramid, because in order to do so, all other needs must be fully
satisfied.
• Based on the level an employee is on, • Difficult for business to decide on a

business can see what rewards are specific reward.
suitable for him. • Difficult to determine when a
• Workers feel like they are being taken particular level of needs has been
care of, which increases productivity satisfied.
and motivation. • Not feasible for all jobs to provide all
levels of the hierarchy
• The levels of the hierarchy are difficult
to quantify.
• Freelance workers do not have many of
these things, but can still be motivated
and successful.
• The model neglects to suggest what
happens to people with all of these
things, such as Bill Gates.
51
2.4.3 Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory
In Herzberg’s motivation theory, there are two sets of factors affecting people’s
motivation:
Hygiene factors: these are factors that need to be in place in order to remove workers’
dissatisfaction with their job. These represent pay, working conditions, company
policies, relationship with higher levels of the hierarchy, treatment at work etc.
Improving these factors should remove dissatisfaction, but it will not motivate the
workforce. If these are not met however, there will be a fall in productivity.
Motivators: these are factors that give workers job satisfaction. They represent a sense
of achievement, chance of promotion, recognition of effort, responsibility etc.
Improving these will make the workers more motivated and will lead to increased
productivity.
• Job enlargement: giving workers variety in what they do.
• Job enrichment: giving workers more complex, challenging tasks to exploit
their potential.
• Job empowerment: delegating decision making to workers over their areas of
job, helping to boost morale.
• Job enrichment. • Job enrichment may be expensive and

• Makes clear for the business what needs difficult to organise.
to be done in order to remove • Workers may get used to improved
dissatisfaction and improve motivation. pay/conditions and take these things
for granted.
• Does not apply to all occupations such
as low skilled/ paid jobs.
• Research sample included only high
skilled workers, therefore findings
don’t necessarily apply.
• Not all employees want extra
responsibility or stress.
52
2.4.4 Adam’s equity theory
• Workers will naturally compare their efforts or rewards to those of others in the
workplace.
• The degree of equity in an organisation is based on the ratio of inputs (contributions
made by the employee) to outcomes (financial and non-financial rewards).
Degrees of equity
Equity norm: workers expect an equitable remuneration for their contribution in their
jobs.
Social comparison: workers determine what is fair based on comparisons of their
inputs and outcomes with those of their peers.
Cognitive distortions: workers who feel undercompensated become demotivated so
might withdraw any goodwill, resulting in altering their effort or outputs.
Drawbacks
• Equity is subjective.
• Some people may be more sensitive to equity.
• Neglects to include demographic, psychological, and cultural variables.
• Scale of equity can only be so useful.
2.4.5 Pink
Pink’s motivation theory relies on what psychologists call the ‘third drive’. This
suggests that businesses need to stimulate the intrinsic motivation which occurs when
someone gets satisfaction from an activity itself, without threats or rewards from the
outside. He identified three factors of the self-determination theory that motivate
people:
Autonomy: workers need to be autonomous in order to be more motivated, which

means that businesses need to provide an environment that permits employees to
shape their own professional lives. This is done through flexibility of businesses;
flexibility on when, how, who and what their employees do.
Mastery: businesses need to provide learning opportunities for their employees, where
they will be able to be innovative. Employees will gain mastery when they are
given tasks that matter to them and are neither too easy nor too difficult.
Purpose: people are motivated when they are able to see benefits of their work. In order
to achieve this, businesses need to emphasise their purpose, and show the workers
that they contribute to this purpose, which will in turn increase their motivation.
53
2.4.6 Types of financial rewards
Salary Regular fixed lump-sum payment to staff, typically paid monthly.
• Provides job security. • Employees might not always be

• Workers know that they will receive a maximally motivated and productive.
regular income. • They know that if they do more or less
the same amount of work every month,
they will receive their fixed salary; this
can reduce productivity.
Wages (time based) Staff is paid per hour of work (daily or weekly).
• In case workers need to stay over hours, • The pay workers receive is not linked
they will receive extra payment. to the amount of output they receive;
• workers feel their work is being valued. therefore, they might ‘go slow’ in order
to make sure they work over hours to
receive more income.
Wages (piece rate) Staff is paid per unit/batch of output.
• Workers know that if they are more • Workers might concentrate more on
productive, they will be rewarded for quantity produced and less on quality.
that. • This might increase costs for the
• They see that their work has a business as quality check/assurance
monetary value. systems would need to be put in place.
54
Commission Staff is paid with respect to their sales results – an employee

gets a percentage for each unit sold.
• The very nature of the financial reward • External factors affecting sales
is the advantage. (recession, inflation) affect the income
• Workers will try to achieve the best of the workers, which is demotivating;
sales results possible, which would there’s nothing they can do in case they
result in a higher financial reward, can’t sell more goods because of
while the business benefits from higher recession or inflation.
sales. • Financially oriented, staff might make
arrangements with customers that put
the organization in a disadvantageous
position. (a banker might give out a
short-term loan to a business without
previously checking whether the
business can pay for it, which is
disadvantageous for the bank).
PRP (profit-related pay) The income of the employee depends on the

profitability of the company.
• It can be motivating for the workforce. • External factors affecting sales (and
• If the business shares the profit of the thus profitability) of the business
whole organization with the staff, this automatically affect employees, which
gives them a sense of ownership over can prove to be demotivating as they
the business and belonging. The success have no power over the factor causing
of the company = their success. decreased sales.
55
Performance Related Pay Rewards employees (in individual, teams or as a

workforce) who meet certain goals
• Pay rise
• Performance bonus
• Gratuity
• Creates incentives. • Targets can be unrealistic.

• Fair, since hard work is rewarded. • Can be stressful.
• Helps to develop a performance • Inappropriate for jobs where quality
culture. overrides quantity (e.g., doctors).
• Non-financial motivators may be
neglected.
Employee share ownership schemes Rewards employees by giving or

selling them (at a discounted rate) shares in the company. This works
well because that way, success of the company has a direct financial
benefit to shareholders.
• Keeps employees engaged. • Might not yield direct profits.

• Helps retain staff.
• Makes employees feel responsible.
Fringe payments (perks) Financial benefits to employees in addition to their

wage or salary (e.g., health insurance, housing allowance).
• Encourages employee loyalty. • Costly.

• Help meet an employee’s safety needs. • People high up in the company will
• Make workers feel valued as employers receive very expensive benefits.
provide extra benefits to enhance
wellbeing.
56
2.4.7 Types of non-financial rewards
Empowerment Usually takes the form of managers giving their employees

more responsibility and involving them in (or giving them)
decision-making (powers).
• Employees see empowerment as • There is a danger of the employee

motivating. making decisions that can put the
• Giving them more responsibility and business in a disadvantageous position.
involving them in the decision-making
process usually makes them feel
motivated, as they are glad to see that
their contribution is valuable to the
business. They also see the opportunity
for promotion in the future as a result
of empowerment.
Teamwork Involves putting employees in groups where employees are

encouraged to work collaboratively with each other in order to fulfil a
task.
• Workers might feel stimulated by • When teams fails, the whole

others in the group, which increases organization suffers.
their productivity. • Disputes between employees in a team
• Working in a group also initiates feeling can reflect on the whole of the
of belonging and common effort which organization. Not every organization
can also be motivating (refer to can use this non-financial reward
Maslow’s theory). (consider different corporate
structures).
57
Job enrichment (type of job enlargement) This is an attempt to give

employees greater responsibility and recognition by expanding their
role in the production process; involves giving an employee more work
to do of a similar nature.
• Having more recognition for their • This non-financial reward cannot be

work motivates the workers (check used in all contexts.
different motivation theories). • Not all employees feel motivated by
this. In some organizations, low-skilled
workers that do repetitive jobs would
not usually be interested in this type of
reward.
Job rotation (type of job enlargement) This involves an employee changing

jobs and tasks they do from time to time, in order to give them a greater
sense of the whole production process.
• This can be very motivating for the • Job rotation might be costly for the
workforce, as they are able to see how business.
the tasks they work on everyday are • In order to allow workers to work in
important for the whole of the different departments, they will need
business. training.
58
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Organisational (corporate) culture 2
2.5 Organisational (corporate) culture
2.5.1 Organisational culture
Organisational culture the values, attitudes, beliefs, meanings and norms

that are shaped by people and groups within the organisation
2.5.2 Determinants of organisational culture

(NORMS)
Nature of the business the purpose and direction of the business, declared
in the aims, mission, and objectives.
Organisational structure the tallness or flatness of the structure can create a

certain culture.
E.g., authoritative, democratic etc.
Rewards proper remuneration can create a strong and united culture,

without fair remuneration it can create workforce hostility.
Management styles the degree of centralisation in an organisations affects

how workers deal with issues, and in what way.
Sanctions few sanctions can cause slack workers. However too much
rigidness can cause resentment towards the organisation.
2.5.3 Four types of organisational culture
Power cultures
• Dominant individual group holding decision making power.

• Usually flat, with a wide span of control.
• Formal job titles are less regarded since real power lies with few.
• Decision making is quick.
59
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Organisational (corporate) culture
Role culture
• Exists in structured organisations.

• Jobs are clearly stated in formal job descriptions.
• Clear accountability.
Task culture
• Focus is on getting work done.

• No single source of power.
• Individuals are empowered and have direction.
Person culture
• When staff in similar culture form groups to share knowledge and skills.
• Found in larger organisations with various branches.
2.5.4 Organisational cultural clashes
Reasons for organisational cultural clashes
Growth: internal growth may lead to a more formal hierarchical organisational

structure. Bigger companies also have to deal with bureaucracy and power
orientation.
Mergers and acquisitions: external growth may cause one of the firm’s culture to
prevail, or to develop a new hybrid culture.
Change in leadership: leaders drive the strategic direction and define organisational
culture (NORMS).
• Different comfort levels with diversity.

• Different degrees of formality.
• Different languages.
• Different leadership styles.
• Different orientation to tasks and to people.
• Different practices.
• Different sense of time.
Consequences of organisational cultural clashes
Misunderstandings and miscommunication: cultural clashes may be issues if there are

language barriers and foreign concepts.
Unhappy Staff: cultural clashes and the potential conflict can cause job dissatisfaction.
60
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Employer and employee relations 2
Compromises must be reached in order for businesses to move forward.

Resistance to change may occur when staff are too accustomed to the current culture.
Training/hiring costs if new staff are needed.
National culture clashes: firm may find it difficult expanding overseas due to the
norms of different countries.
2.5.5 Individuals and organisational culture
Individuals changing culture
• Managers/directors have bigger influences on culture

• Workforce diversity can shape culture
• Making the vision/mission clear ensures the workforce stands for the same values.
• Motivation/engagement can lead to a motivated and committed culture.
• Role modelling can help develop the desired organisational culture.
Culture changing individuals
• The culture created by CEO’s is able to change individuals within the organisation as
they are influenced by what surrounds them at work.
• Power distance can affect the characteristics of workers (e.g., develop initiative, have
leadership qualities etc.)
• Organisational culture also affects the ethical business behaviour of workers.
2.6 Employer and employee relations
2.6.1 Employee/employer representatives
Trade union a group of employees who unite to protect their rights and
welfare. It is effective because there is strength in numbers.
Employer representatives individuals or organisations that represent the

management team in collective bargaining processes. This can be an
internal (e.g., a member of the management team) or an external party
(a hired individual).
61
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Employer and employee relations
2.6.2 Industrial/employee relation methods used

by employees
Collective bargaining: the term collective bargaining is used to describe the negotiation
process between the employer and employee representatives on the terms and
conditions of employment in a particular business.
Work to rule: this occurs when workers do not carry out any duties that are not in their
employment contract. In other words, the staff only carries out tasks explicitly
stated in their contract, which results in the tasks not being carried out efficiently.
Go slow: this approach involves workers deliberately slowing down production while
still working within the terms of their contract.
Overtime ban: this ban limits workers’ hours to the agreed contract of employment for
normal hours. It is usually used by employee representatives to demonstrate to
management that the workforce is determined to take further collective action,
such as strikes, if their demands are not met.
Strike action: this is the ultimate sanction used by the workforce, involving a stoppage
in the production process, which can prove disastrous for a business.
Walkout: a type of strike action where employees collectively or independently leave
the workplace as a disapproval to something.
2.6.3 Industrial/employee relation methods used

by employers
Lock-outs: this involves employers closing the factory for a period of time. Employees’
wages may not be paid during this period. This action might adversely affect the
public image of the company.
Dismissal: in some cases, employers might threaten employees with dismissal. Each
country usually has laws that set out the criteria under which it is unfair to dismiss
employees for taking industrial action.
Changes of contract: If possible, contracts can be changed, and those who disagree
with the new terms are denied the opportunity to prolong their employment. This
may be seen as coercion.
Closure: In response to strike actions, managers can close the business. This is extreme,
but necessary when other approaches have been exhausted.
2.6.4 Sources of conflict in the workplace
• Varying needs and wants.

• Different perceptions of how things occur and what is considered fair.
• Values.
• Power: exploitation of authority.
• Feelings and emotions.
62
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Employer and employee relations 2
2.6.5 Approaches to conflict resolution
Conciliation and arbitration: concliliation involves inviting an independent third

party, the arbiter, to come in to conciliate the dispute. Both sides outline their
positions and provide evidence, which will be assessed and the arbiter will make a
judgement. Conciliation does not require a third-party.
Industrial democracy: running an organisation with the participation of the
workforce. For example, sharing ownership of the means of production or having
trade union representatives in company boards and governing bodies.
No-strike agreement: this happens when a trade union agrees not to undertake
industrial action unless procedural steps have first been undertaken. This usually
happens when the management team has agreed to certain conditions of the
employee representatives.
Single-union agreement: recognising one union as the only representative of
employees. This saves managers the difficulties of negotiating with several unions.
2.6.6 Reasons for resistance to change
Self interest: people might worry about the implications for themselves as opposed to
the beneficial changes for the organisation.
Low tolerance for disruption and uncertainty.
Misinformation causes misunderstandings because the purpose of change has not been
properly communicated.
Interpretations of circumstances: different interpretations of the situation can lead to
varying perceptions.
2.6.7 Dealing with resistance to change
Education and communication: give good, clear forewarning and maintain

transparent.
Participation and involvement: making employees feel a part of the process will avoid
resistance.
Facilitation and support: helping employees to deal with the changing situation.
Negotiation and agreement: using incentives to reduce resistance, or make
compromises.
Manipulation and co-option: use a representative of those resisting change into the
process and they can help resistors to accept change.
Coercion: force staff into accepting change (e.g., threatening dismissal or transferring
employees). This occurs implicitly, for legal reasons.
63
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Employer and employee relations
64
ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE 3
3.1. Sources of finance 67

– Internal sources of finance – External sources of finance
3.2. Costs and revenues 70

– Revenue Streams
3.3. Break even analysis 71

– Contribution – Break even analysis – Determining the
break-even point – Causes for changes in break-even – The
benefits and limitations of break-even analysis
3.4. Final accounts 74

– The purpose of accounts to different stakeholders
– ACCA’s 5 ethical principles of accounting – The profit
and loss account – The balance sheet – Types of intangible
assets – Depreciation
3.5. Profitability and liquidity 78

ratio analysis
– Profitability ratios – Liquidity ratios
3.6. Efficiency ratio analysis 80
3.7. Cash flow 83

– Profit vs. cash flow – The working capital cycle – Cash
flow forecasts – The relationship between investment, profit
and cash flow – Dealing with cash flow problems
65
ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE
3.8. Investment appraisal 85
3.9. Budgeting 90
66
ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE Sources of finance 3
3.1 Sources of finance
Note: Never use vague terms such as “money” in your exam! “Money” can refer to many
different concepts like investment, profit, cash etc. The examiner assumes that you
studied for the exam — when they read “money” instead of “profit” it could really lower
your grade by showing that you are not familiar with the terminology.
Businesses have different types of expenditures:
Capital expenditure finance spent on fixed assets. Items of monetary value

that have a long-term function so can be used repeatedly.
E.g., land, buildings, machinery.
Revenue expenditure payments for the daily running of a business.

E.g., wages, raw materials, rent, etc.
It also includes the indirect costs such as insurance and advertising.
Sources of finance
Internal External
Retained profit (long)

Personal funds (short)
Sale of assets (short)
Long-term Short-term
Bank Overdraft
Hire Purchase
Share capital Loan capital Trade Credit
Leasing
Mortgage
Debt Factoring
Debentures
Business angels
Venture capitalists
Subsidies
Bank loans
67
ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE Sources of finance
3.1.1 Internal sources of finance
Personal funds using the money that you personally own. Most commonly
used for sole traders and partnerships.
Retained profits the profits (after tax and dividends) that the organisation
keeps to use for the business.
Sale of assets firms can sell their dormant assets that have been replaced to
raise capital. Examples include: old machinery, unused land or
buildings etc. Sometimes, fixed assets can be sold to survive liquidity.
3.1.2 External sources of finance
Share capital the money raised from selling shares of the company. The
main sources of finance for a limited liability company. This can
provide lots of finance.
Selling Shares: private limited companies cannot sell their shares to the general public.
If they want to they can ‘go public’ by floating their shares on the stock exchange.
This is known as initial public offering (IPO). Existing companies can raise further
finance by selling more shares in a share issue. However by issuing shares,
ownership and control of the business becomes diluted.
Loan capital
Loan capital: allows a business to temporarily overdraw on its bank account, i.e., to
take out more money than it has in its account.
Debentures: the holder of a debenture is a creditor of the company, not an owner. This
means that holders are entitled to an agreed fixed rate of return, but have no voting
rights and the amount borrowed must be repaid by the expiry date.
Mortgages: only limited companies can raise funds from the sale of shares and
debentures. Smaller firms need long-term finances to purchase the premises, a
purpose which mortgages are designed for. It is usually a long-term loan from a
financial institution (like a bank) and the lender must use land or property as
security on the loan. (Note: Mortgages are specialised long-term loans only for the
purchase of premises, not machinery for example)
Grants: governmental financial gifts to support business activities. These tend to be
offered to eligible business in one-off payments.
68
ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE Sources of finance 3
Subsidies: governmental grant to reduce costs of production, generally to provide

benefit to society. This tends to be done for essential products and services such as
agricultural goods, public transport etc. Subsidies do not cut into profit margins of
the producer.
Debt factoring: when a firm sells its products, it issues an invoice stating the amount
due. Debt factoring involves a specialist company (called a factor) providing
finance against these unpaid invoices. So, when a debtor fails to pay its bill in time,
the company turns to the factor and asks for the return of these funds, which the
factor does immediately. However, when a customer pays the bill in full, the factor
would usually keep 20% of the value of the invoice.
Venture capital: high risk capital invested by venture capital firms usually at the
beginning of a business idea. They find small businesses with high growth
potential. These firms seek businesses with convincing and coherent plans to make
the risk of investment worthwhile. They then receive profit in return from their
investment.
Business angels: usually wealthy individuals who invest their money in businesses with
high growth potential. They provide funding and in return tend to take a proactive
role in the business and receive profits until the business can buy out the stake
owned by the business angel.
Hire purchase • Quick and easy to • Interest rates are higher.
acquire equipment. • The good can be taken
away from the buyer if
their payment is late.
Trade credit • An interest free source of • The cost of goods can be
finance. higher if paid for at a
later date.
• Delaying the payment
can result in a poor
relationship between the
firm and its suppliers.
Leasing • No large sums of money • In the long term, it is
need to be allocated for more expensive than the
the purchase of the outright purchase.
equipment. • Interest rates are higher.
• Useful when equipment • Not able to secure any
is used occasionally. loans with another
• Maintenance is not the institution on assets that
responsibility of the user. are leased.
69
ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE Costs and revenues
3.2 Costs and revenues
Fixed costs cost of production paid, regardless of production levels. Fixed

costs can change, but this is independent of output levels.
E.g., rent, bank loans, lighting, market research, salaries.
(Total) Variable costs the costs of production, that change in proportion

with the level of output or sales.
E.g., raw materials, labour cost per item.
Total variable cost = Average variable cost ⇥ quantity
Total costs the sum of the fixed costs and the total variable costs to produce a
product.
Total cost = Fixed costs + Variable costs
Semi-variable costs contain elements of fixed and variable costs. They tend
to change only when production or sales exceed a certain level of
output.
E.g., Wi-fi up to 20 GB, when you exceed 20, there is extra charge.
Direct costs costs specifically related to a certain project or output of a

product, without which the costs wouldn’t exist.
E.g., raw materials.
Indirect costs (overheads) costs that can’t be clearly linked production or

sale of a single product.
E.g., lighting, admin staff salaries, stationary.
70
ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE Break even analysis 3
3.2.1 Revenue Streams
Revenue streams the locations in which money can come from.
Sales revenue = Price ⇥ Quantity sold

Total revenue
Average revenue =
Quantity
Average revenue = Price
• Advertising: e.g., Google or YouTube ads.

• Transaction fees: e.g., credit card companies.
• Franchise costs and royalties: the amount paid to a brand to use its name and
image.
• Sponsorship revenue.
• Subscription fees.
• Merchandise: e.g., football kits.
• Donations.
• Interest earnings: bank interest.
• Subsidies.
3.3 Break even analysis
Break-even analysis used to determine what quantity of a particular good a

business needs to produce in order to cover all the costs of production (
to “break-even”).
3.3.1 Contribution
Total contribution the amount of money left over after variable costs have
been subtracted from revenue. The money contributes towards fixed
costs and profit.
Total contribution = (Price ) ⇥ Quantity

Total contribution = Total revenue Total variable costs
Contribution per unit = Selling price Average variable cost
71
ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE Break even analysis
3.3.2 Break even analysis
ue
en
1 Draw and label the axes with units
ev
Costs and revenues ($)
lr
ta
To
t s
Draw the total fixed costs line (usually given) cos
2 otal
T
3 Draw the total costs line

Total fixed costs
4 Draw the total revenue line

Outputs (units)
Break even grapf for
5 Identify the break even quantity and cost
Costs and revenues ($)

t$
ofi
Label the margin of safety and units Pr
6
Margin of
safety ( units)
7 Identify the areas of profit and loss on the graph
ss
Lo
8 Title the graph
BEQ ( units)
Outputs (units)
3.3.3 Determining the break-even point

Using the TR = TC rule
The break even quantity can be calculated by comparing total sales revenue with total
costs. Therefore:
Price ⇥ Quantity = TVC
Using the contribution per unit rule
The quickest method

Fixed costs
Break-even =
Contribution per unit
Interpretation of a break-even chart
Look at a chart and estimate the level of break-even.
72
ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE Break even analysis 3
Other uses of break-even charts include:
Target profit: how many units of output need to be produced to generate a certain level
of profit?
Fixed Costs + Target Profit
Q=
Contribution per unit
Break-even price: how much do we need to charge for out product in order to
break-even?
Total Cost
Break-even price =
Output
Price needed to reach a target profit: what price does a business need to charge in
order to reach a target rate of profit?
Profit Target + Total Cost

Price =
Output
Margin of safety
The margin of safety is the range of output between the break-even output and the
current level of output (assuming this level of output is above the break-even point), over
which profit is made. Business would want to calculate their margin of safety in order to
know by how much sales could fall before a loss is made. Naturally, the larger the margin
of safety the better. We calculate it by subtracting the break-even output from the
current level of output.
Margin of safety = Current level of output Break-even output
3.3.4 Causes for changes in break-even
• Level of demand may change.

• Reducing prices to increase demand may at fist be effective, but it is unsustainable.
• Profit depends on the level of risk involved.
• Innovation and the introduction of new technologies can easily affect break-even.
• Luck.
73
ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE Final accounts
3.3.5 The benefits and limitations of break-even

analysis
• Works well for businesses with • Assumes cost functions are linear but in
standardised products. reality economies of scale affects costs.
• Works well for businesses in one single • Assumes that no discounts will be
market. made.
• Works well for pre-order products. • Assumes all output is sold.
• Static.
• Garbage in garbage out.
• Qualitative factors can affect
break-even.
• Only suitable for single product firms.
3.4 Final accounts
3.4.1 The purpose of accounts to different

stakeholders
Shareholders: share owners are interested to see where money was spent, and the return
on investments. They can then decide whether to hold, sell or buy more shares.
Employees: staff might want to assess the likelihood of pay increase and job security.
Managers: use financial accounts to judge the operational efficiency of their
organisations. It can be useful for target setting and strategic planning.
Competitors: rivals are interested in the final accounts to make comparisons of financial
performance.
Government: tax authorities examine accounts of businesses, especially large
multinationals to ensure they pay the right amount of tax.
Financiers: financial lenders such as banks or business angels scrutinise the accounts
before providing any funds.
Potential investors: private institutional investors use accounts and ratio analysis to
assess whether investments would be financially worthwhile.
3.4.2 ACCA’s 5 ethical principles of accounting
• Integrity.
• Objectivity.
• Professional competence and due care.
• Confidentiality.
• Professional behaviour.
74
ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE Final accounts 3
3.4.3 The profit and loss account

.
Profit and loss account for the for the year ended 1 April 20
Example
Company
• Sales revenue: 450 • Purchases: 100 • Expenses: 150

• Opening stock: 200 • Closing Stock: 100 • Interest: 8
Sales revenue 450 ! SR
Trading account
Cost of goods sold ! COGS
Shows the difference
Opening stock 200 ! OS between revenue and
production costs, thus
Purchases 100 !P
showing gross profit
Closing stock 100 ! CS
200 ! COGS = OS + P CS
Gross profit 250 ! GP = SR COGS
Less expenses 150 !E

Net profit before interest and tax 100 ! NPBIT = GP E
Profit and loss account

Less interest 8
Shows the net profit of a
Net profit before tax 92 ! NPBT = NPBIT interest business at the end of a
trading period. This
shows the surplus made
Less tax (10%) 9.2
Net profit after interest and tax 82.8 ! NPAIT = NPBT tax
Appropriation account
Dividends (30%) 24.84 Shows how the net profit
Retained profit (70%) 57.96 after interest and tax is
distributed
Disadvantages
• Shows historical performance, there is no guarantee that future performance is

linked to past performance or success.
• Window dressing can occur (i.e., legal manipulation of accounts to make them
look financially more attractive).
• There is no internationally devised formula, therefore its not completely
transferable.
75
ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE Final accounts
3.4.4 The balance sheet

.
Balance Sheet for as at

Example
Company Date
$
Fixed assets
Premises 1500
Machinery and equipment 500
2000 ! Total fixed assets
Current assets
Cash 250
Debtors 30
Stocks 200
480 ! Total current assets
Current liabilities
Short term loans 15
Trade creditors 250
Taxation 35
Dividends 20
320 ! Total current liabilities
Net current assets 160 ! AKA Working capital = current assets current liabilities
Total assets less current liabilities 2160 ! Fixed assets + current assets current liabilities
Long term liabilities

Mortgage 500
Debentures 500
Bank loans 100
1100 ! Total long term liabilities
®
Net assets = fixed assets + working capital long term liabilities
Net assets 1060 !
Net assets = total assets total liabilities
Financed by:
Share capital 1000
Retained profit 60
Equity 1060 ! Equity = Net Assets
Disadvantages
• Balance sheets are static, and so the financial position of a firm may be largely different
every day.
• Figures are not completely accurate, the value of fixed assets can only be known once
they are sold.
• Since there is no specific format globally, it may be difficult to compare balance sheets
with competitors.
• Not all assets are included in balance sheets, including intangible assets and the value
of human capital.
76
ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE Final accounts 3
3.4.5 Types of intangible assets
• Brand.
• Patents.
• Copyright.
• Goodwill.
• Registered Trademarks.
3.4.6 Depreciation
Depreciation indicates how much of fixed asset’s value has been used up. Machinery the
business bought a year ago will not have the same value now. This is because the asset is
used in production. Two methods of calculating depreciation:
Straight line method
This method assumes that a fixed asset depreciates by the same value every year.
Original cost residual value

Depreciation allowance =
Expected life (years)
Thus, if a piece of machinery for ABC Ltd. originally costs =C28 000 and the residual
value is estimated at =C4 000 and expected life at 4 years, depreciation allowance would be:
C28000
= C4000
=
Depreciation allowance = = =C6000
4
So, how do we see what the value of a fixed asset will be in those 4 years? We make a
table, where following the idea of the straight line method, we subtract the same
depreciation allowance each year.
This is how you should present it in your exam:
Year Depreciation Allowance (euro) Net book value (euro)

0 – 28000
1 6000 22000
2 6000 16000
3 6000 10000
4 6000 4000
• Simple. • Assumes that the depreciation is linear.

• Quick. • Not realistic for something to decrease
• Most common, especially in Europe. at an equal amount each year.
77
ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE Profitability and liquidity ratio analysis
Reducing balance method
This method assumes that the depreciation charge in the early years of an asset’s life
should be higher than in later years, which is more realistic. To do this, the asset must be
written off by the same percentage rate each year.
Year Depreciation Allowance (euro) Net book value (euro)

0 – 28000
1 = 28000 ⇥ 40% = 11200 16800
2 = 16800 ⇥ 40% = 6720 10080
3 = 10080 ⇥ 40% = 4032 6048
4 = 6048 ⇥ 40% = 2419 3629
• Can give a more accurate figure. • More realistic in representing the falling
market value of a fixed asset over time.
• Not as straight-forward.
• Depreciation value is subjective.
3.5 Profitability and liquidity ratio analysis
3.5.1 Profitability ratios
Profitability ratios help show how well a business is doing and they are focused on
profit, capital employed and total revenue. The profit figure alone is not a useful
performance indicator because it is necessary to look at the value of profit in relation to
the value of turnover or the amount of money that has been invested in the business.
Gross profit margin

Shows the gross profit made on sales turnover.
gross profit
Gross profit margin = ⇥ 100
sales revenue
Higher gross margins are preferable to lower ones. It is possible to rise the gross profit
margin by raising turnover relative to cost of sales, for example, by increasing price.
Note: Businesses that have high stock turnover tend to have lower gross profit margin
compared to those businesses whose stock turnover is lower.
Improving gross profit margin
• Raise revenue.
• Reduce direct costs.
78

BM Study Guide HL

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BM Study Guide HL

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

BM Study Guide HL

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BUSINESS ORGANISATION AND ENVIRONMENT Introduction to business and management 1

1.1 Introduction to business and

1.1.1 The role of a business in combining

Inputs Processes Outputs

1.1.2 Functions of a business

1.1.3 Business sectors

• Examples: coal mining, vegetable harvesting.

Primary Secondary sector Tertiary sector

manufacture transport advertising

extraction assembly warehousing selling

1.1.4 Sectoral change

Primary Secondary Tertiary Quarternary

Reasons for sectoral change

1.1.5 Entrepreneurship vs. intrapreneurship

Entrepreneur an individual who plans, organises and manages a business,

Intrapreneur the act of being an entrepreneur but as an employee within a

• Owners/operators. • Employees of the organisation.

1.1.6 Reasons for starting up a business

1.1.7 Steps in the process of starting up a

1. Write a business plan.

1.1.8 Factors to consider when starting up a

1.1.9 Problems that a new business might face

• Unestablished customer base.

1.1.10 Elements of a business plan

• Details of the business and the owners.

1.2 Types of organisations

1.2.1 Public vs. private sectors

• Owned and controlled by private • Owned by the government.

Private sector Public sector

Sole traders Private limited companies (Ltd.)

1.2.2 For profit (commercial) organisations

Types of for-profit organisations

Unincorporated businesses businesses where there is no legal distinction

Incorporated businesses businesses that have a separate legal entity from

• Fewer legal formalities. • Unlimited liability (unincorporated).

Partnerships a profit-seeking business owned by multiple people (at least

• Set up costs are inexpensive and quick. • Unlimited Liability (unincorporated).

• Limited liability. • Profits have to be shared among much

Public Limited Company (PLC) Often big, multinational companies

1.2.3 For-profit (social) enterprises

Social Enterprise revenue generating businesses with social objectives at the

Cooperatives businesses owned and run by their members, including

• More incentive to work. • Disincentive effects.

Microfinance providers a financial service aimed at financing disadvantaged

• Disadvantaged people have access to • Immorality (micro-finance providers

Public-private partnerships when the government works together with the

1.2.4 Non-profit social enterprises

Non-profit social enterprises businesses run in a commercial manner but

Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) non-profit social enterprise

• Social benefits. • Bureaucracy.

1.3 Organisation objectives

1.3.1 Vision and mission statements

Vision statement specifies the long term aspirations of a business; where it

Mission statement a declaration of the underlying purpose of an

Three levels of objectives can be distinguished: AIM

1.3.2 The need for change in objectives

1.3.3 Corporate social responsibility and business

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) the consideration of ethical and

CSR aims to: