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11 ENGINE FUEL CONTROL SYSTEMS

11.1 INTRODUCTION
The thrust of a turbo jet is controlled by varying the amount of fuel that is burnt in the
combustion system and in order to operate the safe temperature limits, the amount of
fuel that is burnt must be governed by the amount of air that is available at the time.
The air supply is dependent upon the RPM of the compressor and the density of the
air at its inlet, so under a constant set of atmospheric conditions, the RPM of the
compressor is an indication of the engine thrust. The pilot has control of the fuel flow
to the combustion system and is able to select any compressor RPM, between
ground idling and the maximum permissible which is required for take off conditions,
by the operation of a cockpit lever.
In the normal operational environment of an aircraft engine, atmospheric conditions
can vary over a wide range of air temperatures and pressures resulting in changes of
air density at the compressor inlet. A reduction in air density will cause a reduction in
the amount of air delivered to the combustion system at a selected RPM, with a
consequent increase in the combustion chamber temperature. If the fuel flow is not
reduced, a rise in compressor RPM will occur accompanied with overheating of the
combustion and turbine assemblies. An increase in air density will result in an
increase in the amount of air delivered to the combustion system at a selected RPM
and unless the fuel flow is increased, a reduction in RPM will occur.
Changes in air density at the compressor inlet are caused by:-
a) Altitude. The density of the air gets progressively less as the altitude is
increased, therefore less fuel will be required in order to maintain the selected
RPM.
b) Forward Speed. The faster the aircraft flies then the faster the air is forced
into the aircraft intake. A well designed aircraft intake will slow down this
airflow, converting its kinetic energy into pressure energy, so that it arrives at
the compressor inlet at an optimum velocity (0.5 Mach) with an increase in
pressure and hence density. This is known as Ram Effect and plays an
important part in the performance of a turbo-jet. Within certain limits the
greater the ram effect, the greater the air mass flow and more fuel can be
burnt at the selected RPM, producing more thrust.
11.2 PURPOSE OF THE ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM
The purpose of the engine fuel system is to deliver to the combustion system, in a
readily combustible form, the correct amount of fuel over the whole operating range
of the engine, as required by the pilot.

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A Typical Engine Fuel System

Figure 11.1.

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11.3 LAYOUT OF TYPICAL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The figure 11.1. illustrates the layout of components of a representative fuel system.
11.3.1 AIRCRAFT MOUNTED COMPONENTS
a) Fuel Tanks. Stores sufficient fuel for the aircraft’s designed flight duration.
b) Booster Pump. Ensures a constant supply of fuel at low pressure to the inlet
of the engine driven HP Fuel Pump.
c) Low Pressure Cock. Isolates the engine fuel system from the aircraft fuel
system in the event of engine fire or for maintenance.
NOTE: These aircraft mounted components will be dealt with in greater detail during
the Aircraft Systems Phase.
11.3.2 THE ENGINE LP FUEL SYSTEM
LP Fuel Pump.
Form the LP Cock fuel passes to an engine driven LP Fuel Pump which serves two
purposes:
a. To boost pressure of the fuel to prevent cavitation of the HP pump.
b. To provide means of drawing fuel from the fuel tanks in the event of
failure of the fuel boost pump in the tank.
These are normally centrifugal type pumps which will boost pressure in the region of
5-10 psi.
Fuel/air heat exchanger.
To reduce the possibility of low temperatures forming ice, in the fuel heating is
applied . Fuel heating is achieved by passing the fuel through a form of radiator
which uses hot air (or hot oil) to control and maintain fuel temperature above
freezing.
LP Fuel Filter.
The filter element may be made of felt, paper or in some cases wire wound. Its
purpose is to prevent foreign particles from entering the engine fuel system. An
indication of the filter ‘clogged’ may be provided on the flightdeck. Not withstanding
this a by-pass will be incorporated to ensure that the fuel supply , albeit possibly
contaminated is still available.
11.3.3 THE ENGINE HP FUEL SYSTEM
HP Pump.
Fuel from the LP Fuel filter passes to the HP pump depending on RPM and FCU in
the region of 600-800 psi. This HP fuel is then fed to the fuel control unit (FCU).

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Fuel Control Unit.

The FCU will meter the engines fuel requirements based upon a given set of
conditions at any given time:
a. Throttle position.
b. Ambient pressure (Pamb)
c. Ambient temperature (T12)
d. HP compressor RPM (N2)
e. Compressor discharge pressure (CDP)
Fuel in excess of that required is returned to the inlet side of the HP pump. Metered
fuel is then fed to the flowmeter via a throttles and HP cock.
Throttle and HP cock.
The fuel control operating levers can be a combined throttle and HP cock lever or
separate levers. The position of the throttle lever determines the power required, the
HP shutoff cock controls the supply of fuel from the FCU to the burners, when closed
the engine will be shut down, when open fuel will be available to the burners.
Fuel Flowmeter.
The fuel flowmeter will measure the amount of fuel being fed to the burners and relay
this information to the flightdeck. A gauge calibrated in either pounds or kilograms will
indicate to the operator how much fuel is being consumed an hour. A second window
within this gauge may also indicate how much fuel the engine has consumed by the
engine during the flight.
Fuel/oil Heat Exchanger
Similar to the heat exchanger used to heat the fuel, this heat exchanger will use the
HP fuel supply to cool the engine oil.
Pressurising and Dump Valve.
From the fuel/oil heat exchanger HP metered fuel passes to the pressurising and
dump valve. It function is to:
a. Prevent fuel flowing to the burners during the starting phase until such time
as fuel pressure is sufficient to give good atomisation of the fuel thus
ensuring good light-up.
b. Allow sufficient pressure to build up within the Fuel Control Unit (FCU)
servo/hydraulic control systems ensuring correct metering of fuel supply is
achieved during starting.
c. Enable a rapid dump of fuel remaining in the pipelines to the burners on
shutdown.

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Burners.
The type of burners employed will vary with design. Two basic types are in common
use, atomisers and vaporisers, and their common purpose is to supply fuel in a
readily combustible form over the whole operating range of the engine.
11.4 FACTORS GOVERNING FUEL REQUIREMENTS
The factors that determine the quantity of fuel that constitutes ‘the correct amount’ to
be delivered to the combustion system at any one time are:-
a) The RPM selected.
b) The density of the air at the compressor inlet.
c) The rate at which the engine can accept the fuel into the combustion system
under conditions of engine acceleration.
11.5 REQUIREMENTS OF THE ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM
a) The selection of the RPM must be under the control of the pilot and the
system must ensure that the maximum permissible RPM is not exceeded.
b) The fuel must be introduced into the combustion system in a readily
combustible form and the system must be able to automatically adjust the fuel
flow to match the air available in order to maintain the selected RPM under all
operating conditions.
11.6 ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
In order to achieve its purpose, the engine fuel system will incorporate the following
components:-
a) High pressure fuel pump.
b) Fuel flow-controlling devices.
c) Burners.
11.7 FUEL PUMPS
The type of fuel pump used may vary from one engine type to another and their
common purpose is to supply the correct amount of fuel to the burners at a sufficient
rate of flow to ensure operation over the whole range of engine operation. The pump
is driven by the engine via a suitable gear train.
11.7.1 FUEL PUMP REQUIREMENTS
Because the fuel flow requirements of an engine running at a constant RPM will vary
with changing atmospheric conditions, the fuel pump must be capable of delivering
fuel at flow rates in excess of the maximum engine demand at any particular RPM,
eg. its output must be variable independently of its speed of rotation.
The output of the engine driven fuel pump is dependent on engine RPM and
controlling signals from various fuel flow controlling devices.

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There are two basic types of fuel pump, the plunger-type pump and the constant
delivery gear-type pump; both of these are positive displacement pumps. Where
lower pressures are required at the burners (spray nozzles), the gear-type pump is
preferred because of its lightness.

11.7.2 PLUNGER-TYPE FUEL PUMP

The pump shown in the figure 11.2. is of the single-unit, variable-stroke, plunger type;
similar pumps may be used as double units depending upon the engine fuel flow
requirements.
The fuel pump is driven by the engine gear train and its output depends upon its
rotational speed and the stroke of the plungers. A single-unit fuel pump can deliver
fuel at the rate of 100 to 2,000 gallons per hour at a maximum pressure of about
2,000 lb/in2.
The fuel pump consists of a rotor assembly fitted with several plungers, the ends of
which project from their bores and bear on to a non-rotating camplate or swashplate.
Due to the inclination of the camplate, movement of the rotor imparts a reciprocating
motion to the plungers, thus producing a pumping action. The stroke of the plungers
is determined by the angle of inclination of the camplate. The degree of inclination is
varied by the movement of a servo piston that is mechanically linked to the camplate
and is biased by springs to give the full stroke position of the plungers. The piston is
subjected to servo pressure on the spring side and on the other side to pump delivery
pressure; thus, variations in the pressure difference across the servo piston cause it
to move with corresponding variations of the camplate angle and, therefore, pump
stroke.

Plunger Type Fuel Pump or Swash Plate Pump.

Figure 11.2.

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11.7.3 GEAR-TYPE FUEL PUMP

The gear-type fuel pump (see figure 11.3.) is driven from the engine and its output is
directly proportional to its speed. The fuel flow to the spray nozzles is controlled by
re-circulating excess fuel delivery back to inlet. A spill valve, sensitive to the
pressure drop across the controlling units in the system, opens and closes as
necessary to increase or decrease the spill.

Gear Type Fuel Pump System.

Figure 11.3.

11.8 FUEL FLOW CONTROL

Control of the fuel flow to the burners is by two main methods:-
a) Manual control by the pilot.
b) Automatic adjustment of fuel flow to correct for basic engine requirements.
(i) Changes in intake pressure.
(ii) Excessive fuel to air ratio during engine acceleration.
(iii) Additional controlling devices as determined by specific engine
requirements.

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11.8.1 BASIC FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM

Principle of Fuel Metering
The flow of a fluid through an orifice (jet) depends on the area of the orifice and the
square root of the pressure drop across it, ie:-
Fuel Flow = Orifice Area x √Pressure Drop

Principle of Fuel Metering Valve.

Figure 11.4.
Thus it is possible to vary fuel flow by changing orifice area or the pressure drop
across the orifice. In a fuel system the orifice is variable and is in fact the throttle
valve.
11.8.1.1 Application to Flow Control System
In the flow control system the fuel flow required to give a selected RPM is selected by
throttle area under the control of the pilot (manual control). Compensation for air
density variation is superimposed on this selection by the altitude sensing control unit
(pressure drop control unit) varying the pressure difference across the throttle valve.
11.8.1.2 Control Principle
The controlling principle of a flow control system is that a constant throttle pressure
drop is maintained irrespective of throttle area (position) for a given height and
speed.

Constant Pressure Drop.

Figure 11.5.

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11.8.1.3 Principle of Flow Control System (See Figure 11.6.)

If however, height and speed change, then the altitude sensing unit will vary the
pump output and fuel flow (thus throttle pressure drop) by changing the pump output
at constant throttle setting.

Principle of Barometric Flow Control.

Figure 11.6.

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11.9 HYDRO-MECHANICAL CONTROL UNITS

In hydro-mechanically operated flow control units (FCUs), the method of control is to
use servo fuel as a hydraulic fluid to vary fuel flow (eg. by varying pump swash-plate
angle). The pressure of the servo fuel is varied by controlling the rate of flow out of
an orifice at the end of the servo line; the higher the outflow, the lower will be servo
pressure and vice versa. There are two types of variable orifice: the half-ball valve
and the kinetic valve.

Half Ball Valve System.

Figure 11.7.

11.9.1.1 The Half-Ball Valve.

In this arrangement, a half-ball on the end of a pivot arm is suspended above the
fixed outlet orifice (see figure 11.7). Up and down movement of the valve varies
servo fuel outflow and thus servo pressure and pump output.
11.9.1.2 The Kinetic Valve. Figure 11.8.
A line containing pump output fuel is so placed as to discharge on to the face of the
servo outflow orifice and the kinetic energy so produced restricts servo fuel bleed. A
blade can be moved downwards to interrupt the high-pressure flow; this reduces the
impact onto the servo orifice, thus causing a greater outflow and a reduction in servo
pressure (see figure11.8.). The kinetic valve is less prone to dirt blockage than the
half-ball type, although it is more complex.

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Condition 1. With the kinetic

valve in the open position, the
blade separates the opposing
flows from pump delivery and
the servo cylinder. As there is
no opposition to the servo flow,
the volume of servo fluid
reduces and the piston moves
against the spring under the
influence of pump delivery
pressure. The movement of the
piston reduces the pump stroke
and therefore it’s output.

Condition 2. With the valve fully

closed, the kinetic energy of the
pump delivery fuel prevents
leakage from the servo
chamber. Servo fuel pressure
therefore increases and, with
the assistance of the spring,
overcomes the pump delivery
pressure, thus moving the piston
to increase the pump stroke and
output.

Condition 3. Under steady

running conditions, the valve
assumes an intermediate
position such that the servo fuel
and spring pressure exactly
balances the pump delivery
pressure.

Kinetic Valve
Figure 11.8.

11.9.2 BAROMETRIC CONTROLS

The function of the barometric control is to alter fuel flow to the burners with changes
in intake total pressure (P1) and pilot’s throttle movement. Several different types of
hydro-mechanical barometric control are available. Three of the most common types
are described. For simplicity, the description and operation of each type of flow
control is related to the half-ball valve method of controlling servo fuel pressure.

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Simple Flow Control.

The Simple Flow Control Unit (see figure 11.9.) comprises a half-ball valve acting on
servo fuel bleed, whose position is determined by the action of an evacuated capsule
(immersed in P1 air) and a piston subjected to the same pressure drop as the throttle
valve. Fuel from the pump passes at pressure P pump through the throttle, where it
experiences a pressure drop to burner pressure P burner. The response to P1 and
throttle variations can now be examined.

Simple Flow Control.

Figure 11.9.
Throttle Variations.
If the pilot opens the throttle, the throttle orifice area increases, throttle pressure drop
reduces and therefore PPUMP falls, PBURNER rises and the piston moves down, allowing
the spring to lower the half-ball valve against the capsule force, increasing servo
pressure and pump output. The increased fuel flow increases the throttle pressure
drop to its original value, returning the half-ball valve to its sensitive position.
P1 Variations.
If the aircraft climbs, P1 will fall, causing the capsule to expand and raise the half-ball
valve against the spring force. Servo pressure will fall, swashplate angle will reduce
and fuel pump output will reduce. The reduced flow will cause a reduced throttle
pressure drop.
Thus Simple Flow Control keeps the throttle pressure drop constant, regardless of
throttle position. At very high altitude the system becomes insensitive and it is not
used on large turbo-jets. Nevertheless, it is fitted on the Adour and Dart and has
proved to be a reliable and fairly accurate control unit.

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11.9.3 ACCELERATION CONTROL UNITS

The function of the Acceleration Control Unit (ACU) is to provide surge-free
acceleration during rapid throttle openings. There are two main types of hydro-
mechanical ACU in service.
The Flow Type ACU.
With the flow type ACU (see figure 11.10.) all the fuel from the pump passes through
the unit, which compares fuel flow with compressor outlet pressure (P3), which is
proportional to engine speed.
The fuel from the pump passes through an orifice containing a contoured plunger; the
pressure drop across the orifice is also sensed across a diaphragm.
When the throttle is opened, the pump moves towards maximum stroke and fuel flow
increases. The increased flow through the ACU orifice increases the pressure drop
across it and the diaphragm moves to the right, raising the half ball valve and
restricting pump stroke. The engine now speeds up in response to the limited over-
fuelling and P3 rises, compressing the capsule. The plunger servo pressure drops
and the plunger falls until arrested by the increased spring force. The orifice size
increases, pressure drop reduces and the diaphragm moves to the left, closing the
half-ball valve and increasing fuel flow. Fuel flow will increase in direct proportion to
the increase in P3.

Acceleration Control Using Compressor Discharge Pressure.

Figure 11.10.

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The Air Switch.

In order to keep the acceleration line close to the surge line, it is necessary to control
on “Split P3 air” (a mix of P3/P1) initially and then on full P3 at higher engine speeds.
This is achieved by the air switch (or P1/P3 switch) shown in the figure 11.11. At low
speeds, P3 passes through a plate valve to P1 and the control capsule is operated by
reduced, or split P3 until P3 becomes large enough to close the plate valve and
control is then on full P3.

Air Switch
Figure 11.11.

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The dashpot Type ACU.

The dashpot ACU uses two co-axially mounted throttle valves, The inner one is
moved by the pilot, the outer (main) throttle valve will move but is controlled by a
dashpot which slows the valve movement down to limit the acceleration fuel flow.
When closing the throttle the pilot pushes both sleeves in together.

LP FUEL
HP FUEL
THROTTLE OUTLET PRESSURE
THROTTLE CONTROL
THROTTLE SERVO
STEADY

CLOSED INITIAL ACCELERATION

FINAL ACCELERATION

Dashpot Throttle.
Figure 11.12.

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11.10 ENGINE PROTECTION DEVICES

Described below are typical protection devices that will override any excessive
demands made on the engine by the pilot or by the control units.
11.10.1 TOP TEMPERATURE LIMITER.
Turbine gas temperature is measured by thermocouples in the jet pipe. When
maximum temperature is reached, these pass a signal to an amplifier, which limits
pump stroke by reducing pump servo pressure or moves the throttle valve in series
with the pilot.
11.10.2 POWER LIMITER.
A power limiter is fitted to some engines to prevent over-stressing due to excessive
compressor outlet pressure during high-speed, low altitude running. The limiter (see
figure 11.13) takes the form of a half-ball valve which is opened against a spring
force when compressor outlet press (P3) reaches its maximum value. The half-ball
valve bleeds off air pressure to the ACU control capsule, thus causing the ACU to
reduce pump stroke.

Power Limiter.
Figure 11.13.

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11.10.3 OVERSPEED GOVERNOR.

The engine is protected against over-speeding by a governor, which, in hydro-
mechanical systems, is usually fitted on the fuel pump and acts by bleeding off pump
servo fuel when the governed speed is reached. On two-spool engines, the pump is
driven from the HP shaft and the LP shaft is protected by either a mechanical
governor or an electro-mechanical device, again acting through the hydro-
mechanical control system. There are two types of pump-driven governors:
11.10.3.1 Centrifugal Governor.
The centrifugal type of governor uses the centrifugal pressure of fuel in radial
drillings in the fuel pump rotor to deflect a diaphragm at maximum speed. The
diaphragm operates on a half-ball valve to reduce pump servo pressure and thus
pump stroke. The disadvantage of this type is that it needs to be reset if fuel specific
gravity changes. It is seldom used on modern engines.

Centrifugal Governor
Figure 11.14.

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Centrifugal governors using bob weights are used as LP shaft governors on

some engines. They will return fuel to low pressure when the LP shaft
overspeeds see figure 11.15.

Centrifugal LP Governor
Figure 11.15.

11.10.3.2 Hydro-mechanical Governor.

In the hydro-mechanical governor the pump drive shaft rotates a rotor
containing a half-ball valve on a lever arm (shown in the figure 11.16.). As
engine speed increases, centrifugal force closes the valve, increasing the
pressure of fuel in the governor housing (governor pressure) by restricting its
flow to LP. When the maximum speed is reached, governor pressure is high
enough to deflect a diaphragm, which opens the half-ball valve acting on
pump servo. A hydro-mechanical governor does not require adjustment for
changes in fuel specific gravity.

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HP SHAFT
GOVERNOR
LP FUEL

ROTATING
SPILL VALVE

SERVO FUEL

LP FUEL IN HP FUEL OUT

FUEL
PUMP LP FUEL
GOVERNOR FUEL
SERVO FUEL
HP FUEL

HP Hydro-Mechanical Governor.
Figure 11.16.

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11.11 BURNERS
11.11.1 ATOMISER BURNERS
This type of burner presents the fuel in a finely atomised spray by forcing the fuel to
pass through a small orifice. The size of the orifice is critical because it must atomise
the fuel effectively over a wide range of fuel flows, from idling to take off RPM.
Some engines have such a wide range of fuel flow requirements that a single orifice
is unable to perform the task effectively unless extremely high fuel pressures are
used and to combat this a burner with two different sized orifices are used. During
low fuel flow requirements, only the small or primary orifice is supplied with fuel and
at higher flow rates both primary and secondary orifices are in operation.

Simplex Burner Nozzle Detail.

Figure 11.17.

Both types of atomiser burners incorporate an air shroud, which directs some of the
primary air into the burner to assist atomisation and to cool the burner head to
prevent the formation of carbon.
The usual method of atomising the fuel is to pass it through a swirl chamber where
tangentially disposed holes or slots impart swirl to the fuel by converging its pressure
energy to kinetic energy. In this state, the fuel passes through the discharge orifice
where the swirl motion is removed as the fuel atomises to form a cone-shaped spray.
The shape of the spray is an important indication of the degree of atomisation; thus,
the rate of swirl and therefore the pressure of the fuel at the burner are important
factors in good atomisation.

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The simplex burner

A Simplex Burner.
Figure 11.18.
The Simplex burner shown in the figure 11.18. was first used on early jet engines. It
consists of a chamber, which induces a swirl into the fuel and a fixed area atomising
orifice. This burner gave good atomisation at the higher fuel flows, that is at the
higher burner pressures, but was very unsatisfactory at the low pressures required at
low engine speeds and especially at high altitudes. The reason for this is that the
Simplex burner was by the nature of its design a “square law” burner, that is the flow
through the burner is proportional to the square of the pressure drop across it. This
meant that if the minimum pressure for effective atomisation was 30 lbf/in2, the
pressure needed to give maximum flow would be about 3,000 lb/in2.

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The Duplex burner.

The Duplex burner or Duple
burner require a primary and a
main fuel manifold and have two
independent orifices, one much
smaller than the other. The
smaller orifice handles the lower
flows and the larger orifice deals
with the higher flows as the
burner pressure increases. A
pressurising valve may be
employed with this type of
burner to apportion the fuel to
the manifolds (see figure 11.19.).
As the fuel flow and pressure
increase, the pressurising valve
moves to progressively admit
fuel to the main manifold and the
main orifices. This gives
combined flow down both
manifolds. In this way, the
Duplex and the Duple burner are
able to give effective atomisation
over a wider flow range than the
Simplex burner for the same
maximum burner pressure.
Also, efficient atomisation is
obtained at the low flows that
may be required at high altitude.
In the combined acceleration
and speed control system the
fuel flow to the burners is
apportioned in the FFR.

A Duple or Duplex Burner.

Figure 11.19.

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11.11.1.1 The Spray nozzle.

The spray nozzle (see figure 11.20.) carried a proportion of the primary combustion
air with the injected fuel. By aerating the spray, the local fuel-rich concentrations
produced by other types of burner are avoided, thus giving a reduction in both carbon
formation and exhaust smoke. An additional advantage of the spray nozzle is that
the low pressures required for atomisation of the fuel permits the use of the
comparatively lighter gear-type pump.

A Spray Nozzle.
Figure 11.20.

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11.11.2 VAPORISING BURNERS

This type of burner presents the fuel in the combustion system in the form of a rich
fuel vapour or gas. This is achieved by delivering the metered flow of fuel to “J”
shaped vaporising tubes, which protrude into the combustion chamber. The fuel
passes down the vaporising tubes in a coarse spray and mixes with the primary air
that enters concentrically to the fuel supply pipe. The fuel and air is mixed thoroughly
by pins that protrude into the primary airflow and the heat of the flame surrounding
the tube causes the mixture to vaporise before it emerges in the combustion
chamber.
The introduction of the primary air into the vaporising tubes aids the process of
vaporisation and also helps to cool the tubes to prevent the formation of carbon.
With this type of burner, the flame points towards the incoming airflow and this helps
to stabilise the flame in the vaporising tubes, preventing it being blown away by the
secondary air, thus allowing a relatively short combustion system.

A Vaporising Combustion Chamber.

Figure 11.21.

The advantages of this type are:-

a) Pre-vaporising gives complete combustion within a short length of flame tube.
b) A complete ring of flame around the annular chamber.
c) Even pressure and temperature around the chamber.

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Start Nozzle for a Vaporiser Combustion System

Figure 11.22.

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Starting Fuel Solenoid Valve

This solenoid valve is fitted on the starting fuel feed line. It is a two-position valve
spring loaded to the closed position. During starting, the solenoid is energised and
the valve opens. The flow is directed to the check valve. During the starting cycle
the solenoid is de-energised and the spring force closes the valve and the fuel flow to
check valve is stopped.
Check Valve
A check is fitted in the starter jet line downstream of the Priming Solenoid Valve to
prevent fuel dribbling into the combustion chamber on shut down.
It is a spring-loaded valve, which is closed at rest and opens when fuel pressure
reaches a pre-determined value.
Starter Jets
As vaporisers do not atomise the fuel sufficiently for combustion until they become
heated, for starting purposes initial heating during start is provided by four jets, two of
which are combined with High Energy Igniters. The starter jets ensure that, even at
the low flows encountered during start, the fuel is atomised as required for light up.
Pressurising Valve
A pressurising valve is fitted in the main gallery feed line. It is spring-loaded which
functions to build up and stabilise the metering system servo pressures before any
flow to the main gallery. Thereby it ensures the correct delivery of fuel to the
vaporisers during start.
Main Gallery and Vaporisers
The main gallery connects with delivery tubes, each feeding one vaporiser head
through a distribution orifice. The delivery tubes are fitted in pairs on the combustion
chamber outer case.
Fuel is mixed with air in the vaporiser tubes. As the mixture passes through the
heated tube, the fuel becomes vaporised so that it is delivered in combustible form.
A single unit houses the check and pressurising valves. A purge flow tapped
upstream the pressurising valve is connected to the check valve via a purge
restrictor. This ensures a continued fuel flow through the starter jets to avoid
formation of carbon in this area.
11.11.3 COMBUSTION AND AIRFLOW
The addition of fuel to compressor air and the resulting continuous combustion gives
a release of heat and an increase in volume, which is converted to an increase in
velocity. In the combustion chamber the heat release (combustion efficiency) may be
as high as 99%.
More power and efficiency result from “rich” mixtures, but these are limited by
maximum turbine temperatures. Therefore fuel supplies must be limited so that an
overall air/fuel ratio of about 60:1 at maximum rpm is achieved. At other rpm the
ratio will change due to changing efficiencies of turbine and compressor. The
“correct” mixture strength is 15:1 hence only about a quarter of the air passing
through the engine is used for combustion. (15% - 25% is the typical range).

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In the flame area the ratio is about 13:1 and around the flame centre a weaker ratio
of 18:1 is used to ensure complete combustion with no carbon formation.
The flame rate at an atomising burner is 2-10 ft/sec and at a vaporiser, 60 ft/sec.
Both figures are low compared with the air velocity through the combustion zone,
hence the requirement for a low velocity zone at the burner to (a) aid ignition and (b)
maintain the flame at the burner.
Theoretically, combustion in a gas turbine is at “constant pressure”, ie. the pressure
along the combustion chamber does not change due to combustion but could alter
due to changes in rpm and air intake pressure.
In practice the combustion chamber shape affects the pressure and they are
designed to minimise this and a drop of 4% along its length is usual.
Flame temperature is high; a constant 2,000°C at the centre. Flame size, however,
can change and the bigger the flame becomes the higher goes Turbine Entry
Temperature and Jet Pipe Temperature (TET and JPT).
“Over-fuelling” gives a larger flame and “Under-fuelling” a smaller; the significance of
these will be seen in a later note.

Diagram of Fuel/Air Ratio to Mass Flow.

Figure 11.23.

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11.12 ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Advances in gas turbine technology have demanded more precise control of engine
parameters than can be provided by hydromechanical fuel controls alone. These
demands are met by electronic engine controls, or EEC, of which there are two
types: supervisory and full-authority.
11.12.1 SUPERVISORY ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL
The first type of EEC is a supervisory control that works with a proven
hydromechanical fuel control.
The major components in the supervisory control system include the electronic
control itself, the hydromechanical fuel control on the engine, and the bleed air and
variable stator vane control. The hydromechanical element controls the basic
operation of the engine including starting, acceleration, deceleration, and shutdown.
High-pressure rotor speed (N2), compressor stator vane angles, and engine bleed
system are also controlled hydromechanically. The EEC, acting in a supervisory
capacity, modulates the engine fuel flow to maintain the designated thrust. The pilot
simply moves the throttle lever to a desired thrust setting position such as full
takeoff thrust, or maximum climb. The EEC adjusts the fuel flow as required to
maintain the thrust compensating for changes in flight and environmental
conditions. The EEC control also limits engine operating speed and temperature,
ensuring safe operation throughout the flight envelope.
If a problem develops, control automatically reverts to the hydromechanical system,
with no discontinuity in thrust. A warning signal is displayed in the cockpit, but no
immediate action is required by the pilot. The pilot can also revert to the
hydromechanical control at any time.
Electronic Engine Control
A typical example of an EEC system is that used in many of the Pratt and Whitney
100 series engines currently in service. A brief explanation of how the system works,
both in automatic and manual modes follows.

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Pratt & Whitney 100 Series Fuel Control System Schematic.

Figure 20.24.

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Automatic Operation (EEC mode)

The EEC receives signals from various sources:
a. Power Management Switch, enabling take off thrust, maximum continuous thrust,
climb thrust or cruise thrust settings to be selected.
b. Engine inlet pressure and temperature.
c. Ambient pressure.
d. Air data computer inputs. (a computer that senses pitot pressure, static pressure
and total air temperature)
e. Engine RPMs – N1 and N2.
f. Power lever position. (via a potentiometer)
g. Failure signals.
Based on these input signals the EEC will output command signals to adjust and
control:
a. The Hydromechanical Fuel Control Unit via a stepper motor which adjusts the
throttle metering valve.
b. Ignition circuits.
c. Bleed valves
d. Torque gauge
11.12.2 FUEL CONTROL
General
The fuel control is provided by the hydro-mechanical unit (HMU) The HMU is
supplied by the HP fuel pump and provides the required fuel quantity to the nozzles.
In normal operation the fuel control is managed by the Electronic Engine Control
(EEC). This enables accelerations and decelerations without engine surge or flame
out whatever the displacement sequence of the power lever. The HMU is also
mechanically connected to the power lever thus ensuring fuel control in case of
failure of the EEC.
Hydro-mechanical Unit (HMU)
The HMU comprises:
A stepper motor controlled by the EEC.
A lever which controls fuel shutoff.
A lever which controls the fuel flow.

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PW100 Series Fuel System Auto/Normal

Figure 20.25.

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Operation
The fuel flow supplied to the nozzles is mainly obtained through two valves:
a bypass valve
a metering valve.
The fuel enters the HMU from pump outlet with a constant flow. This flow is split by
the bypass valve into two flows, one for the nozzles (via the metering valve) and one
bypass return flow to the pump. The position of the bypass valve is a function of the
loss of fuel pressure caused by the metering valve. The metering valve is
pneumatically actuated. In the pneumatic servo block, the reference pressure is the
HP compressor outlet pressure, P3. A controlled reduction of the P3 pressure results
in a variable Py pressure which when opposed to a bellows device, moves the piston
of the metering valve.
The pneumatic servo block is managed:
in normal operation by the EEC
in manual operation, by the power input lever.
Normal Operation (EEC Mode)
According to the input data (pressures, temperatures, speeds) and to the
commanded power (power lever), the EEC controls a stepper motor located in the
HMU.
The stepper motor regulates Py pressure thus modulating the fuel flow as
requested. A governor acts on the Py pressure, thus setting an NH speed limit
function of the compression of a spring by a cam (EEC cam) connected to the power
lever.
Manual Operation (Manual Mode)
Py pressure is not regulated by the stepper motor but by the simultaneous
actions of the NH speed governor and the spring, compressed by a second cam
(manual cam) connected to the power lever.
Transfer from the EEC Mode to the Manual Mode.
In normal operation the EEC manages the fuel regulation. The manual operation
is automatically connected when the operation in the EEC mode is switched off. A
solenoid in the HMU selects the manual cam instead of the EEC cam and cancels
the regulation control through the stepper motor.
Operation of the HMU in the fail mode
In case of failure of the EEC, the position of the stepper motor is "frozen".
Whatever the increase of power through the power lever, the last NH speed
remains unchanged (the load applied by the spring on the NH speed governor
increases).For any power reduction through the power lever, the NH speed
decreases according to the curve of the EEC cam (decreasing spring load).

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PW 100 Series Fuel System in Manual Mode.

Figure 11.26.

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Full-Authority Digital Electronic Control (FADEC)

The supervisory control was a step toward the full-authority, fully redundant EEC. It
controls all engine functions and eliminates the need for the backup
hydromechanical control used in the supervisory system. The modern full authority
EEC is a digital electronic device called a full-authority digital electronic control, or
FADEC.
One of the basic purposes of the FADEC is to reduce flight crew workload. This is
achieved by the FADEC's control logic, which simplifies power settings for all engine
operating conditions. The throttle position is used to achieve consistent engine
settings regardless of flight or environmental conditions.
The FADEC establishes engine power through direct closed-loop control of the
engine ratio thrust-rating parameter. The required thrust is calculated as a function
of throttle lever angle, altitude, Mach number, and total air temperature. The air data
computer supplies altitude, Mach number, and total air temperature information, and
sensors provide measurements of engine temperatures, pressures, and speeds.
This data is used to provide automatic thrust control, engine limit protection,
transient control, and engine starting.
FADEC uses a pre-programmed schedule to obtain the correct thrust for the various
throttle lever angles, and it provides the correct thrust for any chosen angle during
changing flight or environmental conditions.
To get the desired thrust, the pilot has only to set the throttle lever to a position
which aligns the thrust command from the control with the reference indicator from
the aircraft thrust management computer. The control system automatically
accelerates or decelerates the engine to the desired level without the pilot having to
continually monitor the thrust gauge. Once a power setting has been selected, the
FADEC maintains it until the throttle lever position is changed.
A constant throttle lever angle setting can be used for takeoff and climb. In addition,
since the pilot sets engine thrust , and the system controls the thrust by using a
given throttle lever angle, the same thrust rating will be obtained on each engine at
the same throttle position. This eliminates throttle stagger.
The FADEC has many advantages over both the hydromechanical and supervisory
EEC. Some of these are:
• It requires no engine trimming
• It ensures improved engine starts
• It provides a constant idle speed with changes in atmospheric conditions and
changing service bleed air requirements
• It saves fuel by providing improved engine bleed air management
• It fully modulates the active clearance control (ACC) system (if fitted)
• It ensures more repeatable engine transients due to the higher precision of its
digital computer
• It provides engine limit protection by automatically limiting critical engine
pressures and speeds
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A typical FADEC system is that used in some of the Pratt and Whitney 4000 series
engines currently in service. A brief explanation of how the system works follows.
Fuel Distribution and Control Components (Figure 11.27.)
Components controlling and distributing the fuel to the burners include:
• FADEC/EEC
• Fuel/oil cooler and by pass valve
• Fuel metering unit
• Fuel distribution valve
• Fuel injector supply manifolds
• Fuel injectors

Fuel Distribution System of a FADEC Engine

Figure 11.27.

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Fuel Distribution
During operation, fuel flows from the aircraft fuel tank to the fuel-pump boost-stage
inlet. The pressurised fuel from the boost stage of the engine-driven fuel pump then
leaves the pump and is delivered to the fuel/oil cooler, whose purpose is to keep the
fuel sufficiently warm to prevent ice from forming in the fuel, and at the same time,
keep the maximum temperature of the oil within the correct limits. This engine is also
equipped with an air/oil heat exchanger, which uses fan air and 2.5 bleed air to
prevent the fuel from getting too hot.
From the fuel/oil cooler, the fuel is returned to the fuel pump, where it is filtered and
sent to the main pump stage to be further pressurised before it is sent to the fuel-
metering unit, which actually does the metering on the basis of information it receives
from the FADEC. The fuel-metering unit sends fuel to the fuel-flow transmitter, and
then to the fuel distribution valve. (Servo fuel, used as an actuation pressure to some
interface components, also comes from the fuel-metering unit.) Bypass fuel not sent
to the fuel distribution valve or servo supply is returned to pump interstage flow. From
the fuel distribution valve, the metered fuel flows through the fuel manifolds to the
fuel injectors.
The FADEC is the primary interface between the engine and the aircraft. The
FADEC contains two channels that are called "A" channel and "B" channel. Each
time the engine starts, alternate channels will automatically be selected. The
channels are linked together by an internal mating connector for crosstalk data
transmission. Much more is accomplished by this control than simply sending a
signal to the fuel-metering unit to establish a fuel flow to the nozzles.

Interface with Aircraft

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FADEC Interface with the Aircraft.

Figure 11.28.
The FADEC receives several refereed (a validated reference used to confirm
correct input) inputs and delivers several outputs. Inputs to the FADEC come from
the following:
1. The power levers. Two analogue signals come from each power-lever resolver.
(The resolver is an electromechanical device to measure angular movement.)
2. The air-data computers (ADC) in the form of
a. Total pressure
b. Pressure altitude
c. Total air temperature
3. The flight-control computer (FCC) for adjusting the engine pressure ratio (EPR)
for all engines as a part of the engine thrust trim system (ETTS). The ETTS logic
starts when the engine pressure ratio (EPR) on any two engines is above 1.2.
4. Seven discrete (electrical signals) inputs:
a. Pt2/Tt2 probe heat
b. Fire
c. Alternate mode select
c. External reset (fuel-control switch)
d. Bump rate selector
e. Maintenance (data retrieval)
f. Engine location identification

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5. Two sources of 28 VDC power (DC bus and ground test power)
Out puts from the FADEC are as follows:
• Engine pressure ratio (EPR)
• Low-speed spool (NI). There is a backup N1 speed output from channel "B."
• Exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
• High-speed spool (N2)
Flap/slat position and weight-on-wheels status is also sent to the FADEC. The
flight-control computer (FCC) acts as a backup for the air-data computer (ADC).
FADEC Interface with Engine
All data input to the FADEC is validated through a series
of comparisons and checks .For example, compressor rotor speeds are compared to
each other and checked to ensure the proper range (0 -120 percent).
Inputs to the FADEC from the engine are as follows:
• N2 rpm, Power comes from the FADEC alternator and is used for limiting,
scheduling systems, and setting engine speeds.
• N1 rpm, which comes from the FADEC speed transducer (a transducer is a device
used to transform a pneumatic signal to an electrical one) and is used for limiting
and scheduling systems. It is also used as an alternate mode.
• Compressor-exit temperature (Tt 3 ), which comes from the diffuser case, is used
to calculate starting fuel flow. • Exhaust-gas temperature (Tt 4.95 ), which comes
from the exhaust case, is used for indication.
• Fuel temperature (Tfuel), which comes from the fuel pump, is used to schedule the
fuel heat-management system.
• Oil temperature (Toil), which comes from the main gearbox, is used to schedule the
fuel heat-management system and to schedule the integrated drive generator
(IDG) oil-cooling system.
• Inlet total temperature (Tt 2), which comes from the inlet cowl on the wing engines
and the bellmouth on the tail engine. It is used to calculate fuel flow and rotor
speed.
• Inlet total pressure (Pt 2), which comes from the same sources as Tt 2, is used to
calculate EPR.
• Exhaust gas pressure (Pt4.95), which comes from the exhaust case, is also used to
calculate EPR.
• The engine electronic control (EEC) programming plug is used to determine the
engine thrust rating and EPR correction.
• Burner pressure (Pb), which comes from the diffuser case, is used for limiting and
surge detection. • Ambient pressure (Pamb), which comes from the inlet cowl, is
used to validate altitude and Pt2.

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FADEC Interface With Engine.

Figure 11.29.

Based on information received from its various sources the FADEC will:
1. Monitor, control and protect:
• Anti surge bleed valves/variable stator vanes
• Cooling airflows
• Engine oil cooling and IDG oil cooling
• Nacelle cooling
• Fuel heating
• Starting
• Idle speed
• Acceleration/Deceleration
• Stabilised engine operation
• Thrust control including overboost
• Critical speeds and pressures

2. Improve reliability of the engine by:

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• A two channel system of control

• An automatic fault detection and logic system
• An automatic fault and compensation system
3. Make maintenance easier by:
• Engine monitoring
• Self test
• Fault isolation
Control Modes
The FADEC has two modes for setting the power of the engine. The EPR mode is the
rated or normal mode, while the N1 mode is the alternate or fault mode.
Normal Mode. When a thrust-level request is made through the thrust lever, the
throttle-resolver angle (TRA), input causes an EPR command. The FADEC will then
adjust fuel flow so that EPR actual equals EPR command.
The normal or rated power levels are
• Maximum power available (takeoff or maximum continuous)
• Maximum climb
At approximately 78 degrees TRA maximum power available is calculated by the
FADEC. If the altitude is less than approximately 14,100 ft, the FADEC calculates a
takeoff power rating. But if the altitude is greater than 14,100 ft, the FADEC calculates
a rating for maximum continuous power. At approximately 68 degrees TRA, the
FADEC calculates the maximum climb-power rating. To get all other power levels,
except idle, it is necessary to set the thrust lever.
Alternate or N1 Mode.
If the FADEC cannot control in the EPR, or normal mode, it will go to the N 1 mode
and a fault is enunciated . In the N 1 mode, the FADEC schedules fuel flow as a
function of the thrust-lever position, and the TRA input will cause the FADEC to
calculate an N1 command biased by Mach number, altitude, and Tt2. In reverse thrust,
the FADEC goes to the N1 mode, and N1 is biased by Tt2.
Control in the N1 mode is similar to that of a hydromechanical fuel-control system.
Moving the thrust lever fully forward will cause an overboost of the engine.
N1 mode may be manually selected, but the logic that keeps the thrust at the same
level as it would be in the EPR mode is removed.

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Parameters Sensed and Controls Actuated by an Electronic Engine Control.

Figure 11.30.
Faults
The FADEC has dual electronic channels, each with its own processor, power supply,
program memory, selected input sensors, and output actuators. Power to each
electronic control channel is provided by a dedicated, engine gearbox-driven
alternator. This redundancy provides high operational reliability. No single electronic
malfunction will cause an engine operational problem. Each control channel
incorporates fault identification, isolation, and accommodation logic.
While electronic controls are highly reliable, malfunctions can occur. A hierarchy of
fault-tolerance logic will take care of any single or multiple faults. The logic also
identifies the controlling channel, and if computational capability is lost in the primary
channel, the FADEC automatically switches to the secondary channel. If a sensor is
lost in the primary channel, the secondary channel will supply the information. If data

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from the secondary channel is lost, the FADEC will produce usable synthesised
information from the parameters that are available. If there is not enough data
available for synthesising, the control modes switch. For example, if EPR is lost, the
engine will be run on its N1 ratings.
In the unlikely event both channels of electronic control are lost, the torque motors are
spring-loaded to their fail-safe positions. The fuel flow will go to minimum flow, the
stator vanes will move to fully open, the air-oil cooler will open wide, and the ACC will
shut off.
The FADEC includes extensive self-test routines which are continuously actuated.
BITE, or built-in test equipment, can detect and isolate faults within the EEC and its
input and output devices. The fault words of the control are decoded into English
messages by a maintenance monitor, and they identify the faulty line-replaceable unit
(LRU). In-flight fault data is recorded so it can be recalled during shop repair. The
FADEC is able to isolate problems and indicate whether the fault is within itself or in a
sensor or actuator. In the shop, computer-aided troubleshooting can identify a fault at
the circuit-board level.
EEC Programming Plug
The EEC programming plug located on the FADEC "A" channel housing, selects the
applicable schedules within the FADEC for the following:
• Engine thrust rating
• EPR modification data
• Engine performance package
• Variable-stator-vane schedule
• 2.9 bleed-valve thermocouple selection
The EEC programming plug data is input to the FADEC "A" channel, while the "B"
channel EEC programming-plug input is crosswired and crosstalked from the "A"
channel. During test-cell operation, the EPR/thrust relationship is compared, and the
engine gets a correct EEC programming plug. If the FADEC must be replaced, the
EEC programming plug must remain with the engine.
If the engine is started without the EEC programming plug installed, the FADEC goes
to the N1 mode. But nothing will happen with the FADEC operation if the EEC pro-
gramming plug disconnects in flight.

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EEC Programming Plug.

Figure 11.31.

FADEC Electrical and Pneumatic Connections.

Figure 11.32.

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Pneumatic and Electrical Connectors

As shown in Fig 11.32. there are several pneumatic and electrical connectors to the
FADEC. The four pneumatic inputs are as follows:
1. Pt 4.95 This input comes from two combination Pt4.95/Tt4.95 probes, located on
the turbine exhaust case, and goes to FADEC port "P5." For all pressure inputs a
transducer in the FADEC changes the pressure signal into an electric signal and
sends this signal to both channels.
2. Pt 2 This input comes from the Pt2/Tt2 probe located in the inlet duct.
3. Pb This input comes from a static pressure port in the diffuser case to measure
burner pressure.
4. Pam-This input comes from two screened static pressure ports located on the inlet
cowl outer surface.
Alternator.
The alternator provides the FADEC with power and an N2 speed signal. It also sends
N2 information to the flight deck.

FADEC Alternator
Figure 11.33.

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Speed Transducer. The speed transducer supplies the FADEC "A" and "B" channels
with the N1 signal by sensing the frequency at which the 60 teeth on the low-pressure
compressor/low-pressure turbine (LPC/LPT) coupling pass by them.

FADEC Speed Transducer

Figure 11.34.

Temperature Probes.
A dual-element, alumel-chromel thermocouple, located on the top right side of the fuel
pump, provides the FADEC with information relating to fuel heating and engine oil
cooling. Oil Temperature Probes. Two other similar devices inform the FADEC about
scavenge oil temperature and No. 3 bearing-oil temperature, and provide input for
engine oil cooling-system control, oil-temperature warning indication, and IDG oil-
cooling override.
Tt3 Temperature Probe.
This dual-element probe is located on the diffuser case and provides the FADEC with
information for heat-soaked engine start logic.

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FADEC Fuel and Oil Temperature Thermocouples.

Figure 20.35.

Tt14.95 Temperature Probes.

Four thermocouples measure EGT and send their signal to the thermocouple junction
box and then to the FADEC. The temperature sense is used only for input to the
indication system. There is no EGT limiting function in the FADEC.

Exhaust Gas Pressure Probes.

The two probes measure Pt14.95 pressure, are manifolded together, and send their
averaged pressure to the FADEC.

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FADEC T6 Probe and Exhaust Gas Temperature Junction Box

Figure 11.36.

FADEC Exhaust Gas Temperature and Pressure Probes.

Figure 11.37.

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Pt2/Tt2 Probe. The inlet pressure/temperature probe supplies the FADEC with engine-
inlet pressure and temperature information. The pressure sensor is a total pressure
probe that sends its signal to both FADEC channels. The temperature sensor is a
dual-element resistance type. One element sends its signal to the "A" channel, while
the other sends its signal to the "B" channel. The probe is continuously electrically
heated.

Pt2/Tt2 Probe.
Figure 11.38.

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Automatic Turbine Rotor Clearance Control System

The automatic turbine rotor clearance control system also known as the turbine case
cooling system, controls and distributes fan air to cool and shrink the HPT and LPT
cases. This process increases efficiency by reducing turbine tip clearance for takeoff,
climb, and cruise operation. The FADEC commands the system operation to a
schedule determined by altitude and N2.

Turbine Case Cooling System.

Figure 11.39.

Turbine Vane and Blade Cooling System

The turbine vane and blade cooling system (TVBCS) optimises engine performance
during cruise by controlling 12th-stage cooling airflow to the HPT and LPT areas. This
system is also controlled by the FADEC as a function of altitude and N2. Additionally,
the FADEC receives a feedback signal from the TVBCS right valve.

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FADEC Controlled Active Tip Clearance System

Figure 11.40.

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Turbine Vane and Blade Cooling System.

Figure 11.41.

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A Pressure Control System for a Turbo –Prop Engine (Dart)

Figure 11.42

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A Pressure Control System for a Turbo-Jet Engine (Adour).

Figure 11.43.

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A Proportional Flow Control System (Avon).

Figure 11.44.

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Combined Acceleration and

Speed Control.(Spey & Tay).
Figure 11.45.

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PROPULSION
engineering SYSTEMS

Combined Speed and Acceleration Control with Air Bleed Control. (ALF502.)
Figure 11.46.

Issue 3 – Jan 2004 Page 11-56