ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

ENGINEERING FACULTY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Course Title: Reinforced Concrete I (2-3-3) Instructor: Semma T.

Course Code: CE-420 Ac. Year: 2008/2009
Section: G4C, G4H, G4I and G4ENE Semester: I

Course Outline:

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Properties of reinforced concrete.

1.2 Concrete placement and curing.
1.3 Reinforcing Steel.
1.4 Reinforced concrete(as a composite material)
1.5 Behavior of RC beams under loading.
1.6 Overview of design philosophies.
1.7 Building Design codes provisions.
1.8 Patterns of live load arrangement for maximum effects.

Chapter 2: Design of Flexural Members Using Working Stress Design

Methods
2.1 Basic assumption.
2.2 Design equations for singly reinforced rectangular section.
2.3 Type of singly reinforced beam sections based on modes of stresses.
2.4 Control of Deflection.
2.5 Doubly reinforced rectangular beam section.
2.6 Design equation for doubly reinforced rectangular section.
2.7 Flanged section under flexure.(Optional)
2.8 Design of flanged beams for flexure. (Optional)
2.9 Design equation for T-beam section. (Optional)

Chapter 3: Limit State Design for Flexure and Serviceability Limit State

3.1. Introduction.
3.2. The ULS of singly reinforced rectangular sections for flexure.
3.3. The ULS of Doubly reinforced rectangular section for flexure.
3.4. The ULS of T-and L-sections.
3.5. Continuous beams and solid one way slabs moment envelope.
3.6. Design of One-way slabs. (Optional)
3.7. Serviceability limit states of deflection and crack width.

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Chapter 4: The ULS of Shear and Diagonal Tension

4.1. Design of beams for shear.

4.2. Design Criteria
4.3. Bond, Anchorage and Development length.

Chapter 5: Two-way beam supported slabs [Optional]

5.1. Introduction
5.2. Analysis by means of coefficients
5.3. Loads to supporting beams

Tentative Evaluation:

• Assignments……………………..20%-25%-30%
• Semester Project…………………30%-35%-40%
• Final Exam…………………..…..50%-40%-30%
100%

References:

• ‘Reinforced Concrete Design’, by Mosley/Bungey

• ‘Reinforced Concrete Design’, by Wang/salmon
• ‘Reinforced Concrete-Limit State Design’ by A. K. Jain
• ‘Reinforced Concrete Fundamentals’ by Ferguson
• ‘Design of Concrete Structures’, by Winter/Nilson
• ‘EBCS1:95 Action on structures/ (ESCP1:83 Loadings)
‘EBCS2:95 Structural use of concrete/ (ESCP2:83 Structural use of concrete)

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Properties of reinforced concrete

• Concrete: -Concrete is stone like material obtained artificially by hardening of the mixture of cement,
inert-aggregate materials (fine & course) and water in predetermined proportions. When these
ingredients are mixed, they form a plastic mass which can be poured in suitable moulds (forms) and
set-on standing into hard solid mass, as a result of exothermic chemical reaction between cement and
water. To produce a workable mix, more water is used over and above that needed for this chemical
reaction (water-cement ratio required for complete chemical reaction is about 0.25). The reaction
between cement and water is relatively slow and requires time and favorable temperature for its
completion.
Compressive Strength of concrete: -A wide range of strength properties can be obtained for concrete
by appropriate adjustment of the proportions of the constituent materials, using different degree of the
compaction and the conditions of temperature and moisture under which it is placed and cured. Water-
cement ratio is the main factor affecting the strength of concrete, as shown in figure below.

Compressive
Strength of
Concrete

Water-cement ratio

Standard test specimens of 150mm cube are taken at the age of 28days to determine the compressive
strength of concrete according to Ethiopian standard institution (ESI). At age of 7days, concrete may
attain approximately about 2/3 of the full compressive strength of concrete. In some national standard
(example ACI code), cylinder specimens of 150mm diameter by 300mm high are taken. Although the
load is applied uni-axially, the friction between the loading plate and the contact faces of the test
specimen has more effect on cube strength than the cylinder strength. Because of this, the cube strength
gives more strength than the true compressive strength of concrete, whereas, cylinder strength gives
reasonably the true compressive strength. On average, cube strength is taken as 1.25 times cylinder
strength. If large size aggregates are used, a cube mold with side 200mm may be used to determine

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compressive strength of concrete. And strength of concrete is converted to 150mm cube compressive
strength by factor of 1.05.
The performance of materials of structure under load best be represented by stress-strain diagram. A
typical set of such curve are obtained at normal, moderate testing speed on concrete of 28days old are as
shown in figure below, for various compressive strength of concrete.

fc3 fc3>fc2>fc1
Concrete comp. fc2
Strength
fc1

Concrete strain
.002 .004 .006

All the curves have some what similar character. Initially the curves are relatively straight line then begin to
curve to the horizontal, reaching the maximum compressive strength (cube or cylinder strength) at strain
approximately between 0.002 and 0.0025 and finally show a descending branch. Also it is seen that concrete
of lower strength are less brittle, that is fracture at a large maximum strain. Modulus of elasticity is seen to be
larger, the higher the strength of concrete. Modulus of elasticity of concrete may be defined as the initial
(dynamic) modulus, the tangent modulus and secant (static) modulus at stress level of 25% to 50% of the
compressive strength of concrete. But secant modulus is the simplest and the most commonly adopted
definition of elastic modulus of concrete. The definitions of elastic modulus of concrete are diagrammatically
shown in the figure below.

Tangent
modulus
Stress

Initial Secant
modulus EC

Strain

Tensile strength of concrete:- Even though concrete is weak in tension, its tensile strength is important in a
variety of items. Shear and torsion resistance of RC members primarily depend on tensile strength of

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concrete. Further, the conditions under which cracks form and propagate on tension zone of RC flexural
members depend strongly on the tensile strength of concrete. Two methods are used to determine tensile
strength of concrete. These are beam-test and split-cylinder test method.
In beam test method, tensile strength of concrete is obtained by loading plain concrete test-beam laterally by
two point loads at the third points of test-beam until the tension zone of the beam fracture. Tensile strength of
M.c
concrete is then computed using flexural stress formula in terms of modulus of rupture concrete. Where
I

M is the moment caused by the load applied on test beam that fracture on tension side and I c is section-
modulus of a section of test beam. Standard size of test-beam according to BS 1881 is 150 x 150 x 750mm.
Because of the assumption that concrete is an elastic material and the bending stress is localized in outer most
fibers, it is apt to be larger than uniform axial tensile strength of concrete.
In split-cylinder test method, tensile strength of concrete is obtained by loading standard plain concrete
cylinder along the side until the cylinder splits in to two pieces. The tensile strength of concrete is the
2P
computed by based on the theory of elasticity for homogeneous material in a bi-axial state of stress.
π . d .l

Whatever the method, it is known that, the tensile strength of concrete is relatively low, and it is about 10 to
15% of compressive strength of concrete.

Shrinkage and Thermal Movement: -Concrete may under go deformations and volume changes with out
application of loading. This phenomenon may be caused by shrinkage and thermal-movement in fresh and
hardened concrete. Shrinkage of concrete is liable to cause cracking, but it has the beneficial effect of
strengthening the bond between the reinforcing steel and the surrounding concrete. Shrinkage of concrete
increases with time at decreasing rate as the drying of concrete continues with time at a decreasing rate, and
ceases with maximum strain approximately about 0.003. Shrinkage increases with increase in cement and
water content. Shrinkage of concrete caused initially by the absorption of water by cement and aggregate, and
further by evaporation of water which rises to surface as a result of capillary action. During setting process the
hydration of cement causes a great deal of heat to be generated, and as the concrete cools, further shrinkage
takes place due to thermal contraction. Thermal shrinkage may be reduced by:
1. Using a mix-design with low cement content. EBCS-2 specifies cement content not to exceed
550kg/m3 of concrete.
2. Avoiding rapid hardening & finely ground cement.
3. Keeping aggregate & mixing water cool, or may be need to keep them under shade.
4. Maintaining the temperature & evaporating water by proper curing.

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The use of low water-cement ratio also helps to reduce drying shrinkage by minimizing lose of volume of
moisture in concrete by evaporation.
If concrete shrinks freely without restraint, stresses will not develop in the concrete. Restraint of concrete
shrinkage, on the other hand, will cause tensile stresses. This restraint may be caused externally by fixity with
adjoining members, and internally by the action of steel reinforcement. This restraint may be reduced by
casting concrete using a system of constructing successive bays. This method of casting concrete allows the
free-end of every bay to contract before the next bay is cast. Thermal-movement will also cause tensile
stresses in the structure. Thermal stresses may be controlled by correct positioning of expansion-joint in the
structure. When tensile stresses caused by restraint of concrete shrinkage & thermal-movement exceed the
tensile strength of concrete, cracks will occur. To control width of these cracks, steel reinforcement must be
provided close to the concrete surface. Codes of practice specify minimum quantities of reinforcement in a
member for this purpose.

Creep of Concrete: - Creep is the continuous deformation of a member under sustained compressive stress
over a considerable length of time (under long-term loading). It is a phenomenon associated with brittle
materials (concrete is a brittle material). Creep deformation depends on the stress in concrete, duration of
loading and water-cement ratio. The effect of creep has to be considered in design of reinforced concrete
member subjected to compressive stress mainly caused by long term loading (dead load). A typical variation
of deformations with time can be obtained for concrete member subjected to axial deformation under constant
load over considerable length of time, as shown below.
Deformation, ε

εinst.
εinst.
ε creep re cov .

Unloading Reloading
εinst.. at 28 days

1 2 3 4 Duration of loading (in years)

The followings are some of the characteristic of creep:

1. Creep increases with elapse of time at a decreasing rate and ceases at a final value depending on
concrete strength and other factors. The final creep can attain 1.5 to 3 times the instantaneous
strain.

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 2. Creep is found to be roughly proportional to the intensity of loading and to the inverse of concrete
strength.
3. Modulus of elasticity of concrete is found to be decreasing over period of time. It is modified
considering creep as (if required to determine long term deflection)
Ec
Ee =
1 +η
where η -- ratio of creep to instantaneous deformation depending on age of concrete at first loading
as given in table below
Table: Creep Coefficient (IS:456)

Age of concrete at loading Creep coefficient

7 days 2.2
28 days 1.6
365 days 1.1
4. If the load is removed, only the instantaneous strain and some of creep will recover.
5. There is a continuous redistribution of stresses between the concrete and any steel present in the
un-cracked compression zone of reinforced concrete section.
The effect of creep is particularly important in beams, where the increased deformations may cause the
opening of cracks and damage of finishes. To reduce creep deformation, it is necessary to provide nominal
reinforcement in the compression zone of the beam. The nominal area of compression steel required by doubly
reinforced beam is about 0.4% of the area in compression (which may be taken as 0.2% of the whole area
including tension zone).

Important Features of Concrete

Characteristic Strength of Materials

For both concrete end reinforcement the Code uses the term ‘characteristic strength’ instead of
28-day works cube strength and yield stress, although it is related to these. The characteristic
strength for all materials has the notation fk and is defined as the value of the cube strength of
concrete (fcu), the yield or proof stress of reinforcement (fy), below which 5% of all possible test
results would be expected to fall. The value therefore is
fk = fm – 1.64s

5
Where fm is the mean strength of actual test results determined in accordance with a standard
procedure, s is the standard deviation, and 1.64 is the value of the constant required to comply
with 5% of the test results falling below the characteristic strength, as indicated in Fig. 1.2.1.

Fig. 1.2.1 Characteristic strength

Compressive Strength

The strength of concrete for design purposes will be based on compressive tests made on cubes
at an age of 28 days unless there is satisfactory evidence that a particular testing regime is
capable of predicting the 28-day strength at an earlier age. These 28-day characteristic strengths
determine the grade of the concrete and it is important to select the correct grade appropriate for
use. The concrete has to provide the durability for the environmental conditions as well as
adequate strength for the loading requirements.

Table 1.2.1 Grades of Concrete

Class Permissible Grades of Cocrete
I C5 C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
II C5 C15 C20

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In accordance with Ethiopian Standards, compressive strength of concrete is determined from
tests on 150mm cubes at the age of 28 days. Cylindrical or cubical specimens of other sizes may
also be used with conversion factors determined from a comprehensive series of tests. In the
absence of such tests, the conversion factors given in Table 1.2.2 may be applied to obtain the
equivalent characteristic strength on the basis of 150mm cubes.

Table 1.2.2 Conversion Factors for strength

Size and Type of Test Specimen Conversion Factor
Cube (200 mm) 1.05
Cylinder (150mm diameter 300mm height) 1.25

The characteristic cylinder compressive strength fck are given for different grades of concrete in
Table 1.2.3.

Table 1.2.3 Grades of Concrete and Characteristic Cylinder Compressive Strength fck.
Grades of C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
Concrete
fck 12 16 20 24 32 40 48

In selecting an appropriate grade of concrete, the designer has to determine the environment and
exposure conditions to which the members of the structure will be subjected.
Stress – Strain Curve
σ

0.5

Tanα - Secant Modulus

Tanβ - Tangent Modulus

β
α

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As there is no fixed ratio of fck/ε to define the term modulus of elasticity, whenever E is used
without further designation, it is usually meant the secant modulus Ec in MPa.

The modulus of elasticity depends not only on the concrete grade but also on the actual
properties of the aggregates used. In the absence of more accurate data,
Ec = 9.5( f ck + 8) 3
1

Where, Ec is the secant modulus.

Creep

Another important factor to be considered in stress-strain of concrete is creep: a property where

increase in strain under constant load with time is observed. Factors attributing:- loading at an
early stage, high water – cement ratio, exposing the concrete to drying condition.

Tensile Strength

- Important in design to resist shear, torsion & control crack width.

- Difficult to obtain from test because of handling problems. Based on tests for other
property empirical relations are used to obtain tensile strength. For instance, in Ethiopian
standards f ctk = 0.21 f ck2 3 , where fctk = tensile strength of concrete in MPa and fck =
characteristic cylindrical compressive strength in MPa.

1.2 Reinforcing Steel

Steel reinforcements are available in the form of round bars and welded wire fabric. The most commonly used
bars have projected ribs on the surface of bar. Such bars are called deformed bars. The ribs of deformed bar
improve the bond between steel and the surrounding concrete in RC members by providing mechanical keys.
A wide range of reinforcing bars is available with nominal diameter ranging 6mm to 35mm. Most bars except
6mm diameter are deformed one. Some of the common bar size with their application in concrete works are
given in table below.

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 for stirrups for slabs for beams & columns
Diam. φ6 φ8 φ10 φ12 φ14 φ16 φ18 φ20 φ22 φ25 φ28
(mm)
Area 0.28 0.50 0.785 1.13 1.54 2.01 2.52 3.14 3.8 4.9 6.2
(cm2)
Weight .222 .395 .617 .888 1.21 1.57 2.0 2.47 3.0 3.9 4.8
(kg/m)
Per. 1.88 2.51 3.14 3.77 4.4 5.02 5.65 6.28 6.9 7.85 8.79
(cm)

Strength of reinforcing steel:- Reinforcing steel is capable of resisting both tension and compression.
Compared with concrete, it is a high strength material. For instance, the strength of ordinary reinforcing steel
is about 10 & 100 times, the compressive & tensile strength of common structural concrete.
Typical stress-strain curves for mild-steel and high-yield (cold-worked) steel are shown in figures below.

Ultimate
stress
0.2%
proof stress
Fracture
Stress, fS

point
fy Fracture
point
stress , fS

ES = 200GPa
ES = 200GPa

0.002 Strain, εS
Strain, εS
Fig a: Stress-strain curve for mild-steel Fig b: Stress-strain curve for high-yield steel
(S-250MPa, S-300MPa) (S-420MPa, S-460MPa, S-500MPa)

The strength of mild steel is taken as yield point or yield stress of steel whereas for high-yield steel is based
on specified proof stress of steel. 0.2% proof stress is specified in most codes to determine strength of high-
yield steel. A 0.2% offset is drawn parallel to the linear part of the stress-strain curve to determine 0.2% proof
stress.
The shape of the stress-strain curve is similar for all steel, and differs only in the value of strength of steel, the
modulus of elasticity, ES being for all practical purposes constant. ES is taken as 200GPa. For a design of RC
members, reinforcing steel up to grade of 550MPa can be used. If steel with grade beyond 550MPa is used for

9
RC member, the sections are under utilizing the reinforcement. This is because the width of concrete crack is
wide if the steel is fully stressed.

1.3 Reinforced Concrete (as a composite material)

It is known that plain concrete is quite strong in compression, weak in tension. On the other hand, steel is a
high cost material which able to resist both tension & compression. The two materials (plain concrete &
reinforcing steel) are best be utilized in logical combination if steel bars are embedded in the plain concrete in
tension zone close to the surface. In this case, plain concrete is made to resist the compressive stresses and
reinforcing steel resists the tensile stresses. Both plain concrete & reinforcing steel bar together assumed to
act as one composite unit and it is termed as reinforced concrete (RC). The tensile stresses developed in the
section are transferred to reinforcing steel by the bond between the interfaces of the two materials.

In all RC members, strength design is made on the assumption that concrete does not resist any tensile
stresses. All the tensile stresses are assumed to be resisted by the reinforcing steel imbedded in tension zone.
Some times if necessary, reinforcing steel is provided in compression zone to assist the concrete resisting
compression in addition to reducing creep deformation.

Reinforcing steel & concrete may work readily in combinations due to the following reasons.
1. Bond between the bars & the surrounding concrete prevents slip of the bars relative to the
concrete. Adequate concrete cover for steel bar and embedment length of bar are required to
transfer stress between steel and concrete without slipping.
2. Proper concrete mixes provide adequate impermeability of concrete against bar corrosion.
3. Sufficiently similar rates of thermal expansion (0.00001/0C to 0.000013/0C for concrete and
0.000012/0C for steel) introduce negligible stresses between steel and concrete under temperature
changes.

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete:

1. It is monolithic. This gives it more rigidity.
2. It is durable. It does not deteriorate with time.
3. While it is plastic, it can be moldable into any desired shape.
4. It is fire, weather and corrosion resistant.
5. By proper proportioning of mix, concrete can be made water-tight.
6. It maintenance cost is practically nil.

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Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete:
1. It is difficult to demolish in case of repair of modification.
2. It is too difficult to inspect after the concrete has been poured.

1.4. Behavior under Load

Loads

Loads that act on structures can be divided into three categories: dead loads, live loads, and
environmental loads.

Dead loads are those that are constant in magnitude and fixed in location throughout the lifetime
of the structure. Usually the major part of the dead load is the weight of the structure itself. This
can be calculated with good accuracy from the design configuration, dimensions of the structure,
and density of the material. For buildings, floor fill, finish floors, and plastered ceilings are
usually included as dead loads, and an allowance is made for suspended loads such as piping and
lighting fixtures. For bridges, dead loads may include wearing surfaces, side walks, and curbing,
and an allowance is made for piping and other suspended loads.

Live loads consist chiefly of occupancy loads in buildings and traffic loads on bridges. They may
be either fully or partially in place or not present at all, and may also change in location. Their
magnitude and distribution at any given time are uncertain, and even their maximum intensities
throughout the lifetime of the structure are not known with precision. The minimum live loads
for which the floors and roof of a building should be designed are usually specified in the
building code that governs at the site of construction. Representative values of minimum live
loads to be used in a wide variety of buildings are found in Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
and other structures.

Live loads in codes are usually approximated by uniformly distributed load. In addition to these
uniformly distributed loads, it is recommended that, as an alternative to the uniform load, floors
be designed to support safely certain concentrated loads if these produce a greater stress. Certain

11
reductions are often permitted in live loads for members supporting large areas, on the premise
that it is not likely that the entire area would be fully loaded at one time.

Service live loads for highway bridges are specified by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) in its Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges. For railway bridges, the American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) has
published the Manual of Railway Engineering, which specifies traffic loads.

Environmental loads consist mainly of snow loads, wind pressure and suction, earthquake loads
(i.e., inertia forces caused by earthquake motions), soil pressures on subsurface portions of
structures, loads from possible ponding of rainwater on flat surfaces, and forces caused by
temperature differentials. Like live loads, environmental loads at any given time are uncertain
both in magnitude and distribution.

Much progress has been made in recent years in developing rational methods for predicting
horizontal forces on structures due to wind and seismic action. Most building codes specify
design wind pressure per square foot of vertical wall surface. Depending upon locality, these
equivalent static forces vary from about 0.48 KPa up to 2.4KPa. factors considered in more up to
date standards include probable wind velocity exposure (urban vs. open terrain, for example),
and height of the structure, the importance of the structure (i.e. consequences of failure), and the
guest response factors to account for the fluctuating nature of the wind and its interaction with
the structure.

Seismic forces may be found for a particular structure by elastic or inelastic dynamic analysis,
considering the expected ground accelerations and the mass, stiffness, and damping
characteristic of the construction. However, often the design is based on equivalent static forces
calculated from provisions. The base shear is found by considering such factors as location, type
of structure and its occupancy, total dead load, and the particular soil condition. The total lateral
force is distributed to floors over the entire height of the structure in such a way as to
approximate the distribution of forces from a dynamic analysis.

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Characteristic loads

For loading we use the ‘characteristic’ load (Fk) as the basis. Ideally this should be determined
from the mean load and its standard deviation from the mean, and using the same probability as
for the materials we should say that Fk = Fm + 1.64s. The characteristic load would be that value
of loading such that not more than 5% of the spectrum of loading throughout the life of structure
will lie above the value of the characteristic load (Figure 1.4.1).

Mean Characteristic
Frequency of results

Load Load
1.64s

5% of results
to right of this
line

Fm Fk = Fm + 1.64s Load
Figure 1.4.1 Characteristic load

The characteristic dead, imposed and wind loads have the notation Gk, Qk, Wk respectively,
where the upper-case letters denote the total load on a span. Lower-case letters denote uniform
load per square meter, although in design examples for beams the lower-case letters have been
used for a uniformly distributed load, so that Gk = gkl.

Behavior

In RC structures such as beams, the tension caused by bending moment is chiefly resisted by the
steel reinforcement while the concrete alone is usually capable of resisting the corresponding
compression. Such joint action of the two materials is assumed if the relative slip is prevented

13
which is achieved by using deformed bars, with their high bond strength at the steel concrete
interface. To illustrate the stress strain development for increased loading consider the following.

Increasing load
Very low load

Tension cracks

εc fc εc fc εc fc

NA
D d
As εs fs εs fs εs fs
εct f ct
b Strain Stress Strain Stress Strain Stress

(a) Very low loading (b) Increased loading (c) loading nearly at failure

Figure 1.4.2 Behavior of RC beam under load

ƒ At low loads where tensile stress is less than or equals to fctk stress-strain relation shown in
figure 1.4.2a results.
ƒ At increased load tensile stress produced is larger than fctk (figure 1.4.2b) ⇒ crack develops
below neutral axis, the steel alone carries all tensile force and hence the compressive stress
at extreme fiber is less than fc (linear stress distribution).
ƒ For further increment of load, the stress distribution is longer linear as shown in fig. 1.4.2c.

If the structure, say the beam, has reached its maximum carrying capacity, one may conclude the
following on the cause of failure.

(i). When the amount of steel is small – at some value of the load, the steel reaches it yield
point. In such circumstances, the steel stretches a large amount and tension cracks in the
concrete widen visibly resulting significant deflection of the beam. Compression zone of
concrete increases ending up with crushing of concrete (secondary compression failure).
Such failure is gradual and is preceded by visible signs, widening and lengthening of
cracks, marked increase in deflection.

14
 (ii). When a large amount of steel is used, compressive strength of concrete would be exhausted
before the steel starts yielding, thus, concrete fails by crushing. Compression failure
through crushing of concrete is sudden and occurs without warning.

Thus it is a good practice to dimension sections in such a way that should they be overloaded,
yielding of steel rather than crushing of concrete would initiate failure.

Behavior of RC Beam under Lateral Loading

When beam is subjected to gradually increasing lateral load, there is change in stresses & deformations. If
these stresses and deformations exceed the capacity of the materials of the beam, the beam will fail. Tests
have shown that RC beams may fail either along a vertical (normal) plane or a diagonal plane. The aim of
design of a member is to ensure resistance of section of beam along all planes. Three stages of behavior can
be observed at a section of maximum moment, when singly reinforced beam is subjected to gradually
increasing load till failure.
Stage-I (un-cracked section):- In initial stages of loading (under low loading), tension-cracks will not
develop in the section of RC beam. The stresses in compression & tension zone of concrete are within elastic
range; and the maximum tension stress, fct in the concrete is smaller than the tensile strength (modulus of
rapture) of concrete. The reinforcing steel deforms the same amount of the adjacent concrete and subjected to
tension stress. The distribution of strains and stresses in concrete & steel at section of maximum bending
moment of a beam in stage-I are shown in figure below. These strains & stresses distributions are used in
design of water-tight structures.
At low loading

No tension crack

εC fCC = EC. εC
x
d
D
εS f S ES . ε S
AS =
n n
b ε Ct fCt < fct,allow

Un-cracked Strain Stress

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Stage-II (cracked section under working load):- When the loading is further increased, the tensile strength
of concrete is soon reached, at this stage tension cracks start to develop in tension zone of the beam. These
cracks propagate quickly upward to or close to the level of the neutral plane, which in turn shifts further
upward with progressive cracking. In well designed beams, the width of these cracks is so small (hair-line
cracks) that they are not objectionable from the view point of either corrosion protection or appearance of
crack. It is known that the presence of these cracks profoundly affects the behavior of RC beam under the
load. These cracks make the concrete not to resist any tension stresses, the entire tension stresses are to be
resisted by the reinforcing steel placed in tension zone. At moderate loading, if the concrete stresses do not
exceed approximately fcu/3, stresses & strains continue to be closely proportional. The distribution of strains
& stresses developed in section of maximum bending moment of a beam at or near to vertical tension-crack
are shown in figure below. These strains & stresses distributions are used in working stress (elastic) design
method and in serviceability limit state for crack.

At moderate loading

Tension crack

εC fC ≤ fC,allow
x
d
D
εS fs f
AS ≤ S , allow
n n

Cracked section Strain Stress

(Under working load)

Stage –III (cracked section under ultimate load):- When the load is still further increased, the cracks in the
tension zone open and the tension in the bars reaches yield stress. The compressive stress in the concrete is no
longer proportional to the strain and, concrete continue to deform plastically. As the load is increasing, plastic
deformation in concrete is complete and failure commences. The strains & stresses developed at section of
maximum bending moment of a beam in this stage are shown in the figure below.

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 εcu fcu

x
d
D
εS ≥ εyd
AS
< εyd fS = fyd
b = ES . εS
Cracked section Strain Stress
(Under ultimate load)

The character of the transition from stage-II to stage-III depends upon the amount of reinforcement used by
the section. If the section is properly reinforced that is, under reinforced, failure will initiated by yielding of
tension steel. As steel bars yielding, the beam continues to deform until compression concrete cracks. Such
yield failure is gradual, and it is followed by visible signs. On other hand, if the section is over-reinforced, the
compression zone concrete will fail (crushes) before the steel bars reach the yield stress. Compression failure
through crushing of concrete is sudden, of an almost explosive nature, and occurs without warning. Beside
this, the section is uneconomical because large amount of steel is used by section compared to concrete.

1.5 Design Philosophies (Methods)

The object of reinforced concrete design is to achieve a structure or part structure that will result in a safe and
economical solution. For a given structural system, the design problem consists of the following steps:
1. Idealization of structure for analysis (dimension of members, support condition of structure and etc.)
2. Estimation of loadings.
3. Analysis of idealized structural model to determine stress-resultants (axial forces, shear forces,
torsions & bending moments) and their effects (deformations).
4. Design of structural elements (if assumed dimensions are adequate).
5. Detailed structural drawings and schedule of reinforcing bars.
To achieve safe and economic structures, three philosophies of design had been adopted by codes of practices.
These are:
ƒ Working Stress Design (WSD) or Elastic Design Method
ƒ Ultimate Strength Design (USD) Method, and
ƒ Limit State Design (LSD) Method.

• Working Stress Design (WSD) method: -WSD is the oldest and simplest method of design used for
reinforced concrete structures. It is based on the assumption that concrete is elastic, steel & concrete
together act elastically. Also, the stresses developed in concrete & steel are not exceeded the respective

17
 allowable stresses any where in the structure when structure is subjected to the worst combination of
service design loads. The allowable stresses of materials are determined dividing material strengths by a
factor of safety. Safety factors specified by British standard are 3 for concrete and 1.8 for reinforcing
steel. These safety factors are obtained from many years of practical experience and engineering
judgment. The safety factors specified by codes are assumed to cover all uncertainties existing in
estimations of service design loads and material strengths.

The sections of members of structure are designed in accordance with elastic theory of bending assuming that
both materials obeying Hooke’s law. The elastic theory assumes a linear variation of strain & stress from zero
at neutral axis to a maximum at the extreme fibers of section of member; and the maximum stress developed
any where in properly designed element of structure not to exceed the allowable stress of the materials.
Thus, design format used in WSD method may be expressed as:
f ( stress due to service design loads ) ≤ f allow (material strength)
The main drawbacks of WSD method are as follows:
1. Concrete is not elastic material. The inelastic behavior of concrete starts right from very low stresses.
The actual stress distribution of concrete in section can not be described by a triangular stress
diagram.
2. Since factor of safety is applied on the strength of materials, there is no way to account for different
degrees of uncertainty associated with different types of loadings.
3. It is difficult to account for creep and shrinkage by computations of elastic stresses.

Beside these drawbacks, the method does not ensure consistence safety of structure and also provide
uneconomical section.
• Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method: -Design of structure or part of structure in USD method is
based on ultimate load theory; and it is made to resist the desired ultimate (collapse) loads using idealized
strength model (either parabola or parabola-rectangle stress block) just before failure of section
plastically. In ultimate load theory, it is assumed that the section of member of structure failed plastically
when the maximum compressive strain of concrete reaches the ultimate compressive strain of concrete
specified by codes (may be about 0.3 to 0.35%). The desired ultimate loads are obtained by increasing
sufficiently the service loadings using specified factors. These factors are called over-load factors.
Separate over-load factors are applied for different loadings considering uncertainties existing in
estimation of different loadings. Design format used in USD method may be expressed as:
strength provided ≥ action due to ultimate loads
( stress block ) ( analysis of structure )

18
A major advantage of USD method over WSD method is that total safety factor of structure thus found to be
nearer to its actual value. Further, structures designed by USD method require less reinforcement than those
designed by the WSD method.

The main draw backs of USD method are as follows:

1. Since load factor is used on the service loads, there is no way to account for different degrees of
uncertainty associated with variation in material strengths.
2. There is complete disregard for control against excessive deflections.

• Limit State Design (LSD) method: -Limit state design method has developed from ultimate strength
design method in order to apply in service load and ultimate load conditions. Design of structure in limit
state is made to achieve an acceptable probability that structure or part of it will not become unfit for use
for which it is intended during expected life. That is, it will not reach any of the specified limit state. The
limit state of structure is the condition of its being not fit for use. A structure with appropriate degrees of
reliability should be able to withstand safely all possible combinations of design loads that are liable to
act on it throughout its life and it should also satisfy the serviceability requirements, such as, limitations
on deflection and cracking. Further, it should be able to maintain the required structural integrity during
and after accidents such as fires, explosions and local failure. In other words, all relevant limit states must
to be considered in design to ensure an adequate degree of safety and serviceability. These limit states
which must be examined in design are broadly classified in to two major limit states. These are:
- Ultimate strength limit state (Limit state of collapse), and
- Serviceability limit state

• Ultimate strength limit state: -which deals with the strength and stability of the structure under the
maximum over load it is expected to carry. This implies that whole of the structure or part of it should not
fail under any combination of expected over load. Ultimate load theory is generally applicable for
ultimate strength limit state. Ultimate strength limit state may include ultimate limit state for:
-flexure
-shear
-compression
-torsion
-tension
-stability of structure for over-turning & sliding

19
• Serviceability limit state: -which deals with conditions such as deflection, cracking of structure under
service loads, durability, excessive vibration, fire resistance, fatigue, etc. Elastic (working stress) theory is
generally applicable for serviceability limit state.

When dealing with the most economical structure associated with safety and serviceability requirements,
the variability exists between construction materials and the construction process itself. We should be
able to state a design philosophy to cope with the various criteria required to define the serviceability or
usefulness of any structure in a rational manner.

The various criteria required to define the serviceability or usefulness of any structure can be described
under the following headlines. The effects listed may lead to the structure being considered 'unfit for use'.

(i). Collapse: failure of one or more critical sections; overturning or buckling.

(ii). Deflection: the deflection of the structure or any part of the structure adversely affects
the appearance or efficiency of the structure.
(iii). Cracking: cracking of the concrete which may adversely affect the appearance or efficiency of the
structure.
(iv). Vibration: vibration from forces due to wind or machinery may cause discomfort or alarm,
damage the structure or interfere with its proper function.
(v). Durability: porosity of concrete.
(vi). Fatigue: where loading is predominantly cyclic in character the effects have to be considered.
(vii). Fire resistance: insufficient resistance to fire leading to 1, 2 and 3 above.

When any structure is rendered unfit for use for its designed function by one or more of the above causes,
it is said to have entered a limit state. The Code defines the limit states as:

(i). Ultimate limit state: the ultimate limit state is preferred to collapse.
(ii). Serviceability limit states: deflection, cracking, vibration, durability, fatigue, fire resistance and
lightning.

The purpose of design then is to ensure that the structure being designed will not become unfit for the use
for which it is required, i.e. that it will not reach a limit state. The essential basis for the design method,
therefore, is to consider each limit state and to provide a suitable margin of safety. To obtain values for
this margin of safety it was proposed that probability considerations should be used and the design

20
process should aim at providing acceptable probabilities so that the structure would not become unfit for
use throughout its specified life.

Accepting the fact that the strengths of construction materials vary, as do also the loads on the structure,
two partial safety factors will now be used. One will be for materials and is designated γm; the other, for
loading, is termed γf. These factors will vary for the various limit states and different materials. As new
knowledge on either materials or loading becomes available the factors can be amended quit easily
without the complicated procedures to amend one overall factor used in previous Codes.

The normal procedure is to design for a critical limit state and then to check for the other limit states are
satisfied. The critical state for reinforced concrete structures is usually the ultimate limit state. However,
water-retaining structures and prestressed concrete is usually designed at the serviceability limit state with
checks on the ultimate limit state.

The limit states failure criteria can be summarized as follows:

(Design load effects Qd) ≤ (Deisgn resistance Rd)
fk
γ f Qn ≤
γm
Where Qd = design load effects = γf Qn
Qn = nominal load
γf = partial safety factor for loads
Rd = design resistance = fk/γm
fk = characteristic material strength
γm = partial safety factor for materials

Each of these terms are discussed in the following sections.

Safety Factors
Partial Safety Factors for Materials at ULS
Concrete, γc Reinforcing Steel, γs
Design Situations
Class I Class II Class I Class II
Persistent and Transient 1.50 1.65 1.15 1.20
Accidental 1.30 1.45 1.00 1.10

21
Partial Safety Factors for Actions in Building Structures at ULS
Design Situation Action Factor, γ Favorable Unfavorable
Persistent and Permanent γG 1.00 1.30
Transient Variable γQ 0.00 1.60
Accidental Permanent γG 1.00 1.00

1.6 Building Design Codes Provisions

Table Classification of loads

Examples
Class Action
Direct Indirect
Settlement, shrinkage,
Soil pressure, self-weight of creep (results from
Permanent
structure and fixed equipment direct permanent
actions)
Time variation People, wind, furniture,
Variable snow, traffic, construction Temperature effects
loads
Temperature rise
Accidental Explosion, vehicular impact
during fire
Self-weight (generally), trains
Fixed (fixed in direction normal to -
Spatial variation rails)
Persons, office furniture
Free -
vehicles
Static All gravity loads -
Static/dynamic Engines, turbines, wind on
Dynamic -
slender structures
Closely bounded Water pressure, self weight -
Others Not closely
Snow, people -
bounded

22
Design values for actions for use in combination with other actions at ULS.
Permanent Accidental Variable actions
Design Situation
actions actions Principal action All other actions
Favorable 1.0Gk - 0 0
Fundamental
Unfavorable 1.3Gk - 1.6Qk 1.6ψ0Qk
Accidental 1.0Gk Ad 1.0ψ1Qk 1.0ψ2Qk

Combination values: Qr = ψ0Qk

Frequent values: Qr = ψ1Qk
Qausi-permanent values: Qr = ψ2Qk
Where, Qr = representative value
Qk = characteristic value

Representative load factors, ψ0, ψ1, ψ2

Action ψ0 ψ1 ψ2
Imposed loads
Category A, B 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category C, D 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E 1.0 0.9 0.8
* *
Wind 0.6 0.5 0*
Snow 0.6* 0.2* 0*
* Values may have to be modified for specific locations.
Category A – Domestic, Residential.
Category B – Offices
Category C – Congregation areas
Category D – Shopping areas.
Category E – Storage areas

23
Characteristic Load: -It is defined as that load which has a 95% probability of not being exceeded
during the life of structure. The characteristic loads, Lk if given by
Lk = Lm + 1.64σ L if the loading is normally distributed.

Where Lm - mean load

σL - Standard deviation of load
Even if characteristic load can be defined ideally in statistical terms, it is not yet possible to determine
statistically in absent of sufficient load data. The nominal values given by codes may be taken as
characteristic values.
Design loads: - Factors are used to allow for the possible differences in the loads that may actually come
on a structure as compared to their characteristic value. The design load, Ld is given by
Ld = γf . Lk
Where Lk - characteristic load
γf - partial safety factor appropriate to the nature of loading and limit state being
considered
In the design of structures, the design loads shall be considered to act in combinations which produce the
most unfavorable effect.
-Design load combinations for Limit state according to ESCP-1/83 are given as follow:
i) Ultimate Strength Limit State:
DL & LL → (1.3DL+1.6LL) or (1.0DL) --the same in EBCS-1
DL, LL &WL → 0.8*(1.3DL+1.6LL+1.6WL)
→ 1.2*(DL+LL+WL) --the corresponding in EBCS-1
DL & WL → 0.9DL+1.3WL --for over-all stability of structure
→ DL+1.6WL --the corresponding in EBCS-1
DL, LL & EQ → (DL+LL+EQ) or 0.75*(1.3DL+1.6LL)+EQ
DL & EQ → 0.9DL+EQ --for over-all stability of structure

ii) Serviceability Limit State:

DL & LL → DL+LL or DL, only
DL, LL & WL → DL+0.8*(LL+WL)
-Design load combinations for WSD method according to ESCP-1/83 are given as follow:
DL & LL → DL+LL
DL, LL & WL → 0.8*(DL+LL+WL)
DL & WL → 0.8*(0.9DL+WL) --for over-all stability of structure

24
 DL, LL & EQ → 0.7*(DL+LL+EQ)
DL & EQ → 0.7*(0.9DL+EQ) --for over-all stability of structure

Characteristic Strength of Material: -is defined as that strength below which not more than 5% of the
test-results are expected to fall. The same definition is used for both concrete and reinforcing steel. The
characteristic strength of material, fk if given by
f k = f m − 1.64σ f (if the strength is normally distributed)

where fm - mean strength of material

σf - standard deviation of strength of material
Characteristic compressive strength of concrete is represented by the 28 days cube strength, f cu , of

concrete; and characteristic strength of steel is represented by the yield or 0.2% proof stress, f y , of

reinforcing steel.

Characteristic Tensile Strength of Concrete: the characteristic tensile strength of concrete can be
determined statistically by the same equation given above using test results obtained from split-cylinder
test or from beam-test. It can also be determined using empirical relation obtained from a number of tests
in terms of characteristic compressive strength of concrete given by codes. According to ESCP-2,
characteristic tensile strength of concrete is obtained using

f ctk = 0.35 f cu (fcu & fctk are in MPa)

According to EBCS-2, characteristic tensile strength of concrete is obtained using

f ctk = 0.21 (0.8 f cu ) 2 3 (fcu & fctk are in MPa)

Grade of Concrete: -concrete is graded in terms of characteristic compressive cube strength. The grade
of concrete to be used in design depends on the classification of concrete works and its intended use.
EBCS-2 specifies grades of concrete for two classes of concrete works as shown below.
Table: Grades of concrete
Class Grades of concrete (MPa)
I C-5 C-15 C-20 C-25 C-30 C-40 C-50 C-60
II C-5 C-15 C-20

25
Classes of concrete works are given depending on the quality of workmanship and the competence of the
supervisions directing the works. Class II work are permissible only for single story agricultural, social or
residential buildings and structures.
Grades C-5 shall be used only for lean concrete bases and simple foundations for masonry walls. Grades
lower than C-15 can not be used in reinforced concrete, lower than C-30 can not be used pre-stressed
concrete.

Acceptance (Compliance) Criteria for Concrete: In order to ensure proper control on the quality of
concrete, codes provide acceptance criteria. Random samples of concrete mix are taken and tested after
28 days. According to IS:456-78 code, the strength requirement is satisfied if:
A. Every sample has a test compressive strength not less than the specified grade of concrete. or
B. The strength of one or more samples, though less than the specified grade of concrete, is in
each case not less than 0.8 times the specified grade of concrete.
According to ACI-318 code, adequate control of strength of concrete occurs when the following
requirements are met:
1) Average of all set of the three consecutive compressive strength tests is equal or exceeded the
specified grade of concrete.
2) No individual compressive strength test (average of two cylinders) fall below the specified grade
of concrete by more than 3.4MPa.
According to EBCS-2/95 code, adequate control of strength of concrete occurs when the following
conditions are satisfied simultaneously:
f C (mean) ≥ ( f cu + m arg in stength, k1 )
f C (avg of the min imum strength for several lots ) ≥ ( f cu − m arg in strength, k 2 )

where margin strength, k1 and k2 specified by code is 5MPa & 1MPa for samples in the first two lots,
4MPa & 2MPa for samples in third & fourth lots, and 3MPa & 3MPa for samples in fifth lots &
above, respectively.

• Design Strength of Material in Limit State: The design strength for a given material and limit state is
given by:
fk
fd =
γm
where fk -- characteristic strength of materials
γm –partial safety factor for materials

26
However, in the case of concrete under compression, a further correction factor (about 0.67 times fd, the
corresponding in the latest code is 0.68 times fd) is introduced to account for the difference in strength
indicated by a cube test and the strength of concrete in structure. Thus, the design strength of concrete and
steel are given by:

Design Strength for Concrete

0.67 f cu 0.68 f cu
(a) In compression: f cd = (ESCP-2/83) or f cd = (EBCS-2/95)
γc γc

0.85 f ck
or f cd =
γc
f ctk
(b) In tension: f ctd =
γc
Design Strength for Steel
f yk
In tension and compression: f yd =
γs

Design Strength of Materials in Working Stress Design Method: The design strength of materials in
working stress design method is the allowable (permissible) stress which is generally given by
fk
f allow =
FS
where fk --characteristic strength of material
FS –Factor of safety specified by code
-According to British standards (CP-114), factor of safety of 3 is applied to the strength of concrete; and
1.8 is applied to the strength of steel. And, whatever the strength of steel, the allowable tensile stress in
steel is limited to a maximum value of 230MPa.
-According to ESCP-1, allowable strength of materials are given depending on classes of concrete works
as follows:

For Class I-concrete work For Class II-concrete work

f c , allow = 0.335 f cu & f s , allow = 0.522 f y f c , allow = 0.3045 f cu & f s , allow = 0.50 f y

27
-According to ACI code, allowable strength of materials are as given below.
f c , allow = 0.45 * (0.8 f cu )

⎧⎪ 137.8 MPa for f y = 275.8 MPa & f y = 344.8 MPa

f s , allow = ⎨
⎪⎩ 165.5 MPa for f y = 413.7 MPa

Idealized Stress-Strain Diagrams: For s design purpose, most codes adopt idealized stress-strain
diagrams in predicting the ultimate strength of sections in plastic-theory. In EBCS-2, a parabola-rectangle
stress-strain diagram is given for concrete in compression as shown in figure below.
fc f cu

0.67 f cu
f cd =
γc
for ε c ≤ 0.002, f c = 1000ε c (250ε c −1) f cd

- 0.002 - 0.0035 εc
This code also idealized the stress-strain diagram for steel with ultimate strain of 0.01 as shown in figure
below. It is a portion of stress-strain diagram of steel. The maximum strain of steel, ε s , max = 0.01
permitted by code assumed to limit width of concrete crack in tension zone to acceptable limit.

fs fy

fy
f yd =
γs

ES = 200 GPa

0.01
εs

28
Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete: According to ESCP-2/83 and EBCS-2/95, mean value of the secant
modulus, EC is given as shown in table below.

f cu (MPa) C-15 C-20 C-25 C-30 C-40 C-50 C-60

Ec (GPa) ---ESCP-2/83 24 25 26 28 31 34 ---
Ec (GPa) ---EBCS-2/95 26 27 29 32 35 37 39

1.7 Patterns of Live Load Arrangement for Maximum Effects

A structure should be analyzed for all possible arrangement of live loading (including dead load on the
structure which may cover the whole length) which produce the maximum stresses-resultant (bending
moment & shear force) at particular point of structure. Live load arrangement on continuous beam to
cause:
a) Maximum positive span moment is to load that particular span and alternate span.
b) Maximum negative support moment is to load the adjacent span of that support and then alternate
span.
Analysis of continuous beam are made for all possible alternative arrangements of live load (including
dead load) to obtain design shear force envelope diagram and bending moment envelope diagram by
over-lapping internal forces diagrams obtained for different loading arrangements.

29
 CHAPTER 2

DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR FLEXURE USING WORKING STRESS

DESIGN (WSD) METHODS

2.1 Basic Assumption:

1. A section which is plane before bending remains plane after bending. This implies strains
across section are linearly varying. This is true for most section of flexural member
except deep beam where shear deformation is significant.
2. Beam section behaves elastically when subjected to service load moment. This implies
stress in the concrete varies linearly from zero at neutral axis to a maximum at the
extreme fiber.
3. Tensile strength of concrete is ignored. The reinforcement assumed to takes all the
tension due to flexure.
4. Perfect bond exist between steel bars and concrete such that no slip occurs. This is
possible if adequate development length of bars and concrete cover are provided.
5. The modular ratio, n = Es Ec , may be taken as the nearest whole number (but not less

than 6 or more than 15). In doubly reinforced sections, to consider creep of concrete in
compression zone an effective modular ratio of 2 Es Ec shall be used to transform

compression reinforcement for stress computation.

2.2 Design Equations for Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section

Consider a singly reinforced rectangular section subjected to a service load moment, M as

shown below.

εc x
fc
3
x fc
M Cc = .b. x
d 2
D fs x
n
j . d = (d − )
AS εs 3

b fs Ts = As . f s

X-section Strain Stress

30
a) From the strain diagram, similarity of triangles gives

εc x
= (1)
εs d−x
In elastic range, applying Hooke’s law, the maximum strain in concrete & strain in steel,
fc fs
εc = & εs =
Ec Es
And, the ratio of these strains
εc f .E
= c s (2)
εs f s . Ec
By definition, Es Ec is the modular-ratio, n

Equating Eq(1) and Eq(2), and substituting n = Es Ec

x n . fc
⇒ = =k (3)
d f s + n . fc

⇒ x = k . d , thus k is an indicator of the neutral axis position.

b) Considering equilibrium of a section

i) For horizontal equilibrium [∑ F H =0 ]

⇒ Cc = Ts Substituting Cc and Ts ,

fc
⇔ . b . x = As . f s (4)
2
As
Let ρ= --is known as geometric steel ratio
b.d
Then, As = ρ .b . d
Substituting it into Eq.(4 )
fc
⇒ . b . x = ρ . b. d . fs
2
fc
With, x = k . d , ⇒ . b . k . d = ρ . b. d . fs
2

31
 2ρ . fs k . fc
simplifying, ⇒ k= or ρ= (5)
fc 2 fs
n . fc
From Eq.(3 ), k=
f s + n . fc
Ratio of stresses in steel to concrete, rearranging the above equation
f s n . (1 − k )
⇒ = (6)
fc k
fs k
but, ⇒ = from Eq.(5), and equating with Eq.(6),
fc 2ρ
k n . (1 − k )
⇒ =
2ρ k
Rearranging the following second degree equation in terms of ‘k’ is obtained.
k 2 + ( 2 ρ . n) . k − ( 2 ρ . n) = 0
Solving for k,

k = − ( ρ . n) + ( ρ . n) 2 + ( 2 ρ . n) (7)

ii) The internal couple resulting from internal forces Cc and Ts must equal to the external

applied service load moment. The convenient moment center is taken usually the line of
action of the internal forces.

--Taking moment of internal forces about line of action of Ts ,

x
M = Cc . ( d − )
3
fc
Substituting Cc = . b. x & x = k . d , and simplifying then equation of service load
2
moment resistance of section is obtained as,
fc k
⇒ M = . k . b . d 2 . (1 − ) (8a)
2 3
k
Letting j = (1 − ) be lever-arm ratio for internal forces of section of beam, then service load
3
moment resistance of section may be written as,
fc
⇒ M = . k . j . b . d2 (8b)
2

32
 fc
Letting R = . k . j be relative bending moment of section of beam, then service load
2
moment resistance of section may be written as,
⇒ M =R . b . d2 (8c)
Rearranging Eq.(8c), the effective depth of section required by singly reinforced beam obtained
as,

M
d=
R.b

--In similar manner, taking moment of internal forces about line of action of Cc ,

x
M = Ts . ( d − )
3
Substituting Ts = As . f s & x = k . d , simplifying equation of service load moment
resistance of section is obtained as,
k
⇒ M = As . f s . d . (1− ) (9a)
3
k
Letting j = (1 − ) be lever arm ratio for internal forces of section of beam, then service load
3
moment resistance of section may be written as,
⇒ M = As . f s . j . d (9b)

Rearranging Eq.(9b), the area of tension steel required by beam section is obtained as,
M
As =
fs . j . d

2.3 Type of Singly Reinforced Beam Sections-Based on Modes of Stresses

Depending on the amount of steel used by section, singly reinforced sections are divided into
three: Balanced section, Over-reinforced section and Under-reinforced section.
a) Balanced Section: The most economical section in terms of material usage. In this
section, the maximum stresses in both the reinforcement and the concrete reach simultaneously
the respective permissible value.
i.e f s = f s , allow

f c = f c , allow

33
From Eq.(3), neutral axis depth ratio of singly reinforced section,
n. fc n
k= =
n. fc + f s n + f s
fc
For balanced section, ratio of allowable stresses of steel to concrete is denoted by ‘r’ as,
f s , allow
r=
f c , allow

Substituting ‘r’ into above equation, the balanced neutral axis depth ratio is obtained as
n
kb = (10)
n+r
From Eq.(5), steel ratio of singly reinforced section,
k . fc k
ρ= =
2 fs 2 f s fc
Substituting ‘r’, the balanced steel ratio is obtained as
kb
ρb = (11a)
2r
where r—is ratio of allowable stresses of steel to concrete
Substituting equation of kb from Eq.(10) in to Eq.(11a), the balanced steel ratio is rewritten as

n
ρb = (11b)
2r . ( n + r )
This equation would gives the balanced steel ratio of singly reinforced section in such away that
the maximum stresses developed in steel and concrete when section subjected to service load
moment will reach simultaneously the respective allowable stresses. The corresponding lever-arm
ratio and relative bending moment of balanced singly reinforced section are obtained by
kb
jb = (1− )
3
f c , allow
Rb = . kb . jb
2

b) Over-reinforced Section if ρ > ρb: Over-reinforced sections are those that contain
more reinforcement than the balanced one. Hence, as the applied moment is increased, the
maximum stress in concrete reaches its permissible value first; and by the time the stress in

34
reinforcement reaches its permissible stress, the concrete is over stressed. Therefore, the stresses
in concrete and steel for such section are as follow:
f s < f s , allow --determined from stress diagram using similarity of triangles

f c = f c , allow
The maximum moment of resistance of over-reinforced section is obtained by the following
equations in terms of allowable stress of concrete as,
f c , allow k
M = . k . b . d 2 . (1 − ) --used to determine neutral axis depth ratio
2 3
or M = As . f s . j . d --used to determine area of tension steel

n . (1 − k )
where fs = . f c , allow < f s , allow
k
Here, an increase of load produces over stress in concrete earlier than the reinforcement; as a
result the concrete crushes in compression. Such failure is sudden and occurs without warning.
For this reasons, over-reinforced section is not recommended in design.

c) Under-reinforced Section if ρ < ρb: Under reinforced sections are those that contain
less reinforcement than the balanced one. In such sections, the tensile reinforcement is insufficient
to develop the full strength of the concrete in compression, so that when the reinforcement is fully
stressed, the concrete is under-stressed. Therefore, the stresses in concrete and steel for such
section are as follow:
f s = f s , allow

f c < f c , allow --determined from stress diagram using similarity of triangles

The maximum moment of resistance of under-reinforced section is obtained by the following

equations in terms of allowable stress of steel as,
fc k
M = . k . b . d 2 . (1 − ) --used to determine neutral axis depth ratio
2 3
or M = As . f s , allow . j . d --used to determine area of tension steel

k
where f c = f s , allow . < f c , allow
n . (1 − k )
Here, failure is more gradual than over-reinforced section. As when steel is over-stressed, the steel
yields but is still able to support the yield stress since steel is a ductile material. Therefore, from

35
both safety and economic point of view, it is recommended to design section of flexural member
as under-reinforced section.

2.4 Control of Deflection

The deflection of structure or part of structure shall not adversely affect the appearance or
efficiency of structure or finishes or partitions. For beams and slabs, the vertical deflection limits
may generally be assumed to be satisfied provided that the minimum depth required by deflection
specified by code is maintained.
ACI code provide minimum depth required by beams and one-way slabs in terms of span length
as given in table below can be used as a crude estimate of initial depth to control deflection.

Table: ACI-code minimum depth of beams and one-way slab to control deflection

Simply End Interior Cantilever

Types of Member supported spans Spans spans
-Beams or one–way S-400MPa l 16 l 18.5 l 21 l 8
ribbed slab S-300MPa l 20 l 23 l 26 l 10
-One-way solid S-400MPa l 20 l 24 l 28 l 10
slab S-300MPa l 25 l 30 l 35 l 12.5

Note: For other grades of steel, the value given for S − 400 MPa is modified by multiplying factor
fy
of ( 0.4 + ).
690
EBCS-2 provide minimum effective depth, ‘d’ to be used to control deflection is given as,
fy le
d = ( 0.4 + 0.6 ).
400 β a
where f y --characteristic yield strength of steel in MPa

le --effective span length; and for two-way slabs, the shorter span length

β a --constant as given in table below; and for slabs carrying partition walls likely to
crack, shall be taken as β a ≤ 150 l0

36
 l0 --distance in meter between points of zero moment (for continuous beam, may be taken
approximately as 0.7 times length of span), and, for a cantilever span, twice the length to the
face of the support

Table: Values of β a

Simply End Interior Cantilever

Member supported spans spans Spans
-Beams 20 24 28 10
-Slabs
a) span ratio, ll ls = 2 (includes one-way slabs) 25 30 35 12

b) span ratio, ll ls = 1 35 40 45 10

Note: For slabs with intermediate span ratio interpolate linearly.

2.5 Doubly-Reinforced Rectangular Beam Section

If the section of RC beam is limited in dimension (usually depth), it can not develop the
compressive force required to resist the applied bending moment as singly reinforced section.
That is, the applied moment is greater than the balanced moment capacity of singly reinforced
section. For small increase of moment over the balanced one, over-reinforced section can be used,
which is not recommended in design.

A more economical and safe way of designing section in such case is to provide reinforcement in
compression zone of RC section. This section termed as doubly reinforced. Doubly reinforced
section can also be used if the required depth of section of beam as singly reinforced is
unacceptable. The purpose of reinforcement in compression zone of RC section is to assist the
concrete in resisting compressive force and to keep the neutral axis at the ideal position ensuring
balanced type failure.

In doubly reinforced beam section, concrete and steel act together to take compression. If both
steel and concrete behave elastically, the stress in compression steel is ‘ n = Es Ec ’ (modular

ratio) times the concrete stress at the same level. However, concrete under sustained compressive
stress deforms continuously with time due to creep effect and concrete is also subjected to

37
shrinkage over a period of time. Whereas these time dependent effects do not occur in steel. As
RC beam deforms, even at low loading, there is a continuous transfer of stress from concrete to
compression steel. Therefore, the actual stress in compression steel is larger than that computed
on the basis of elastic behavior of materials. i.e f s1 > n . f c1 where f c1 is concrete stress at the

level of compression steel.

To approximate the effect of creep of concrete, ESCP-2/83 code species that an effective modular
ratio of ‘ 2n = 2 Es Ec ’ is to be used to transform compression reinforcement for stress

computation with the stress in compression reinforcement not to exceed the allowable stress of
steel, f s , allow .

2.6 Design Equation for Doubly-Reinforced Rectangular Section

Consider a doubly reinforced rectangular section subjected to a service load moment, M as

shown below.

εc d1 f c , allow
f c1
As1 xb = kb . d As1 f s1 C2 =
M C1
+ As1. f s1
d f s, allow
εs AS ≡ As1 n As 2 f s , allow
T1 = As1. f s , allow
b
T2 =
Strain a) Doubly reinforced b) Balanced singly c) Comp. steel plus
section reinforced section Excess tens. steel As 2 . f s , allow

Two couples method is used to determine the required areas of tension and compression
reinforcement by treating doubly reinforced section into two parts. The total resisting moment is
equal to the sum of two resisting couples: one of which is provided by given cross-section of
beam without compression reinforcement with a partial tension steel area, As1 that balance

concrete in compression; and the other by compression steel, As1 and the remainder of tension

steel area, As 2 . Thus, the section with compression steel is designed as balanced reinforced

38
section in such away that compression steel and extra tension steel are proportioned by
maintaining the balanced neutral axis depth.
Let M 1 --balanced moment capacity of a section if singly reinforced
M 2 --excess moment produced by compression steel plus excess tension steel
Then, total moment capacity of doubly reinforced section is,
M = M1 + M 2
Balanced moment capacity of a section if singly reinforced and the corresponding area of tension
steel balancing the section are obtained by
M 1 = M b = Rb . b . d 2
M1
& As1 =
f s , allow . jb . d
Excess moment resisted by compression steel plus excess tension steel from couple produced by
internal forces developed in the section,
M 2 = ( M − M 1 ) = C2 . ( d − d 1 ) = T2 . ( d − d 1 )
Rearranging the above equation, internal forces developed in compression steel and excess
tension steel are obtained as
M2
C2 = T2 =
( d − d1 )
Then, area of excess tension steel is obtained as,
T2 M2
As 2 = =
f s , allow f s , allow . ( d − d 1 )
Therefore, total area of tension steel required by doubly reinforced section is obtained as,
As = As1 + As 2
From similarity of triangles shown in fig.(b) above, the stress in the concrete at the level of
compression reinforcement, f c1 ,

( kb . d − d 1 )
f c1 = f c , allow .
kb . d
Therefore, the stress in compression reinforcement,
f s1 = ( 2n . f c1 ) ≤ f s , allow
Due to the presence of reinforcement in compression zone, there is a loss of concrete area of
magnitude, As1 . And, this will cause a corresponding loss in compression force of ( As1 . f c1 ) .

39
Therefore, if f s1 = ( 2n . f c1 ) < f s , allow

C2 = f s1 . As1 − f c1 . As1 = 2n . f c1 . As1 − f c1 . As1

⇔ C2 = As1 . f c1 . ( 2n − 1)
C2
⇒ As1 =
( 2n − 1) . f c1

If f s1 = ( 2n . f c1 ) ≥ f s , allow , then f s , allow

C2 = f s , allow . As1 − f c1 . As1 = As1 . ( f s , allow − f c1 )

C2
⇒ As1 =
( f s , allow − f c1 )

2.7 Flanged Section (T- or L-section) under Flexure

In construction of building structures, the slab is usually supported by a system of beams. If the
connection between the beam and the slab adequately transmit longitudinal shear force, then the
beam and slab together may act as a homogeneous section of T- or L-forms. For loaded beam-
slab if subjected to a moment which produces compression at the top surface, the slab therefore
becomes parts of the compression flange of the beam, resulting in a greater zone of compression
and giving a more economical section. For a reinforced concrete beam-slab section, adequate
connection between the beam and the slab is easily provided by casting the section as monolithic,
and by extending beam-stirrups and bent bars up into the slab.

It is known that the compressive stress caused by flexure in the upper flange decreases as the
distance from the web increases. This is because the shear deformation of flange relieves some of
compressive stresses as the element becomes more remote to the web. Therefore, this makes
exact analysis of flanged section of infinite wide-flange complex. In order to simplify the design
of flanged section of infinite wide-flange, it is usual to assume a uniform stress over a reduced
width of flange. This reduced width is known as effective width. Effective width of flange is
determined equating forces on compressive flange due to actual compressive stress on infinite
wide-flange with equivalent uniform compressive stress on reduced width of flange.

The effective width has been found to depend primarily on the type loading, span length, spacing
of beams, width of the web, and the relative thickness of the slab with respect to the total beam

40
depth. For practical design of flanged section, effective width of flange recommended by codes
may be used.

-ACI code prescribes a limit on the effective flange width, ‘ b f ’ as follows.

a) For interior T-section, effective flange width shall be the smallest of:

⎧ be = l 4
⎪
⎨ be = bw + 16t
⎪ b = center − to − center spacing of the beams
⎩ e
Where l --is span length of the beam.

bw --is width of the web

t --is thickness of the slab
b) For exterior T-section (L-forms), effective flange width shall be the smallest of:

⎧
⎪ be = bw + l 12
⎪
⎨ be = bw + 6t
⎪ 1
⎪ be = bw + ( clear dis tan ce to the next beam )
⎩ 2
c) For isolated T-sections, effective flange width shall be
be ≤ 4bw

and, also ACI code requires that t ≥ bw 2

-EBCS-2/95 also specifies the effective flange width, ‘ b f ’ as follows.

a) For symmetrical T-beam, effective flange width shall not exceed the lesser of:

⎧ be = bw + l 5
⎨
⎩ be = center − to − center spacing of the beams
b) For edge beams (L-section), effective flange width shall not exceed the lesser of:

⎧ be = bw + l 10
⎪
⎨ 1
⎪⎩ be = bw + 2 ( clear dis tan ce to the next beam )

41
2.8 Design of Flanged beams for Flexure

Design of flanged beams are made depending on the sign of design moment develop in the
section producing either tension or compression on flange side of beam. If the design moment
developed in section produces tension on flange side, the section is to be designed as if it were
rectangular beam of width equal to the width of the web of the section. For such section, no
advantage is gained in using slab as flange of section.

On other hand, if the design moment developed in section produces compression on flange side,
the section is to be designed depending on the position the neutral axis. The position of the
neutral axis depends up of the proportions of the cross-section, the amount of tension steel, and
the strength of the materials. If the neutral axis lies in the flange, the section is to be designed as if
it were a rectangular beam of width equal to the effective flange width. When the neutral axis lies
in the web, the section is to be designed as T-beam section.

2.9 Design Equations of T-beam Section -Working Stress (Elastic) Method

Consider a flanged section subjected to a service load moment, M as shown below. Assume the
neutral axis lies in the web so that the section is designed as T-beam section.
be
ε cε fc z
c

t
k. d Cc
N.A
d (k . d − t )
M fc .
k .d
As εs
Ts = As . f s
bw

T − beam Section Strain Stress

42
From geometry of strain diagram and assuming perfect elasticity of both materials, expression for
neutral axis depth ratio, k is obtained as:

n
k= (*)
fs
n+
fc
Since the compression area provided by the slab is so large (large be ), the actual maximum

compressive stress in concrete, f c will be some unknown fraction of its allowable stress value.

Hence, neutral axis depth ratio, k has to be given in terms of the maximum compressive stress in

concrete, f c that does not related to the allowable stress value, f c , allow .

To simplify the derivation of design equations, the compressive stress in the web above the
neutral axis is ignored. Therefore, total compressive force in the flange is equal to:
f c + f c . (k . d − t ) k . d ( 2k . d − t )
Cc ≅ . be . t = f c . . be .t
2 2k . d
and, resultant tensile force in steel,
Ts = As . f s

For horizontal equilibrium, Ts = Cc

( 2k . d − t )
⇒ As . f s = ρ . be . d . f s = f c . . be . t (**)
2k . d
k
From Eq.(*) fc = . fs
n . (1 − k )

Substituting this expression of f c into Eq.(**) to eliminate unit stresses and then gives
expression of the neutral axis depth ratio of T-beam section as:
1
n. ρ + (t d ) 2
k= 2
n . ρ + (t d )
The distance to the center of compression (centriod of the trapezoidal area of compressive stress)
from the upper face of the beam is:
(3k . d − 2t ) t
z= .
( 2k . d − t ) 3
Then, the lever-arm of the couple formed by the internal tensile and compressive force is:
j . d = (d − z )

43
Substituting z and k , and solving for j , the following expression lever-arm ratio of T-beam
section is obtained,
1
6 − 6(t d ) + 2(t d ) 2 + (t d )3 . ( )
2ρ . n
j =
6 − 3(t d )
The resisting moments of T-beam section are equal to the product of the lever-arm, j . d of the
internal force couple and the total tension or compression. Hence,
M = As . f s . j . d --in terms of steel stress

t
or M = f c . (1 − ) .be . t . j . d --in terms of concrete stress
2k . d
Approximate equation for resisting moments can be obtained using the limiting values for lever-
arm between internal forces, ( j . d ) > (d − t 2) and average compressive stress in the flange,

Cc = f c . (1 − t 2k . d ) > f c 2 as,

M = As . f s . (d − t 2) --used to determine trail area of tension steel

fc
M = . be . t . (d − t 2) --used to check maximum stress in concrete
2

2.10 Reinforced Concrete Slabs

RC slabs are one of structural elements used as floors, roofs and stairs of buildings, and deck of
brides etc. It is a broad, flat plate usually horizontal some times inclined surface which may be
supported by monolithically caste reinforced concrete beams, walls and columns, or simply
supported by masonry walls, structural steel beams and columns, or continuously supported on
the ground.

If slab is supported on two opposite sides only, the structural action of the slab is essentially one-
way; and the loads being carried by the slab in the direction perpendicular to the supporting
beams or walls. Therefore, all the main reinforcing steel should be placed at right angles to those
beams or walls, except shrinkage and temperature reinforcement which may be placed in other
direction.

44
 Beam

Beam
Fig: One-way slabs
supported by parallel beams
with main reinforcement

On other hand, there may be supporting beams or wall on all four sides of slab, the structural
action of slab is two-way. For such slab, the main reinforcing steel should be applied in two
directions. If the ratio of the longest to shortest span of the two-way slab panel is greater than
two (ll ls > 2) , most of the load is carried in short direction to the supporting beams or walls;

and one-way action is more effective even if the supports provided on all sides of slab. But,
minimum reinforcement is required over girder support.

Girder
Beam

Beam

ll
Beam

ls
Girder

ll
Fig: One-way slabs if > 2
ls
with main reinforcement

2.11 Analysis and Design of One-way Solid Slabs

One-way slab may be considered as a wide shallow beam spanning between slab supports. But
for design purpose, a strip of unit width spanning between the slab supports is considered. This
strip is analyzed in the same way as continuous beam. It is assumed that the stiffness of the
supporting beams is larger than the stiffness of the slab so that the resulting deflection of beams is
smaller compared to deflection of slab.

45
Elastic plate theory shows that a strip of unit width has a higher flexural rigidity than the
corresponding isolated beam. In simplified analysis that assumes poisson’s ratio to be zero, which
will gives slightly conservative proportions of one-way slab.

In analysis of continuous slab, the effective span length is taken as center-to-center spacing
between the slab supports. But in design of slab, design moment at support is taken at faces of the
support and design shear force at support is taken at effective depth distance from the face of the
support provided the slab is monolithic with the supporting beams or walls. If continuous slab is
not monolithic with the supporting beams or walls, design moment and shear force at support
used for design are taken at center of the support.

Slabs are usually designed as singly reinforced section without shear reinforcement. Flexural
reinforcement of slab being applied in the same way as singly reinforced rectangular beam with
clear cover about 15mm for mild exposure condition or 20mm for moderate exposure condition.
If thickness of slab exceeds 300mm, special shear reinforcement may be required near to the slab
support. Slab design start with determination of slab-thickness from deflection requirement given
by code. Then, check for adequacy of thickness of slab is made for both flexure and shear.
Thickness of slab is adequate for shear if the design shear stress developed in slab is less than or
equal to the shear strength provided by the slab.
Vd
i.e vd = ≤ vc
b.d
Allowable shear strength of RC slab in working stress method for thickness up to 254mm without
shear reinforcement according to ACI code is given as:

vc , allow = 0.17k . 0.8 f cu --it is a conservative estimate of shear strength of slab

where f cu --cube compressive strength in MPa

⎧ 0.55 − for one − way slabs

k=⎨
⎩ 0.50 − for two − way slabs
Allowable shear strength of RC slab in working stress method for thickness up to 300mm without
shear reinforcement according to ESCP-2/83 is given as:

vc , allow = 0.062 f cu . (1 + 50 ρ )

As
where ρ= ≤ 0.01 --longitudinal reinforcement ratio at location of critical shear force
b.d

46
Limitation of Flexural Reinforcement of slabs (ACI-code)
-Main reinforcement:
⎧ 3t ⎧φ (used )
S max ≤ ⎨ slab & S min ≥ ⎨ b
⎩ 450mm ⎩ 25mm
-Secondary (shrinkage and temperature) reinforcement:
As , min ≥ 0.002 (b . t slab ) for S − 300 MPa
or As , min ≥ 0.0018 (b . t slab ) for S − 400 MPa

⎧ 5t
and S max ≤ ⎨ slab
⎩ 450mm
Limitation of Flexural Reinforcement of slabs (EBCS-2/95)
-The ratio of secondary to the main reinforcement shall be at least equal to 0.2.
0.5
-Main reinforcement ratio in a slab shall not be less than, ρ min =
f y ( MPa)

-Spacing between bars for main reinforcement of slab shall not exceed,
S max = 2t slab ≤ 350mm
-Secondary reinforcement is the area of steel corresponding to the minimum reinforcement ratio
of main reinforcement.
-Spacing between bars for secondary reinforcement of slab shall not exceed 400mm.

47
2.12 One-way Ribbed slabs

One-way ribbed slab is a floor or roof system supported by closely spaced small beams called ribs
or joists framing into girders, which in turn frame into the supporting columns. Typical plan of
one-way ribbed slab is as shown below.

Girder

Rib
Rib

Rib
Girder

topping
slab

Fig: Ribbed floor-slab supported by system of beams and girders

Since concrete is weak in tension and its tensile strength is neglected in design, the use of ribbed
slab eliminate much of tension concrete in a slab that results in a saving of weight with little
alteration in the structural behavior of the slab. Ribbed floor slabs are economical for buildings
such as apartment houses, hotels and hospitals where live loads are fairly small and the spans are
comparatively long. Ribbed floors are not suitable for heavy construction, such as in ware houses
and heavy manufacturing buildings.

Minimum thickness of concrete flange or topping slab according to ACI code is about 50mm but
not less than 1/12 of clear distance between the ribs; the corresponding in EBCS-2/83 is about
40mm but not less than 1/10 of the clear distance between ribs. Topping slab is reinforced,

48
primarily for temperature and shrinkage stresses using small bars placed at right angles to the
joists; the area of this reinforcement is usually about 0.18% of the cross-sectional area of topping
slab.

Generally, ribs (joists) are designed as regular T-beam sections supported by girders. Ribs shall
be not less than 65mm wide. Their spacing shall not exceed 1.5m; and depth of ribs excluding
any topping slab shall be not more than four times their width. The reinforcement of the ribs
usually consists of two bars, one straight bar and one bent bar.

2.13 Design of One-way Ribbed slabs

The general design of ribbed slab involves the following:

-Thickness of topping slab, width, depth and spacing of ribs are assumed based on code’s
recommendations.
-Determine design loads supported by each ribs.
-Analyze the ribs as regular simply supported or continuous T-beams supported by the supporting
girders.
-Check adequacy of depth of ribs for both flexure and shear. If the shear stress developed in the
rib section exceeds the shear strength of T-beam, shear reinforcement is provided for excess
shear.
-Determine the required area of reinforcement for flexure.

Support Re inf orcement Span Re inf orcement

49
2.14 Analysis of One-way Slab Carrying Concentrated Load (IS:456 &
IRC)

The analysis of a slab carrying concentrated loads is highly statically indeterminate problem. The
use of theory of elasticity leads to higher order differential equations which are difficult to solve
for various positions of loads and boundary conditions of slab. However, it is possible to carryout
a simplified analysis by modifying the available results of elastic analysis of slabs. It is referred to
as effective width method of analysis for slab supported on two opposite edges only.
One-way slab carrying concentrated load shall be analyzed to carry concentrated load over
effective width of slab as follows:
a) For Single Concentrated load: the effective width of slab shall be determined using the
following equation provided that it shall not exceed the actual width of the slab.
x
be = k . x . (1 − ) + a0
le
where k –constant depending upon the ratio width of slab to effective span B le

x –distance of concentrated load to the nearest support

a0 –width of contact area of conc. load parallel to the supported edge

Table: Value of k depending on B le

B le Simply supp. Continuous B le Simply supp. Continuous

Slab Slab slab Slab
0.1 0.4 0.4 0.6 1.96 1.84
0.2 0.8 0.8 0.7 2.12 1.96
0.3 1.16 1.16 0.8 2.24 2.08
0.4 1.48 1.44 0.9 2.36 2.16
0.5 1.72 1.68 1.0 & above 2.48 2.24

b) For Two or More Concentrated Load (placed in the direction of span): the slab shall be
analyzed separately for each load using the effective width of slab as given in (a).

50
c) For Two or More Concentrated Load (not in a line in the direction of span): If the
effective width of slab for one load does not overlap for another load, the slab for each load can
be analyzed separately. If the effective width of slab for one load over-laps with an adjacent
load, the overlapping portion of slab shall be analyzed for combined effect of the two loads.

d) For Cantilever slabs: the effective width of slab shall be determined using,
be = 1.2a1 + a0

where a1 --distance of concentrated load from the face of cantilever support

51
52
53
54
 CHAPTER-3

LIMIT STATE DESIGN FOR FLEXURE AND SERVICEABILITY LIMIT

STATE

3.1. Basic Assumptions:

Assumption made for determining ultimate resistance of a member for flexure and axial force
according to EBCS-2/95 are,
1. A section which is plane before bending remains plane after bending. This implies strains
across section are linearly varying. This is true for most section of flexural member except
deep beam where shear deformation is significant.
2. The reinforcement is subjected to the same variations in the strain as the adjacent concrete.
This implies there is no slip between steel bars and the adjacent concrete. This is possible if
adequate development length of bars and concrete cover are provided.
3. Tensile strength of concrete is ignored. The reinforcement assumed to takes all the tension
due to flexure.
4. The maximum compressive stain in concrete when a section complete plastic deformation
is taken to be ε cu = 0.0035 in bending (simple or compound) ε cu = 0.002 in axial

compression
5. The maximum tensile strain in the reinforcement is taken to 0.01. This limit assumed to
limit crack-width with in tension zone of section to the acceptable limit.
6. Either idealized parabola-rectangle stress distribution or equivalent rectangle stress
distribution for concrete in compression zone given by code as shown below shall be used
in derivation of design equation.
The ultimate resistance of section may be determined using equilibrium of both internal and
external forces based on the stress block obtained from the basic assumption.
ε cu = 0.0035 f cd = 0.67 f cu γ c f cd = 0.67 f cu γ c

ε 0 = 0.002
x y= 0.8x
d
N. A

As f s = f yd f s = f yd
ε s ≥ ε yd

Parabola-rectangle Equivalent-rectangle
x-section Strain
stress stress

55
3.2. Design Equations for Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section:

Consider a singly reinforced rectangular section subjected to a factored load moment, M u as

shown below.
ε cu = 0.0035 f cd f cd
Cc Cc = 0.8 f cd .b . x
x y = 0.8 x
d Mu
D
Mu z = (d − 0.4 x )
AS f yd
ε s ≥ ε yd =
Es
Ts T s = A s . f yd
b
Parabola-rectangle Equivalent rectangle
X-section Strain Stress block Stress block

-Equilibrium of both internal and external forces,

i) [∑ FH =0 ] ⇒ Cc = Ts

As
⇔ 0.8 f cd . b . x = As . f yd Let ρ = --steel ratio of section
b.d
⇔ 0.8 f cd . b . x = ρ . b . d . f yd
Simplifying, depth of neutral axis obtained as,

⎛ ρ . f yd ⎞
x = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ . d (1)
⎝ 0.8 f cd ⎠
ii) [∑ M = 0 ] ⇒ M u = Cc . z = Ts . z Where z = ( d − 0.4 x ) --lever arm

-taking moment about Ts :

M u = Cc . z

⇔ M u = (0.8 f cd . b . x ) . ( d − 0.4 x )
Substituting x from Eq.(1),

⎛ ρ . f yd ⎞ ⎛ 0.4 ρ . f yd ⎞
⇒ M u = 0.8 f cd . b . ⎜⎜ .d ⎟⎟ . ⎜⎜ d − .d ⎟⎟
⎝ 0 . 8 f cd ⎠ ⎝ 0 . 8 f cd ⎠
Simplifying, ultimate moment of resistance of section is obtained as,

⎛ ρ . f yd ⎞
M u = ρ . f yd . b . d 2 . ⎜⎜ 1 − ⎟⎟ (2)
⎝ 2 f cd ⎠

56
The same equation of ultimate moment of resistance of section can be obtained if moment center
is taken at Cc .

-Defining the ultimate moment and relative steel-area using the following dimension-less
parameters:
Mu
μ= --relative ultimate moment
f cd . b . d 2
f yd
And ω=ρ. --mechanical reinforcement ratio
f cd
Then, neutral-axis depth obtained in Eq.(1) can be written as,
ω.d
x= (1a)
0.8
Therefore, depth of equivalent stress-block is obtained as,
y = 0.8 x = ω . d
Writing equation of moment of resistance of section in the form as shown below by rearranging
Eq.(2),

Mu ρ . f yd ⎛ ρ . f yd ⎞
2
= . ⎜⎜ 1 − ⎟⎟
f cd . b . d f cd ⎝ 2 f cd ⎠
Writing the above equation in terms of dimension less parameters,

⎛ ω⎞ ω2
⇒ μ = ω .⎜1− ⎟ =ω− (2a)
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
Rearranging Eq.(2a), ⇒ ω 2 − 2ω + 2μ = 0
Solving for ω ,

ω = 1 − 1 − 2μ (3)

Therefore, area of tension steel required to resist the ultimate moment, M u is obtained by taking

moment about Cc as,

M u = Ts . z

⇔ M u = As . f yd . z

Where z = (d − 0.4 x ) substituting x from Eq.(1a) and ω from Eq.(3)

⎛ ω⎞
2 ⎠
d
z = ⎜ 1 − ⎟ . d = . 1 + 1 − 2μ
2
( )
⎝

57
Rearranging, the required area of tension steel is obtained by,
Mu
As = (4)
f yd . z

3.2.1. Balanced Singly Reinforced Section

In balanced section, yielding of tension steel and crushing of concrete takes place at same time
when the section complete plastic deformation. That is, the maximum compressive strain in
concrete reaches the ultimate strain, ε c = ε cu = 0.0035 and the strain in tension steel is just

yielded, ε s = ε yd = f yd Es .

From strain distribution, using similarity of triangles,

x ε cu
=
d ε cu + ε s
Substituting x = xb & ε s = ε yd = f yd Es , the balanced neutral-axis depth is obtained as,

ε cu
xb = .d (5)
(ε cu + f yd Es )

Where ε cu = 0.0035 --ultimate compressive strain of concrete

Equating xb with equation of neutral-axis depth obtained in Eq.(1) and Eq.(1a), the balanced

reinforcement ratio and the balanced mechanical reinforcement ratio are obtained as,
0.8ε cu f
ρb = . cd (6)
(ε cu + f yd Es ) f yd
0.8ε cu
And ωb = (7)
(ε cu + f yd Es )
If ρ < ρb , the steel yields first at the load near collapse (a case of under-reinforced section and

ductile-type failure).
If ρ > ρb , crushing of concrete takes place first prior to yielding of tension steel at the load near

collapse (a case of over-reinforced section and brittle-type failure).

To ensure ductility, in practice the maximum amount of tension steel is fairly below the amount
corresponding to the balanced-one.

58
ACI:318 code recommend: maximum reinforcement ratio ensuring ductility as
ρ max = 0.75ρb . For seismic load resisting member, the same code recommends, ρ max = 0.5ρb .
Based on ACI recommendation ( ρ max = 0.75 ρb ), maximum design constants of singly

reinforced section are obtained as shown in table below.

Table: Maximum design constants of singly reinforced section (ACI-code)

Steel Grade ωmax μ max

S-300 MPa 0.437 0.341
S-400 MPa 0.401 0.320
S-460 MPa 0.382 0.309

EBCS:2/95 recommend: the maximum amount of tension steel used to ensure ductility is based
on limiting the neutral-axis depth at,
xmax = 0.448d --for no redistribution of elastic moments

xmax = 0.368d --for 10% redistribution of elastic moments

xmax = 0.288d --for 20% redistribution of elastic moments

xmax = 0.208d --for 30% redistribution of elastic moments

Based on EBCS-2/95 recommendation, maximum design constants of singly reinforced section

are obtained as shown in table below.

Table: Maximum design constants of singly reinforced section (EBCS-2/95 code)

% Redistribution of
elastic moments ωmax μ max
0% 0.3584 0.294
10% 0.2944 0.251
20% 0.2304 0.204
30% 0.1664 0.152

59
Better approach as follows:
In accordance with LSD method, at ULS of collapse:-
• εc approaches εcu = 0.0035
f yd
• The reinforcing steel shall yield first ( ε yd = )
Es

⇒ Ductility is ensured by means of under reinforcement.

• At balanced failure simultaneous failure of the two materials (Concrete & Steel)
occurs.
Let x b be the depth to the NA at balanced failure. From the strain relation,
xb d − xb ε cu * d
= ⇒ xb =
ε cu ε yd ε cu + ε yd

• If x < x b ⇒ Steel yields first

• If x > x b ⇒ Crushing of concrete takes place first.
Σ FH = 0 ⇒ Ts = CC ⇒ As fyd = 0.8 xb b fcd
0 . 8 * ε cu f
Substituting for xb and simplifying, ρ b = * cd
ε cu + ε yd f yd

(a steel ratio for balanced case)

However, for ductility purpose the steel ratio ρ may range b/n 0.75 ρb to 0.9 ρb, and in
some cases as low as 0.5 ρ b in ACI code, but in EBCS-2 ductility is ensured by keeping
kx max = 0.448 for 0% redistribution or even less for redistribution > 0% .

Rewriting the force equilibrium

byfcd = As fyd ⇒ b * 0.8x fcd = ρbd fyd
x ρ * f yd f yd
kx = = = ρ m , Where m =
d 0 . 8 * f cd 0 . 8 * f cd

Σ Mc = 0 ⇒ Md = As fyd (d - 0.4x)
Substituting the value of x and simplifying
Md = 0.8 bd2 fcd kx (1-0.4 kx)

60
When the above equation is solved for kx,
⎧ 2 4M d ⎫
k x = 0 .5 ⎨ c1 − c1 − ⎬ ≤ k x max
⎩ bd 2 c 2 ⎭
Where c1 = 2.5/m, c2 = 0.32m2fcd, m=fyd/(0.8fcd) kx max = 0.448 for 0%
redistribution.
The section capacity for single reinforcement case may be computed from Σ Mt = 0,
when kx < kx max
⇒ Mu = 0.8bx fcd (d-0.4x) x = kx max d
= 0.8bd2 fcd kx max (1 -0.4 kx max)

3.2.2. Inelastic Redistribution of Moments in Continuous-beams and

Frames

When statically indeterminate beam is loaded beyond the working loads, plastic hinges forms at
the location of maximum bending moment. On further loading the beam, the maximum moment
do not increase beyond the ultimate moment capacity of section of beam, however, rotation at
plastic hinges keep on increasing until the ultimate rotation capacity is reached. A redistribution
of moment takes place with the changes in the moment elsewhere in the beam as if a real hinges
are existing. With further increase of additional plastic hinge, redistribution moments continue
until a collapse mechanism is produced.
Plastic analysis can be applied in analysis of steel structures. However, its use for analysis of
reinforced concrete structures is limited. A limited redistribution of moments obtained from
elastic analysis of indeterminate structures is permitted by most codes if members are designed
under-reinforced section provided equilibrium is maintained under each combination of ultimate
loads.
For illustration of plastic analysis of structure, consider a fixed-beam, which is statically
indeterminate, subjected to increasing uniform load shown below.

Let the beam subjected to the load ' w p ' that cause the plastic hinges at the ends when the

maximum moment at supports equal to the ultimate resistance of beam section. But, with the

61
formation of plastic hinges, the beam is still able to support additional load without complete
collapse. After formation of plastic hinges at supports, the beam behaves as if simply supported.

wp

Plastic hinge
Mu Mu
l
wp . l 2 wp . l 2
12
Mn = (
= M u = ρ . f yd . b . d 2 1 − ρ . f yd 2 f cd )
12
( −) ( −)
(+)
wp . l 2
Mp=
24
On further loading, the moment at center of span increases proportionally with the change of
loading. Additional load Δw is slowly applied until it causes the beam to transform into a
collapse mechanism with the formation of one or more hinges at the middle.

wu = w p + Δw

Mu Collapse Mechanism
Mu

wp . l 2 Mu wp . l 2
Mn = Mu =
12 12
( −) ( −)
(+)
⎛ w p . l 2 Δw . l 2 ⎞ wp . l 2
M p = Mu = ⎜ + ⎟=
⎜ 24 8 ⎟ 12
⎝ ⎠

At collapse, mid-span moment equal to the ultimate resistance of beam section,

wp . l 2 Δw . l 2 w p . l
2
Mu = + =
24 8 12
Equating negative and positive collapse moment, additional load that causes collapse mechanism
in terms of the load ' w p ' that causes the plastic hinges at the ends is,

Δw = wp 3 And, collapse load in terms of ' w p '

4
wu = w p + Δw = w p + w p 3 = wp
3
These shows, the beam may carry a load of 4 3 wp with redistribution. The ultimate moment in

terms of ultimate load is:

62
 wp . l 2 3
Mu = Substituting w p = wu
12 4

→ Mu =
(3 4 wu ) . l 2 =
wu . l 2
12 16
If elastic analysis is made using the ultimate load ' wu ' , the maximum moment at support is

wu .l 2 12 . The percentage reduction in bending is:

wu .l 2 12 − wu .l 2 16
x100 = 25%
wu .l 2 12
Plastic analysis of continuous beams and frames also can be done using virtual work method.
Assume any reasonable collapse mechanism, equating internal work done by ultimate moments at
plastic hinges with external work done by collapse load on deflecting collapsed span of
continuous beam and frame, the location of plastic hinges and the minimum collapse load can be
determined.

According to EBCS-2/95, elastic moments of continuous beams and frames are redistributed
using the following reduction coefficient, δ
1) For continuous beams and rigid jointed braced frames with span/effective depth ratio not
greater than 20,
⎛x⎞
δ = 0.44 +1.25⎜ ⎟ Where x—is calculated at ultimate limit state
⎝d ⎠
Based on the above equation, the limiting maximum neutral axis depth ratio used for
proportioning of sections of continuous beams and rigid jointed braced frames are obtained as
follow:
For 30% redistribution of elastic moment, x d = 0.208

For 20% redistribution of elastic moment, x d = 0.288

For 10% redistribution of elastic moment, x d = 0.368

For no reduction of elastic moment, x d = 0.448

2) For other continuous beams and rigid braced frames
δ ≥ 0.75
3) For sway frames with slenderness ratio l of columns less than 25

δ ≥ 0.90

63
Examples on Design of Singly Reinforced Beams using Limit State Design Method

64
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Assignment-1:

Question No. 4
Question No. 6
Question No. 8

82
Exercise-1

83
 3.3. Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Section

Consider a doubly reinforced rectangular section subjected to an ultimate moment, M u as shown

below. Design equations are derived by dividing the section into two parts: Balanced singly
reinforced section and excess tension steel plus compression steel. It is assumed that both tension
and compression steels are yielded. The excess tension steel and compression steel are
proportioned in such a way that the neutral axis is maintained at balanced position.

d1 ε cu f cd f cd Cs = As1 . f yd
Cs
ε s1 Cc
1
A
s x = xb = xmax ymax = xmax
Cc

d M1 M2 (d − d 1 )
Mu
≡ +
AS ε yd
Ts = As . f yd T1 = As1 . f yd T2 = As 2 . f yd
b
c) stresses, doubly d) Stresses, balanced e) stresses, excess tension-
a) x-section b) Strain reinforced section, M u section, M 1 steel plus comp. steel, M 2

Let M 1 --moment capacity of balanced singly reinforced section

M 2 --moment resistance provided by excess tension steel plus compression steel
Thus, the total ultimate moment of resistance of doubly reinforced section is the sum of the two
parts: moment capacity of balanced singly reinforced section, M 1 and ultimate moment resisted

by excess tension steel plus compressive steel, M 2 .

i.e M u = (M 1 + M 2 )
Moment capacity of balanced singly reinforced section,
M 1 = μ max . f cd . b . d 2

And, the corresponding area of tension steel balancing M 1 is,

M1
As1 =
f yd . zmin

⎛ ω ⎞
Where zmin = (d − 0.4 xmax ) = d . ⎜1 − max ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Excess moment to be resisted by excess tension steel plus compression steel is,
M 2 = (M u − M 1 )

84
Equating excess moment with the couple made by internal forces in excess tension steel and
compression steel as shown in Fig.(e), area of excess tension steel and compression steel are
obtained as (if compression steel yielding)
M2 1 M2
As 2 = As =
. (d − d 1 ) . (d − d 1 )
And,
f yd f yd
Therefore, the total area of tension steel required by doubly reinforced section,
As = As1 + As 2
To check yielding of compression steel, referring to stain diagram in Fig.(b), the strain in
compression steel is determined and compared with the yield strain of a given steel as obtained
xmax ε cu
=
below.
d 1
(
ε cu − ε s1 )
⇒ ε s1 = ε cu .
(x max − d1)
xmax
Where ε cu = 0.0035
xmax = ymax 0.8 = (ωmax . d ) 0.8
If compression steel is yielding,
f yd
ε s1 ≥ ε yd = &
1
f s = f yd (as assumed)
Es
Or, if compression steel is not yielding,
f yd
ε s1 < ε yd = & f s = Es . ε s < f yd
1 1

Es
Then, area of compression steel is re-determined using,
1 M2 M2
As = =
1
(
fs . d − d 1
) (
Es . ε s . d − d 1
1
)

Another Similar approach:

Assume that As & As1 are stressed to fyd.
Mu = Muc+ Musc
Where Muc is the BM carried by the concrete and partial area of tensile steal.
⇒ Muc = 0.8bd2 fcd k1 (1-0.4 k1)

85
In which k1 = kx max, the maximum steel ratio corresponding to single reinforcement
section in case of design and
A s − A s1
k1 = ≤ k x max for the case of analysis.
bd
Musc is the BM carried by compressive steel and the corresponding tensile steel.
Musc = As1 fyd (d-dc’)
The yielding of the compressive steel may be checked from the strain relation as
x − d c'
ε sc = * ε cu ≥ ε yd
x

86
Examples on Design of Doubly Reinforced Beams using Limit State Design Method

87
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3.4. Flanged Section (T- or L-section) under Flexure

The general discussion with respect to flanged section, effective width of flange in working stress
method holds for strength limit state method as well. In treating flanged section using strength
limit state method, it is convenient to adopt the same equivalent rectangle stress-block that is used
for rectangular cross section.
i) If depth of equivalent rectangle stress-block, ' y ' is equal to or less than the flanged thickness,

' h f ' (i.e y ≤ h f ), a flanged section may be treated as a rectangular section of width equal to an

effective width of flange, ' be ' provided the flange of section is on compression side when the

section subjected a moment.

For trial purpose initially, it can be assumed the stress block is with-in the flange (or assume
flanged section rectangular with width equal to effective width of flange).
-calculate relative ultimate moment and relative mechanical steel ratio of assumed rectangular
section using,
Mu
μ=
f cd .be . d 2

And ω = 1 − 1− 2μ
-then, compute depth of equivalent rectangle stress-block for assumed section and compare
with thickness of the flange of the section,
y =ω.d
-If y ≤ h f , the section is designed as rectangular section with width equal to effective width of

flange, ' be ' . Therefore, area of tension steel required by the section for such case is given by

Mu
As =
f yd . z

Where z=
d
2
(
1 + 1 − 2μ )
ii) If the depth of equivalent rectangle stress-block of assumed rectangular section is greater than
thickness of the flange of the section (i.e y > h f ), a flanged section is treated as T-beam

section provided the flange of section is on compression side when the section subjected a

97
 moment. To derive design equation of T-beam, it is convenient to divide the compression area
of T-beam section into two parts as shown below:
a) the over-hanging portion of the compressive flange
b) the web portion extending into the compressive flange
be
hf ε cu f cd
Cc
x y
d zf
As ≡ + Asw
ε s ≥ ε yd Ts Asf

bw
Over-hanging Web portion
x-section Strain Stresses portion extending into flange

Let Asf --area of tension steel balancing over-hanging portion of the flange

Asw --area of tension steel balancing web portion extending into the flange
The total ultimate moment of resistance of T-beam section is obtained by taking moment of the
internal compressive forces about the center of tension steel; and it is given as the sum of
moments produced by over-hanging portion of the flange and the web portion extending into the
flange. i.e M u = M uf + M uw
-The moment produced by over-hanging portion of the flange is obtained as
M uf = ( be − bw ) . h f . f cd . z f

Where z f = ( d − hf 2 )
Then, the corresponding area of tension steel balancing the over-hanging portion of the flange is
M uf
obtained as Asf =
z f . f yd

-The moment produced by the web portion extending into the flange is obtained by subtracting
moment of over-hanging portion from the total ultimate moment of T-beam.
i.e M uw = ( M u − M uf )
To determine the corresponding area of tension steel balancing web potion extending into the
flange, the web portion is treated as rectangular section with width equal to the width of the
web, bw . Therefore, calculate the relative ultimate moment the web portion using

98
 M uw
μw =
f cd . bw . d 2
Then, the required area of tension steel balancing web potion is obtained as
M uw
Asw =
f yd . z w

Where zw =
d
2
(
. 1 + 1 − 2μw )
Therefore, the total area of tension steel is obtained as
As = Asf + Asw

Check flanged section for single reinforcement using μ w ≤ μ max . If the flanged section requires

compression reinforcement ( μ w > μ max ), area of compressive steel and excess tension steel

required by web portion is obtained using (if compression steel is yielding)

1
As = As 2 =
( M uw − M 1 )
f yd . ( d − d 1 )

and, area of tension steel balancing web portion is re-determined using

M uw
Asw =
f yd . zmin

⎛ ω ⎞
Where M 1 = μ max . f cd . bw . d 2 & zmin = (d − 0.4 xmax ) = d . ⎜1 − max ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
iii) If the flange of the section is on the tension side when subjected to a moment, flanged section
is designed as if it were a rectangular section with width equal to the width of the web, bw .

Another similar approach:

Reinforced concrete floors or roofs are monolithic and hence, a part of the slab will act
with the upper part of the beam to resist longitudinal compression. The resulting beam
cross-section is, then, T-shaped (inverted L), rather than rectangular with the slab
forming the beam flange where as part of the beam projecting below the slab forms the
web or stem.

99
 be

hf
D
b

Fig. 3.3.1

The T-sections provide a large concrete cross-sectional area of the flange to resist the
compressive force. Hence, T-sections are very advantageous in simply supported spans
to resist large positive bending moment, where as the inverted T-sections have the added
advantage in cantilever beam to resist negative moment.

As the longitudinal compressive stress varies across the flange width of same level, it is
convenient in design to make use of an effective flange width (may be smaller than the
actual width) which is considered to be uniformly stressed.
Effective flange width (according to EBCS 2, 1995)
For interior beams ⇒ T-sections

⎧ le
⎪bw +
be ≤ ⎨ 5
⎪⎩C / C beam spacing

For edge beams ⇒ inverted L- sections

⎧ le
⎪bw +
be ≤ ⎨ 10
⎪⎩bw + half the clear dis tan ce to adjacent beam

Where le – is the effective span length & bw is the width of the web.
There are three distribution type of flexural behavior of T-sections.
ƒ When the T-section is subjected to BM, and tension is produced on the flange
portion, it is treated as a rectangular section with b = bw.
ƒ When the T-section is subjected to +ve bending moment and the equivalent
compressive stress block lies within the flange as shown below (y < hf), the section
can be analysed as rectangular with effective width be.

100
 − This case is a case of under reinforced condition or large flange thickness, which
can be confirmed first by computing ρ (with b = be, ρ = As/(bed)) using relation
established for rectangular beams and evaluate the NA depth, x = ρmd. Compare y
= 0.8x with hf.

bw

ƒ When y > hf, the section acts as T-beam and hence analysis accounting the T-
geometry becomes essential which is shown in the figure below.

be εc f cd

hf 0.8x
x Cc

εs
d' Ts

bw
Cross section Strain Stress

Cross-section Design and Analysis

Design
⎧⎪ 4M d ⎫⎪
- Assuming b = be compute k x = 0.5 ⎨c1 − c1 − ⎬ and x = kx d
⎪⎩ be d 2 c 2 ⎪⎭

i) If y = 0.8x < hf, section is rectangular as assumed.

101
 kx
⇒ As = be d
m
ii) If y > hf ⇒ T beam analysis is required.
M uf
As = ASf + Asw = + ρwbwd in which,
Z f * f yd

Muf = (be-bw) hf fcd zf

hf
Zf = d −
2

k w 0.5 ⎧⎪ 4 M uw ⎫⎪
ρw = = ⎨c1 − c1 − ⎬
m m ⎪⎩ bw d 2 c 2 ⎪⎭

Muw = Mu - Muf

iii) When the flange is on the tension side, then the cross- section is designed as if it
were rectangular with b = bw

As
Analysis: ρ= , X = ρmd
be * d

i) If y = 0.8X<= hf ⇒ the section is analyzed as rectangular with b = be.

Mu = 0.8bed2fcd ρm (1-0.4 ρm)
ii) If y = 0.8X< hf ⇒ the section is analyzed as T-beam.
M uf
Muf = (be-bw) hf fcd zf , ASf = , Asw = As - ASf
Z f * f yd

Asw
ρw = Muw = 0.8bwd2fcd ρwm(1-0.4ρwm)
bw * d
Mu = Muf +Muw

102
Examples on Design of T-Section Beams using Limit State Design Method

103
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105
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Assignment-2:

Question No. 2
Question No. 3
Question No. 5

107
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Alternative method using design tables (singly reinforced Sections)

1-USING DESIGN TABLES

Derivation
Md = 0.8bd2fcd ρm(1-0.4 ρm)
M d
2
= 0 . 8 f cd ρ m (1 − 0 . 4 ρ m )
bd
M
Let k m = d
2
= 0 . 8 f cd ρ m (1 − 0 . 4 ρ m )
bd
Md Md 1
∑Mc = 0 ⇒ A s = = *
f yd ( d − 0 .4 x ) d x
f yd (1 − 0 . 4 )
d
1 ks * M
Let k s = ⇒ As = d
x d
f yd (1 − 0 . 4 )
d

From table 1a there are different Km values and the max. Value of Km for different
moment redistribution is given and represented by Km*.
If Km ≤ Km*, the section is singly reinforced.
If Km>Km*, it is doubly reinforced.

STEPS:
a) For Singly Reinforced Sections

Md
b
1. Evaluate k m =
d
2. Enter the general design Table No.1a using km and concrete grade.
3. Read ks from the same Table corresponding to steel grade and km.
ks * M
4. Evaluate A s = d
d

115
 b) For Doubly Reinforced Sections
1. This is so, when Km>Km*(is the value of Km shown shaded in general design
table 1a , corresponding to the concrete grade)
2. compute Km/Km*
3. Read Ks & Ks* corresponding to Km/Km* & the steel grade from general
design table 1a
4. Assume dc, (d2) & read ρ (correction factor) from the same table corresponding
to Km/Km* & dc’/d.
5. Read ρ’ corresponding to dc’/d ,then
As = KsMd ρ/d As’ = Ks’Md ρ’/d

Note: - In all cases

- Md is in KN-m
- b “ “ m
- d “ “ m
2- USING DESIGN CHARTS
Mu, s
Compute γ u , s = & Kx, max = 0.8(δ-0.44), where δ=1, 0.9, 0.8 &
f cdbd 2
0.7 for 0%, 10%, 20% & 30% moment redistribution.
Compare γ u, s or Kx with the corresponding values of γ u ,s* Kx,max

Where: γ u , s* = 0.143, 0.205, 0.252 & 0.295 for 30%, 20%, 10%, and 0%

respectively.
If γ u, s ≤ γ u ,s* then the section is singly reinforced and As1:

Msd , s Nsd
As1 = +
zf yd fyd

If γ u , s > γ u , s* ,then the section is doubly reinforced and As1 ,As2:

Msd , s − Mu, s *
As2 = - area of compression reinforcement,
(d − d 2 )σ s 2

Where: Mu, s* = γ u , s* fcd bd2 & γ u , s* is the value given above.

σ s 2 - is actual compressive stress on compression steel & is Es*εsc

116
 Mu, s * Msd , s − Mu, s * N sd
As1 = + + -area of tensile reinforcement
Zf yd (d − d 2 )σ s 2 f yd

Using γ u , s read Z/d, X/d etc & compute As1 and As2.

117
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120
Cover to Reinforcements

ƒ The concrete cover is the distance between the outermost surface of reinforcement
(usually stirrups) and the nearest concrete surface.
ƒ The thickness of cover required depends both upon the exposure conditions and
on the concrete quality.
ƒ To transmit bond forces safely, and to ensure adequate compaction, the concrete
cover should never be less than:
(a) φ or φn (≤ 40mm), or
(b) (φ + 5mm) or (φn + 5mm) if dg > 32mm
Where φ = the diameter of the bar.
φn = the equivalent diameter for a bundle.
dg = the largest nominal aggregate size.
Minimum cover
Type of exposure Mild Moderate Sever
Min. cover (mm) 15 25 50

Durability and control of crack width is related with finishing and provision of adequate
cover to reinforcement. Nominal cover for structural elements located in the interior of
the building with dry environment and mild condition is 15 mm, example slab; humid
environment with moderate exposure is 25 mm, example beam; severe environment is
50 mm, example footing.

Spacing of Reinforcements
ƒ The clear horizontal and vertical distance between bars shall be at least equal to
the largest of the following values.
(a) 20 mm
(b) The diameter of the largest bar or effective diameter of the bundle
(c) The maximum size of the aggregate dg plus 5mm.

121
 ƒ Where bars are positioned in separate horizontal layers, the bars in each layer
should be located vertically above each other and the space between the resulting
columns of the bars should permit the passage of an internal vibrator.

Effective Span Length

ƒ The effective span of a simply supported member shall be taken as the lower of
the following two values:
(a) The distance between the center lines of supports.
(b) The clear distance between the faces of supports plus the effective depth.
ƒ The effective span of a continuous element shall normally be taken as the distance
between the center lines of the supports.
ƒ For a cantilever, the effective span is taken to be its length, measured from.
(a) The face of the supports, for an isolated, fixed ended cantilever.
(b) The center line of the support for a cantilever which forms the end of a
continuous beam.

Deflection limits are assumed to be satisfied when the minimum effective depth for
a particular member is
⎛ 0 .6 * f
yk ⎞⎟ L e
d ≥ ⎜ 0 .4 + ∗
⎜ 400 ⎟ β
⎝ ⎠ a

where fyk is equal to character strength of reinforcement, Le is the effective span (the
shorter span in case of two way slab), is constant, a function of restraints given
below).

Table – values of βa
Member Simple End span Interior span cantilever
Beams 20 24 28 10
Slabs:
Span ratio 2:1 25 30 35 12
Span ratio 1:1 35 40 45 10
* For intermediate values – interpolation.

122
Preliminary Sizing of Beam Sections
Ideal values of span effective depth ratios, recommended in the ISE manual for the
preliminary sizing of reinforced concrete beams are given in table below.
Support
Cantilever Simple Support Continuous End spans
conditions
ISE manual 6 12 15 13.5

3.6. One-way RC Slabs

A reinforced concrete slab is a broad, flat plate, usually horizontal, with top and bottom
surfaces parallel or nearly so. It is used to provide flat surfaces mainly for roofs and
floors of buildings, parking lots, air fields, roadways …etc. It may be supported by
reinforced concrete beams (and is poured monolithically with such beams), by masonry
or reinforced concrete walls, by structural steel members, directly by columns, or
continuously by the ground.

Classification: - Beam supported slabs may be classified as:-

1. One-way slabs – main reinforcement in each element runs in one direction only.
(Ly/Lx >2). There are two types- one way solid slabs and one way ribbed slabs.

Beams
Solid slab Ribbed slab Joists
2. Two – way slabs – main reinforcement runs in both direction where ratio of long to
short span is less than two. (Ly/Lx < 2)
Others include flat slabs, flat plates, two way ribbed or grid slabs etc.

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3.6.1. Analysis of one-way solid slabs

They are considered as rectangular beams of comparatively large ratio of width to depth
and ratio of longer span to width (short span) is greater than two.
Ll

Ls
Supporting beams / walls

1m width

When Ll / Ls > 2, about 90% or more of the total load is carried by the short span, i.e.,
bending takes place in the direction of the shorter span.

The analysis is than carried out by assuming a beam of unit width with a depth equal to
the thickness of the slab and span equal to the distance between supports (in the short
direction). The strip may be analyzed in the same way as singly reinforced rectangular
sections.
ƒ Load per unit area on the slab would be the load per unit length on this imaginary
beam of unit width.
ƒ As the loads being transmitted to the supporting beams, all reinforcement shall be
placed at right angles to these beams. However some additional bars may be placed
in the other direction to carry temperature and shrinkage stresses.

Generally the design consists of selecting a slab thickness for deflection requirement and
flexural design is carried out by considering the slab as series of rectangular beams side
by side

Remark:-
ƒ The ratio of steel in a slab can be determined by dividing the sectional area of one bar
by the area of concrete between two successive bars, the latter area being the product of
the depth to the center of the bars and the distance between them, center to center.

124
ƒ Unless condition warrant some change, cover to reinforcement is 15 mm.
ƒ The following minimum slab thicknesses shall be adopted in design:
a) 60mm for slabs not exposed to concentrated loads (eg. Inaccessible roofs).
b) 80mm for slabs exposed mainly to distributed loads.
c) 100mm for slabs exposed to light moving concentrated loads (eg. slabs accessible
to light moving vehicles).
d) 120mm for slabs exposed to heavy dynamic moving loads (eg. slabs accessible to
heavy vehicles).
e) 150mm for slabs on point supports (eg. flat slabs).
ƒ Flexural reinforcements should fulfill the following minimum criteria:
a) The ratio of the secondary reinforcement to the main reinforcement shall be at least
equal to 0.2.
b) The geometrical ratio of main reinforcement in a slab shall not be less than:
0 .5
ρ min = where f yk in MPa
f yk

c) The spacing between main bars for slabs shall not exceed the smaller of 2h or
350mm.
d) The spacing between secondary bars (in a direction ⊥ to the main bars) shall not
exceed 400mm.

3.6.2. Analysis and Design of one way Ribbed Slab

In one way ribbed slab, the supporting beams called joists or ribs are closely spaced. The
ribbed floor is formed using temporary or permanent shuttering (formwork) while the
hollow block floor is generally constructed with blocks made of clay tile or with concrete
containing a light weight aggregate. This type of floor is economical for buildings where
there are long spans and light or moderate live loads such as in hospitals and apartment
buildings.

125
General Requirements:

Minimum slab thickness

To ensure adequate stiffness against bending and torsion and to allow ribbed slabs to be
treated as solid slabs for the purpose of analysis, EBCS-2 recommends that the following
restrictions on size are satisfied:
ƒ Ribs shall not be less than 70mm in width; and shall have a depth, excluding any
topping of not more than 4 times the minimum width of the rib. The rib spacing shall
not exceed 1.0m
ƒ Thickness of topping shall not be less than 50mm, nor less than 1 10 the clear distance
between ribs. In the case of ribbed slabs incorporating permanent blocks, the lower
limit of 50mm may be reduced to 40mm.

bw df

Clear
dw distance

bc Rib Spacing
Fig. Ribbed slab
Minimum Reinforcement

ƒ The topping shall be provided with a reinforcement mesh providing in each direction a
cross-sectional area not less than 0.001 of the section of the slab.
ƒ The breadth of ribs may be governed by shear strength requirements. The method
proposed in the ISE manual for the estimation of rib breadths limits the shear stress in
the rib to 0.6 N/mm2 for concretes with characteristic cylinder strength of 25 N/mm2 or
more. The required breadth is given by:
V
b= [mm]
0.6d

126
 Where V is the maximum shear force in Newton’s on the rib considered as simply
supported and d is the effective depth in millimeters. For characteristic cylinder
strengths less than 25 MPa, the breadth should be increased in proportion.
ƒ If the rib spacing exceeds 1.0m, the topping shall be designed as a slab resting on ribs,
considering load concentrations, if any.
ƒ The function of the flanges with the web shall be checked for longitudinal shear.
ƒ The ultimate limit state in longitudinal shear is governed either by the effect of inclined
flange compression (acting parallel to its middle plane) or by tension in the transverse
reinforcement.
ƒ The longitudinal shear per unit length vsd, which may be obtained as a function of the
applied transverse shear Vsd :
(a) For flange in compression :
⎛ b −b ⎞ Vsd
vsd = ⎜⎜ e w ⎟⎟
⎝ 2b e ⎠ z
(b) For flange in tension.
⎛ A − Asw ⎞ Vsd
vsd = ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 As ⎠ z
Where: Vsd – applied transverse shear.
Vsd - longitudinal shear per unit length
be – effective width of a T-section.
z - Internal lever arm.
As – area of the longitudinal steel in the effective flanges outside the projection of
Web into the slab.
Asw – area of the longitudinal steel inside the slab within the projection of the
web into the slab.
ƒ Resistance to longitudinal shear.
(a) Resistance to inclined compression per unit length vRd1
vRd1 = 0.25 fcd hf
Where : hf = total thickness of the flange.
(b) Resistance to diagonal tension per unit length vRd2

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 Asf f yd
vRd2 = 0.50 fctd hf +
sf

Where : Asf = area of transverse reinforcement per unit length , perpendicular to

the web-flange interface.
ƒ If, at the section with M = Mmax , the flange is subjected to a tensile force, the concrete
contribution 0.50 fctd hf ( in the above equation) should be neglected.

av (shear span)

sf hf

Fd,max

Fd,max
M=0 Asf
Figure Forces on ribbed slab
M = Mmax

ƒ Because joists are closely spaced, thickness of slab (topping),

⎧ 40 mm
⎪
D ≥⎨ 1
⎪⎩ 10 clear dis tan ce between joists

ƒ Unless calculation requires for rib spacing larger than 1m, toppings or slabs are
provided with mesh reinforcement of 0.001 bD in both directions for temperature and
shrinkage problem.
ƒ Unless calculation requires, min reinforcement to be provided for joists includes two
bars, where one is bent near the support and the other straight.
ƒ Rib with bw > 70mm, and overall depth Dj < 4 bw, joist + tslab
ƒ Rib spacing is generally less than 1m.
ƒ In case of ribbed spacing larger than 1m, the topping (slab) need to be design as if
supported on ribs. (i.e. As one way solid slab between the ribs).

128
ƒ If the span of the ribs exceeds 6m, transverse ribs may be provided, as the thickness of
the topping will be larger.
ƒ The girder supporting the joist may be rectangular or T-beam with the flange thickness
equal to the floor thickness.

Procedure of Design of a floor system of ribbed Slab

1. Thickness of toppings and ribs assumed based on min requirement.

2. Loads may be computed on the basis of center line of the spacing of joists.
3. The joists are analyzed as regular continuous T-beams supported by girders.
4. Shear reinforcement shall not be provided in the narrow web of joist thus a check
for the section capacity against shear is carried out. The shear capacity may be
approximated as: 1.1 Vc of regular rectangular sections.
5. Determine flexural reinforcement and consider min provision in the final solution.
6. Provide the topping or slab with reinforcement as per temp and shrinkage
requirement.
7. Design the girder as a beam.

129
Examples on Design of One Way slabs and Continuous Beams using Limit State
Design Method

130
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134
135
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3.7. Serviceability limits states of deflection and crack width

It is important that member performance in normal service be satisfactory, when loads

are those actually expected to act i.e. when load factors are 1.0. This is not guaranteed
simply by providing adequate strengths. Service load deflections under full load may be
excessively large or long-term deflections due to sustained loads may cause damage
.Tension cracks in beams may be wide enough to be visually disturbing or may even
permit serious corrosion of reinforcing bars. These and other questions such as vibration
or fatigue, require consideration

Serviceability studies are carried out based on elastic theory, with stresses in both
concrete and steel assumed to be proportional to strain. The concrete on the tension side
of the neutral axis may be assumed uncracked, partially cracked, or fully cracked
depending on the loads and material strengths.

Reinforced concrete members carrying lateral loads respond to these loads by bending.
The moment curvature relationship for a segment of the simply supported reinforced
concrete member of fig.3.7.1 (a) is illustrated in fig.3.7.1 (c). It can be seen that the
segment remains uncracked and has a large stiffness EIu, , until the moment reaches the
cracking moment, Mcr, (Point A) .When this happens, the member cracks and the
stiffness at the cracked section reduces to EIc.

As the load (and hence the moment) is increased further, more cracks occur and existing
cracks increase in size .Eventually ,the reinforcement yields at the point of maximum
moment corresponding to point C on the diagram. Above this point the member displays
large increases in deflection for small increases in moment .The service load range is
between the origin and point C on the diagram and it is in this range that deflections are
checked and stresses calculated.

Consider a point B within the service load range. This curvature represents the
instantaneous (short term) curvature under an applied moment, M. If the moment is
sustained, however, the curvature increases with time to point D owing to the creep of the
concrete. The curvature at this point is known as the long term or sustained curvature. As

148
 deflection results, from curvature, there are both instantaneous and sustained deflections
which must be considered in the design of members with bending.

part(b)
P
M
R

a) deflected shape
M N.A M
b) Curvature of segment of beam
Moment(M)

Curvature (K)=1/R
C
slope EIc
B D Yield point of reinforcement
Mcr A

slope EIu
c) Moment/ curvature plot for
segment of part (b)
Instantaneous Sustained Fig.3.7.1 Moment / Curvature
Curvature(K)
relationship for beam segment
3.7.1. Deflections
The deflections which result from bending must be limited such that they do not
adversely affect the function and appearance of the member or the entire structure.
a) Limits on Deflections
The final deflection (including the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage) of all
horizontal members shall not, in general, exceed the value.
Le
δ = Where: Le effective span
200
For roof or floor construction supporting or attached to nonstructural elements (e.g.
partitions and finishes) likely to be damaged by large deflections, that part of the
deflection which occurs after the attachment of the non-structural elements shall not
exceed the value .
Le
δ= ≤ 20mm
350

 b) Calculation of Deflections

Effect of creep and shrinkage strains on the curvature, and there by on the deflection shall
be considered.

149
Immediate deflections shall be computed by the usual elastic methods as the sum of the
two parts δ i and δ ii given by Eqs. 1 and 2, but not more than δ max given by eqs. 3

M cr
δ i = βL2 ------ (1)
Ecm I c

M k − M cr
δ ii = βL2 --------------- (2)
0.75E s As Z (d − X )

Mk
δ max = βL2 ---------------------- (3)
E s As Z (d − X )

M cr = 1.70 f ctk S ------------------------------------ (4)

δ i = deflection due to the theoretical cracking moment (Mcr) acting on the uncracked
transformed section
δ ii =deflection due to the balance of the applied moment over and above the
cracking value and acting on a section with an equivalent stiffness of 75% of the
cracked value. δ max = deflection of fully cracked section
As = area of the tension reinforcement
Ecm = short term elastic modulus (secant modulus) of the concrete
1
Ecm = 9.5 ( f ck + 8) 3 fck-mpa, Ecm-Gpa

Grade of C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60

concrete
Ecm 26 27 29 32 35 37 39

Es-modulus of elasticity of steel, Iu-moment of inertia of the uncraked transformed

section
Mk-Maximum applied, moment at mid span due to sustained characteristic loads; for
cantilevers it is the moment at the face of the support
S- Section modulus, d-effective depth of the section,
X-neutral axis depth at the section of max. moment,
Z-internal lever arm at the section of max moment.

150
 β -deflection coefficient depending on the loading and support conditions.
(e.g β =5/48 for simply supported span subjected to uniformly distributed load)
Note: The value of X & Z may be determined for the service load condition using a
modular ratio of 10, or for the ultimate load condition.
Long term deflection of flexural members shall be obtained by multiplying the immediate
deflection caused by the sustained load considered, by the factor,
(2-1.2As’/As) ≥0.6--------------- (5)
Where: As’-area of compression reinforcement, As-area of tension reinforcement.
3.7.2. Limits on cracking
Flexural cracks are inevitably formed in reinforced concrete members. For structures in
aggressive environments, corrosion is a problem and stringent limits are imposed on the
width of cracks that are allowed to develop. Environment in the interior of the building is
usually non-sever, corrosion does not generally pose a problem and limits on crack
widths will be governed by their appearance.
a) Crack Formation
• The max. tensile stresses in the concrete are calculated under the action of
design loads appropriate to a serviceability limit state and on the basis of the
geometrical properties of the transformed uncracked concrete X-section.
• The calculated stresses shall not exceed the following values:
a) Flexure, ( δ ct = 1.70 f ctk ) b) direct(axial) tension ( δ ct = f ctk )

• Minimum flexural reinforcement in beams for the control of cracking is

given by:
0.6
ρ min =
f yk
b) Crack widths
Crack widths are calculated using the quasi permanent service load combination.
Specifically crack widths can be assumed not to exceed the limiting values if the limits
on the bar spacing or bar diameter (Table 1) are satisfied, and if min. areas of
reinforcement, also specified are provided.

151
 Table 1 Maximum size and spacing of high bond bars for control of cracking.
Steel stress* Max. bar spacing (mm) Max. bar diameter(mm)
160 300 32
200 250 25
240 200 20
280 150 16
320 100 12
360 50 10
400 - 8
450 - 6
*steel stresses are determined using quasi –permanent loads.
Table 2 Characteristic crack widths for concrete Members
Type of Dry environment: Humid environment: Sea water and/or
exposure Interior of buildings Interior aggressive chemicals
of normal components(e.g. environments
habitation or office laundries), exterior completely or partially
components; submergeed in seawater
components in non- ,components in saturated
aggressive soil and salt air ,aggressive
/or water industrial atmospheres
(sever)
(mild) (Moderate)
Characteristic 0.4 0.2 0.1
crack
width,wk(mm)

In specific cases where a crack width Calculation is considered necessary

Wk= β s rm ε sm Where: wk=characteristic crack width, s rm =average final crack
width
ε sm =mean strain in the tension steel allowing for tension stiffening and time
dependent effects

152
 β =coefficient relating the average crack width to the design value
β = 1.7 for sections in bending under applied loads.
The mean strain is simply the strain in the steel adjusted by the distribution factor, ξ
fs
ε sm = ξ , Where: fs-stress in the tension reinforcement, Es-elastic modulus
Es

f sr
of steel ξ = 1 − β1 β 2 ( )
fs

β 1 =coefficient which accounts for the bond properties of the reinforcement

β 1 =1.0 for high bond bars (normally used or deformed) and 0.5 for plain bars
β 2 = coefficient which accounts for the duration of loading or of repeated loading
β 2 =1.0 for single short term loading & 0.5 for sustained loading or repeated loading
fs= stress in tension steel assuming a cracked section
fsr= stress in tension steel assuming a cracked section due to loading which causes initial
cracking
The average final crack spacing in (mm) is calculated using the equation
φ
Srm = 50 + 0.25 K 1 K 2 - 153 -
ρr
Where: k1 = coefficient which accounts for the bond properties of the
reinforcement: k1=0.8 for high bond bars:k1=1.6 for plain bars.
K2= coefficient which takes account of the form of strain distribution
for bending it is 0.5
φ = bar diameter, ρ r = effective reinforcement ratio As/Ac,eff.
Where: Ac,eff= effective tension area of he concrete , as illustrated below

153
 X X
d
h
C
h
2.5(h-d)

lesser of 2.5(C+Ø/2) Effective tension

and (h-x)/3 area
effective tension area b) slabs
a) beams

Fig.3.7.2. Effective tension area of concrete

154
Exercise-2

155
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 CHAPTER 4
THE ULS OF SHEAR AND BOND, ANCHORAGE AND DEVELOPMENT
LENGTH

4.1 The ULS Design of Beams for Shear

Beams are designed for flexure and then the influences of other actions on its capacity are
assumed.
The ULS of shear is characterized by either diagonal compression failure of concrete or failure
of the web reinforcement due to diagonal tension.

When a beam is subjected to flexure and shear, the shear resistance in the absence of shear
reinforcement is contributed by concrete compression zone, mechanical interlock of aggregate
at the crack and dowel action of the longitudinal reinforcement. The contributions of the later
two are difficult to quantify.

Hence, the resistance to a diagonal tension is obtained as the sum of the resistance of the web
reinforcement and the concrete section.

In checking this resistance, the critical section for shear is assessed a distance d from the face
of support.

4.2 Design Criteria

(i) Only nominal web reinforcement

When the shear force in a section does not exceed the shear strength of the concrete vc, only
nominal web reinforcement is provided.

Vc = 0.25 fctd K1 K2 bwd

162
Where: k1 = 1+50ρ ≤ 2.0
k2 = 1.6 – d ≥ 1.0, d is effective depth in m. For members where more than 50%
of the bottom reinforcement is curtailed, k2 = 1.0.
As
ρ= ≤ 0.02 (bw = the minimum width of the web)
bw * d
As = the area of the tensile reinforcement anchored beyond the intersection of
the steel and the line of possible 450 crack starting from the edge of the section.

lb,net lb,net Section considered

Vsd Vsd
0
45
d 45
0
45
0

As As Vsd
lb,net

When Vsd < Vc, the section is adequate and provide nominal web reinforcement specified by
longitudinal spacing as:

(a) All beams except joists of ribbed slabs, shall be provided with at least the minimum web
reinforcement given by:
0.4 Av Av f yk
ρ min = = ⇒ s max =
f yk bw s max 0.4bw

Where: fyk is in MPa

Av = Pair area of stirrups
s = Spacing in mm
bw = width of web
(b) The maximum spacing smax between stirrups, in the longitudinal direction, shall be as
given below.
2
smax = 0.5d ≤ 300mm if Vsd ≤ VRD
3
2
smax = 0.3d ≤ 200mm if Vsd > VRD
3

163
 (c) The transverse spacing of legs of stirrups shall not exceed d, or 800mm, which ever is
the smaller.

(ii) Limiting value of ultimate shear stress

In order to prevent diagonal compression failure in the concrete the shear resistance (VRd) of a
section shall not be less than the applied shear force at d distance from face of support (Vsd).
Where, VRd = 0.25fcdbwd
When Vsd > VRd, the section size must be increased.

(iii) Shear reinforcement

When VC <VD <VRd, shear reinforcement need be provided.

Av df yd
V s = V d − Vc = ; Av = pair area of reinforcement
s

As Av
nAvf yd

When inclined bars are used,

Av df yd (Sinα + cos α )
Vs =
s
Where: α = the angle of inclination from the horizontal.

164
 4.3. Bond, Anchorage and Development Length

4.3.1. Bond

In order for reinforced concrete to behave as intended, it is essential that bond forces be
developed on the interface between concrete and steel, such as to prevent significant slip from
occurring at that interface. If the bar is smooth enough to slip, the assumption that the strain in an
embedded reinforcing bar is the same as that in the surrounding concrete, would not be valid.
Consequently, the beam would be very little stronger than if it were built of plain concrete,
without reinforcement.

Figure 4.3.1 Bond stresses due to flexure (a) beam before loading; (b) unrestrained slip between
concrete and steel; (c) bond forces acting on concrete; (d) bond forces acting on steel.

Formerly plain bars were used with provision of end anchorage in the form of hooks. Such beam
forms a broken bond over the entire length between anchorages and acts as a tied arch (Fig.
4.3.2).

Figure 4.3.2 Tied arch action in a beam with little or no bond

165
To avoid development of wide cracks and dispense with special anchorage devices, deformed
bars are now universally used. With such bars, the shoulders of the projecting ribs bear on the
surrounding concrete and result in greatly increased bond strength.

4.3.2. Bond Stress

Figure 6.2.1 shows forces in an isolated piece of a beam of length dx. The moment at one end
will generally differ from that at the other end by a small amount dM.

Figure 4.3.3 Forces and stresses acting on elemental length of beam: (a) Free body sketch of
reinforced concrete element; (b) Free body sketch of steel element.

Assuming that concrete does not resist any tension stresses, the change in bar force becomes,
dM dM
dT = = (Z – Moment arm)
d − 0.4 x Z
As shown in figure 4.3.1b, this force is resisted by the bond at the contact surface between bar
and concrete.
Summing horizontal forces,
udx ∑ p = dT

Where: u = local average bond stress per unit of bar surface area.

∑ p = sum of perimeters of all the bars.

dT dM dM dx V
∴ u= = = =
dx ∑ p dxZ ∑ p Z∑ p Z∑ p

Hence, the unit bond stress is proportional to the shear at a particular section, i.e., to the rate of
change of bending moment. The above equation applies to the tension bars in a concrete zone

166
that is assumed to be fully cracked. It does not apply to compression reinforcement, for which it
can be shown that the flexural bond stresses are very low.

Actual distribution of flexural bond stress:

Figure 4.3.4 variation of steel force and

bond stress in reinforced concrete member
subjected to pure bending: (a) cracked
concrete segment; (b) bond stresses acting on
reinforcing bar; (c) variation of tensile force
in steel; (d) variation of bond stress along
steel.

Figure 4.3.5 Effect of flexural cracks on

bond stresses in beam (a) beam with flexural
cracks; (c) variation of tensile force T in
steel along span; (d) variation of bond stress
u along span.
167
4.3.3 Development Length

Ultimate bond failures for bars in tension are of two types: the first is direct pullout of the bar,
which occurs when ample confinement is provided by the surrounding concrete. The second type
of failure is splitting of the concrete along the bar when cover, confinement or bar spacing is
insufficient to resist the lateral concrete tension resulting from the wedging effect of the bar
deformations. The latter if more common than the former

Figure 4.3.6 Splitting of concrete along reinforcement

The development length is defined as that length of embedment necessary to develop the full
tensile strength of the bar, controlled by either pullout or splitting. Referring to figure 4.3.7, the
moment, and hence the tensile stress, is evidentially maximum at point a and zero at supports.
The total tension force Abfs must be transferred from the bar to the concrete in the distance l by
bond stress on the surface.

Figure 4.3.7 Development length

168
The safety against bond failure is that the length of the bar, from any point of given steel stress
(fs or at most fy) to its nearby free end must be at least equal to its development length.

The basic anchorage length, lb, is the straight length of bar required to anchor the force Asfyd. For
a bar of diameter-φ, this force must equal the shear force developed between the bar surface and
the surrounding concrete:
As f yd = (πφl b ) f bd
πφ 2
But As =
4
πφ 2
∴ f yd = πφl b f bd
4
φf yd
⇒ lb =
4 f bd
Where, fyd = design bond strength.

The required anchorage length lb,net depends on the type of anchorage and on the stress in the
reinforcement and can be calculated as:
As ,cal
lb ,net = al b ≥ l b ,min
As ,ef

Where, As,cal = theoretical area of reinforcement required by the design.

As,ef = area of reinforcement actually provided.
a = 1.0 for straight bar anchorage in tension or compression.
0.7 for anchorage in tension with standard hooks.
For bars in tension, lb,min = 0.3lb ≥ 10φ or ≥ 200mm
For bars in compression, lb,min = 0.6lb ≥ 10φ or ≥ 200mm

169
 Figure 4.3.8 Standard Hooks

Reinforcement shall extend beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist tension for
a length given by:
(a) lb
(b) lb,net ≥ d provided that in this case, the continuing bars are capable of resisting twice the
applied moment at the section.

170
4.3.4 Bar Cut off and Bend points

It is a common practice either to cut off bars where they are no longer required to resist stress or
in case of continuous beams, to bend up bottom steel so that it provides tensile reinforcement at
the top of the beam over the support. To determine bend points, or bar cutting points, the
moment diagram resulting from loading for maximum span moment and maximum support
moment is shown below.

Figure 4.3.9 Tensile force diagram

Recognizing the various uncertainties, for bars with no special end anchorage the full
development length lb,net [d or 12φ] whichever is larger, must be provided beyond the peak stress
location. The critical section may be the point of max moment or a point where adjacent
terminated reinforcement is no longer needed to resist bending.

171
In the absence of explicit calculation, the sketch shown may serve this purpose.

Figure 4.3.10 Curtailment of reinforcement – simply supported

Figure 4.3.11 Simplified curtailment rules for beams

172
4.3.5 Bar splices

Reinforcing bars are as by fabrication limited in length, say 12 m. Thus it is normal to splice
bars in the field. To do this, one has to notice the following regarding splicing.

¾ Splicing of bars must be avoided at points of max-moment.

¾ Bars which are spliced should be staggered.
¾ Splices are made simply by lapping the bars a sufficient distance to transfer stress
by bond from one bar to the other.
¾ The required length of lap for tension is approximately 1.3lb and that for compression is
lb .

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Assignment-5
Question No. 3
Question No. 4

183
 CHAPTER 5
TWO WAY BEAM SUPPORTED SLABS

5.1 Introduction

Two way slabs are floor system whose individual panels are rectangular and are
supported in such a way that two way action results. When loaded, such slab lend into a
dished surface rather than cylindrical one. As the BMs are proportional to curvature, to
resist these BMs, the slab must be reinforced in both directions. Therefore, the slab must
be designed to take a proportionate share of the load in each direction.

Let’s consider a simply supported two way slab shown below, with Lx and Ly, shorter and
longer span, respectively.

1m

Let it be subjected to uniform load

Pd KN/m2
Evidently, part of the load is carried by
1m 1m Ly one set of strips and transmitted to one
pair of edge supports and the remainder by
the other.
1m
Lx

Let Pdx & Pdy be the share of Pd in x and y direction so that,

Pdx + Pdy = Pd ------------ (2.1)
Let kx & ky be constants for load share such that,
KxPd = Pdx and kyPd = Pdy
Since, the deflection at the centre of the strip must be the same, one obtains,

184
 4 4
5Pdx L4x 5Pdy Ly Pdx Ly
= ⇒ = − − − − − − − − − −(2.2)
384 EI 384 EI Pdy L4x
Lx P
Let = α ⇒ dx = α 4 ⇒ Pdx = α 4 Pdy
Ly Pdy

But Pdx + Pdy = Pd ⇒ (α4 + 1)Pdy = Pd

Knowing kyPd = Pdy ⇒ kyPd(α4 + 1) = Pd

1 α4
⇒ ky = kx =
α +1
4
α4 +1

One may see that the large share of the load is carried in the short direction.
For instance, consider when
Ly/Lx = 1, 1.5, 2
kx = 0.5, 0.835, 0.941
ky = 0.5, 0.165, 0.059

If the span moments are required for such simple spans

Mxmax = kxPdLx / 8
Mymax = kyPdLy/ 8

5.2 Analysis by Means of Coefficients

Slabs with side ratio less than 2 are treated as two way slabs and analysis can be made by
means of coefficients on the basis of the following assumptions and procedures.

- The slab is composed of rectangular panels, supported at all four edges by walls or
beams, stiff enough to be treated as an unyielding.
- Slabs are subjected to uniform load or concentrated load which can be converted to
equivalent uniform load not exceeding 20% of the total load.

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Individual Moment Determination

Moments for each panels with edge either simply supported or fully fixed are calculated
from,
mi = αI Pd Lx2
Where mi = design BM per unit width at point of reference.
αI = Coefficient given in table A - 1, as a function of Ly/Lx
Pd = Design uniform load (KN/m2)
Lx , Ly = shorter and longer spans of the panel, respectively

The Notation of Critical Moments

mxs
mxf
mys
Lx myf
The subscripts for moments are:
s = support
Ly
f = field (span)
x & y = are directions of shorter & longer span, respectively.

Division of panel into strips:

Slabs are divided in each direction into middle strips and edge strips as shown below.

Ly Ly
Edge strip Lx/8
Edge strip

Edge strip

Middle strip Lx Middle strip 3Lx/4

Edge strip Lx/8

Ly/8 3Ly/4 Ly/8

The maximum BM computed apply only to the middle strips & reinforcement can be
detailed in such a way that at least about 50% of the positive bars is extended into the

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supports. The negative bars may be terminated at a distance of L/4 to L/3 from the
respective centreline of the support.

Reinforcement in an edge strip parallel to edge need not be less than As min , where
As min = 0.5bd/fyk , fyk in MPa.

Moment at Continuous Supports of Slabs

After obtaining support and span moments for individual panels of the slab, you may
have support over which the slab is continuous but with two different support moments.
The difference may be distributed between the panels on either side of the support to
equalise their moments as in moment distribution.

After distributing the unbalanced moment (only one balancing) appropriate adjustment
for the span are made as:
ƒ if the support moment is moment is decreased, the span moment mxf , myf are
increased to allow for the change in support moment M in which the increase being
equal to the change of support moment multiplied by the factor given in Table A-2.
ƒ if the support moment is increased, no adjustment shall be made to the span
moment. However, the average moment at support with no further adjustment may
be made if the differences between initial moments are less than 20% of the larger
moment and LL does not exceed 2.5 times the permanent load.

5.3. Loads to Supporting Beams

The design loads on beams supporting solid slabs spanning in two directions at right
angles can be computed using,
Vx = βvx Pd Lx
Vy = βvy Pd Ly

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Table A-3 gives values of load transfer coefficient βvx and βvy and the assumed
distribution of this loading is shown below.

Vi

Li/8 + 0.75Li + Li/8

Li

Moments in Continuous Slabs

General

The first stage of design is to determine support and span moments for all panels
individually by treating their edges as either simply supported or fully fixed. External
edges are generally considered as simply supported and continuous edges are considered
as fully fixed in this stage.

If the slab is connected with an external wall or if any of its edges is partly fixed and
partly simply supported, the following procedure may be adopted:
(a) The ratio of the actual support moment to the bending moment of fully fixed slab, or
the ratio of the width of fixed part to the width of the simply supported part of the
edge is evaluated.
(b) The bending moments of the slab are then computed by interpolating between
different support conditions.

For each support over which the slab is continuous, generally, there will be two different
support moments. The difference may be distributed between the panels on either side of
the support to equalize their moments, as in the moment distribution method for frames.
Two methods of differing accuracy are given here for treating the effects of this
redistribution on moments away from the support.

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Method I
Method I may be used:
(a) When differences between initial support moments are less than 20 percent of the
larger moment, and
(b) Only for internal structures where the live load does not exceed 2.5 times the
permanent load (qk ≤ 2.5gk) or 0.8 times the dead load for external structures (qk ≤
0.8gk).
In other cases either Method II or other more accurate methods shall be used.
When Method I is used, dimensioning is normally, carried out either using:
(a) Initial moments directly, or
(b) Based on the average initial moment at the support.

Method II
In this method consideration of the effects of changes of support moments is limited to
the adjacent spans. Since no effects on neighbouring support sections need be
considered, only a simple balancing operation is required at each edge and no iterative
process is involved.

The procedure for applying Method II, is as follows:

(a) Support and span moments are first calculated for individual panels by assuming
each panel to be fully loaded. This is done by using the coefficients given in Table
A-1
(b) The unbalanced moment is distributed using the moment distribution method. The
relative stiffness of each panel shall be taken proportional to its gross moment of
inertia divided by the smaller span.
(c) If the support moment is decreased, the span moments mxf and myf are then
increased to allow for the changes of support moments. This increase is calculated
as being equal to the change of the support moment multiplied by the factors given
in Table A-2. If a support moment is increased, no adjustment shall be made to the
span moments.

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Assignment-4
Question No. 1-final design
Question No. 2

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