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No. 177
No. 177
A POLICY ANALYTICAL APPROACH OF ASSESSING ENERGY

EFFICIENCY STANDARDS AND LABELING FOR APPLIANCES
Lei Zeng
2015
School
School of
of Business,
Business, Society
Society and
and Engineering
Engineering
Copyright © Lei Zeng, 2015
ISBN 978-91-7485-202-8
ISSN 1651-4238
Printed by Arkitektkopia, Västerås, Sweden
Mälardalen University Press Dissertations
No. 177
Mälardalen University Press Dissertations

No. 177
A POLICY ANALYTICAL APPROACH OF ASSESSING ENERGY

A POLICY ANALYTICAL APPROACH

Lei Zeng OF ASSESSING ENERGY
Lei Zeng
Akademisk avhandling
som för avläggande av teknologie doktorsexamen i energi- och miljöteknik vid

Akademin för ekonomi, samhälle och teknik kommer att offentligen försvaras
onsdagen den 3 juni 2015, 13.15 i Delta, Mälardalens högskola, Västerås.
Akademisk avhandling
Fakultetsopponent: professor Siaw Kiang Chou, National University of Singapore
som för avläggande av teknologie doktorsexamen i energi- och miljöteknik vid
Akademin för ekonomi, samhälle och teknik kommer att offentligen försvaras
onsdagen den 3 juni 2015, 13.15 i Delta, Mälardalens högskola, Västerås.
Fakultetsopponent: professor Siaw Kiang Chou, National University of Singapore
Akademin för ekonomi, samhälle och teknik
Akademin för ekonomi, samhälle och teknik

Abstract
China is the world’s largest producer and consumer of household appliances, lighting and commercial
equipment. China first adopted Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) in 1989. By 2013,
China has developed and implemented 52 Energy Efficiency Standards (EES) and 28 mandatory energy
labels for a wide range of domestic, commercial, and selected industrial equipment. However, despite
of the large number of standards issued, big challenges remain with how to ensure the standards keep
up with the dynamic evolvement of technologies and appliance market after they enter effect.
The current policy analysis methods adopted by the policy makers primarily focuses on standards
making process and very limited attentions were paid on impact assessment and ex-post evaluation
of standards and labeling systems, hence the effectiveness of active Energy Efficiency Standards has
not been assessed timely and comprehensively. One major barrier of this is the lacking of assessment
methods and market data.
This thesis intends to tackle the above issues by developing a new policy analysis approach that
can be used to assess the impact of energy efficiency standards and labeling with market data. This
approach adopts a comprehensive analysis method that comprises three components: (1) Analysis of
market data; (2) Quantification of energy savings potential; and (3) Benchmarking China’s EE standards
to those of peer economies around the world. This integrated approach leads to three independent
but complementary studies that provide evidence-based findings and policy recommendations for the
improvement of China’s appliance standards.
ISBN 978-91-7485-202-8
ISSN 1651-4238
Sammanfattning
Kina är världens största producent och konsument av hushållsapparater,

belysning och annan utrustning för hem och kontor. Kina antog minimi-
standarder för energiprestanda (MEPS) 1989. Under 2013 har Kina utvecklat
och genomfört 52 energieffektivitetsstandarder och 28 obligatoriska energi-
märkningar för ett brett utbud av inhemska, kommersiella och utvalda
industriutrustningar. Dessa normer blir allt effektivare. En kontinuerlig och
dynamisk teknik- och marknadsutveckling för vitvaror innebär dock ofta en
stor utmaning för att hålla standarderna aktuella.
Denna studie har funnit att den nuvarande politikens analysmetoder har
koncentrerat sig på standardiseringsprocessen, medan liten uppmärksamhet
har riktats mot utvärdering av standarder och märkningssystem. Effektiviteten
i standarderna är därför inte alls heltäckande. Därför saknas bedömnings-
metoder och marknadsdata till stöd för bedömningen .
Avhandlingen avser att ta itu med dessa frågor genom att utveckla en ny
politisk analysmetod, och testa metoden med riktiga marknadsdata. En
integrerad strategi med den politiska analysen har därför utvecklats och består
av tre delar: (1) analys av marknadsdata, (2) kvantifiering av energi-
besparingspotential, och (3) benchmarking av Kinas EE-standarder jämfört
med andra ekonomier runt om i världen. Denna integrerade strategi leder till
tre fristående men kompletterande studier. Avhandlingen beskriver denna nya
metod för politisk analys och presenterar resultat och politiska rekom-
mendationer.
Acknowledgements
As a part-time PhD student, it has taken me over 8 years to complete my

research at Mälardalen University. I own a great deal of gratitude to a
number of people and institutions who have extended their extensive support
to my research. My research would not achieve any results without their
support or contributions.
First of all, it is my wife and two children who allowed me to spend
numerous weekends, and evening time in my research. Without their support
and understanding I wouldn’t imagine that I can get my research done. I own
a deep gratitude to their love, care and support.
My greatest gratitude goes to Prof. Jinyue Yan, being thankful of being
his student for the past 8 years. I want to thank him for his sustained support,
excellent supervision and guidance to my study. The analytical methods he
provided formed the cornerstone of my research, and his time spent on my
study through countless face-to-face meetings in China and Sweden, and
long-distance international calls have steered my research into the desirable
directions, which meant a lot to me. I also want to thank him for his
encouragements and inspirations when I encountered difficulties in my
studies.
I also want to thank my co-supervisor professor Erik Dahlquist, for his
advices and guidance to my study; I want to thank him for his patience in
reviewing my study plan, and overall concern for my research.
My deep appreciation goes to the School of Business, Society and
Engineering, Mälardalen University. As an international student, it was my
great opportunity to pursue my PhD study in this wonderful university. I
want to thank all the faculty members, teachers, co-workers for their support
to my study.
During my research I received extensive support from Collaborative
Labelling and Appliance Standard Program (CLASP), especially Christine
Egan, Eric Gibbs, Kathleen Callaghy, Li Jiayang, and Yu Yang. I also
received valuable comments and contributions from Hu Bo, and Zheng Tan
from TOP10 China Program.
In addition, I want to thank Kevin Lane, an independent consultant, who
assisted in the development of the modeling that provided the energy savings
projections used in my research, and Stuart Jeffcott, from the Jeffcott
Association, who provided technical review of my research. I also want to
show appreciation to Dr. Kevin Mo of the China Sustainable Energy
Program who provided suggestions to this study.
Lastly, my deep gratitude goes to Pablo Camacho Sanhueza, Research
Coordinator at the School of Business, Society and Engineering in
Mälardalen University for his support to my study, and Dr. Peter Stigson,
senior lecturer at the School of Business, Society and Engineering in
Mälardalen University for his pre-evaluation of my thesis. I also want to
thank Pietro Campana, PhD student at Mälardalen University, for his
generous support and help with my paper work.
Lei Zeng
March 2015
List of Appended Papers
This thesis is based on a series of studies which generated the following

papers. The listed papers are referred to in the text by their roman numerals.
Lei Zeng have been principle investigator and author for Papers No.1, 2, 3, 4,
and co-author to Papers No. 5, 6 and 7.
1. Lei Zeng, Jiayang Li, and Yang Yu, Jinyue Yan, Developing a Products
Prioritization Tool for Energy Efficiency Standards Improvements in
China, The 6th International Conference on Applied Energy –
ICAE2014, and the Energy Procedia 61 (2014), pp. 2275–2279.
2. Lei Zeng, Yang Yu, Jiayang Li, China’s Promoting Energy-Efficient
Products for the Benefit of the People Program in 2012: Results and
Analysis of the Consumer Impact Study, Applied Energy 133 (2014),
pp. 22–32.
3. Lei Zeng, Yang Yu, Jiayang Li, Green Labels and Standards for
Appliances, Equipment and Lighting. The Handbook of Clean Energy
Systems, edited by Jinyue Yan. 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN:
978-1-118-38858-7.
4. Lei Zeng, Jayond Li, Anita Eide, Evaluation of the Comparative
Information Label in China: an Analysis of Impact of Energy Labeling
on Consumer Awareness. The European Council for an Energy Efficient
Economy(ECEEE) 2011 Summer Study, 6–11 June 2011, France
5. Bo Shen, Girish Ghatikar, Lei Zeng, Jinkai Li, Greg Wikler, Phil
Martinc, The Role of Regulatory Reforms, Market Changes, and
Technology Development to Make Demand Response a Viable Resource
in Meeting Energy Challenges. Applied Energy 130 (2014), pp. 814–
823.
6. Bo Shen, Jian Wang, Michelle Li, Lynn Price, and Lei Zeng, China’s
Approaches to Financing Sustainable Development: Policies, Practices,
and Issues, WIREs Energy Environ 2013, pp. 2:178–198 doi:
10.1002/wene.66
7. Xin Ren, Lei Zeng, Dadi Zhou, Sustainable Energy Development and
Climate Change in China, Climate Policy 5 (2005), pp. 183–196.
Other related publications not included in this thesis:
1. Hu Bo, Li Jiayang, Lei Zeng, Market Analysis for China Energy

Efficient Products, The European Council for an Energy Efficient
Economy(ECEEE) 2013 Summer Study.
2. Xia Yujuan, Cao Ning and Wang Ruohong, Lei Zeng, What Works in
Enforcement and Compliance: Experience with the Local Supervision
System for China’s Energy Label, ACEEE Summer Study on Energy
Efficiency in Buildings, Pacific Grove, CA, August 12, 2012 – August
17, 2012.
3. Lei Zeng, Jinyue Yan, Needs Assessment for Scale-up Clean Energy
Technologies in China. The First International Conference on Applied
Energy (ICAE09),5 January 2009, Hong Kong
4. Lei Zeng, Jinyue Yan, Yu Xie, Energy Efficiency Benchmarking in
Chinese Cement Industry, The 3rd Int. Green Energy Conference,
IGEC-2007, 18–20 June 2007, Sweden.
5. Lei Zeng and Jinyue Yan, Policy, Institutional and Market Barriers to the
Implementation of Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) in China,
International Journal of Green Energy Volume 2 (2005), pp. 259–271.
6. Chuan Wang, Lei Zeng, Jinyue Yan, Potential Carbon Dioxide Emission
Reduction in China by Using Swedish Biomass Energy Technologies,
GHGT-8 Conference, 19–22 June 2006
Reports:
1. Lei Zeng, Jiayang Li, Michael Scholand, Assessment of Opportunities

for Global Harmonization of Minimum Energy Performance Standards
and Test Standards for Lighting Products, UNEP en.lighten, 78 pages,
June 2011
2. Jiayang Li, Lei Zeng, Hu Bo, Zheng Tan, Market Analysis of China
Energy Efficient Products (MACEEP), 224 pages, September 2013,
CLASP, www.clasponline.org
3. Kevin Lane, Lei Zeng, Summarizing Product Prioritization and Energy
Saving Potential (ESP) based on Recent MACEEP-ESP and LBNL
Studies, CLASP internal report, November 2013
Glossary and Acronyms
Acronym/ Meaning
Abbreviation
AC Air Conditioners
BAU Business as Usual (for energy saving potential analysis)
BC, BC/CD, Designations of refrigerated appliance types in Chinese
BCD, BCDW energy efficiency standards, respectively refrigerator,
refrigerator or freezer units, combination refrigerator
freezer units, and combination refrigerator freezer units
with compartments side by side
BOM Best of Market Scenarios(for energy saving potential
analysis)
Cd Candela, the unit of luminance (in the context of this
report associated with televisions and monitors
CEL China Energy Label
CELP China Energy Labeling Program
CIS Continuous Improvement Scenarios(for energy saving
potential analysis)
CLASP Collaborative Labelling and Appliance Standard Program
CNIS China National Institute of Standardization
COP Co-efficient of performance (for air-conditioners)
CRT Cathode Ray Tube (television)
CCFL Compact Fluorescent Lighting (in the context of this
report, used for backlighting of monitors and TVs)
DOE U.S. Department of Energy
EEI Energy Efficiency Index (defined as the measured
efficiency of the product under test divided by the nominal
energy efficiency of a “standard” product).
Acronym/ Meaning
Abbreviation
EEIref The nominal reference value(s) defined in the Energy
Efficiency Standard for televisions, used in the calculation
of a television’s EEI.
EER Energy Efficiency Ratio (metric for fixed speed air
conditioners)
EES Energy Efficiency Standard
EET Energy Efficiency Tierss as defined in the Chinese GB
standards
ESWH Electric Storage Water Heater
ESP Energy Saving Potential
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
GB Standards The Chinese standards used to define the test methods,
energy efficiency Tierss and the minimum energy
performance requirements (the GB designation is drawn
from the Romanized pinyin version of Chinese and
standards for GuoBiao meaning National Standard)
Hz Frequency in Hertz
IEA-4E Energy Efficient End-use Equipment, International Energy
Agency
L Liter (volumetric measure)
LCD Liquid Crystal Display (in the context of this report, used
in televisions)
LED Lighting Emitting Diode (in the context of this report,
used for backlighting of monitors and TVs)
MACEEP Market Analysis of China Energy Efficient Products
MEPR Minimum Energy Performance Requirement, ie the
limiting level defining the least efficient unit that can
legally be supplied to the market.
MEPS Minimum Energy Performance Standard
MFD Multi-Functional Devices, ie office copier machine which
have functionality beyond copying including, for example,
the ability to print, send faxes, scan, etc.
Mt Metric tonnes
Acronym/ Meaning
Abbreviation
NDRC National Development and Reform Commission (policy
maker for energy efficiency policies in Chinese
government)
Off-mode The power consumption of an appliance when the
standby appliance is switched off, but still connected to the mains
power supply.
On-mode The power consumption of an appliance while in any state
standby except that of performing its primary function (eg
cooking) and off-mode standby.
PDP Plasma Display Panel (in the context of this report, used in
televisions)
Ppm Pages per minute (referring to the speed of reproduction
for printers, copies, etc)
REACH Reach scenario(the best available technologies scenario,
for energy saving potential analysis)
Simple Copier An office copier machine where functionality is limited to
copying and does not include, for example, the ability to
print, send faxes, scan, etc.
SEER Seasonal Energy Efficient Ratio (metric for variable speed
air conditioners)
Tce Tonnes of standard coal equivalent
TEC Typical Energy Consumption (the energy efficiency
metric for copiers and MFDs which includes an
operational cycle deemed typical of weekly operation –
unit kWh/week)
Top Runner A Japanese product efficiency program whereby
government and industry reach agreement on the
efficiency of products to be sold in the future (based on a
fleet average of sales)
TV Television
UEC Unitary Energy Consumption
USB Universal serial bus [a type of high speed connection
between computing and peripheral devices]
V Electrical voltage (unit Volts)
W Watts, the SI unit for power (joule/second)
Table of Contents
1 BACKGROUND ......................................................................................... 1
1.1 Appliances and Energy Consumption .................................................. 1
1.2 Rationale of Appliance Energy Efficiency S&L Programs .................. 2
1.3 China’s Energy Efficiency Standards and Labeling System ................ 5
1.4 Issues and Questions Related to China’s S&L Programs ..................... 7
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................ 10
2.1 Theories on Design, Development of Standards & Labeling Programs
............................................................................................................ 10
2.2 Theories on Evaluation of S&L programs .......................................... 13
2.3 Review of Methodologies on Energy Saving Analysis ...................... 14
2.4 Review of Benchmarking Studies on Energy Efficiency Standards ... 17
2.5 Summary of Literature Review .......................................................... 18
3 OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY ........................................................ 20
4 COMPONENT I: MARKET ANALYSIS OF CHINA ENERGY EFFICIENCY
PRODUCTS (MACEEP) ......................................................................... 23
4.1 Methodology and Approaches for Component I ................................ 23
4.2 Overall Findings on the Market Analysis ........................................... 24
4.3 Fixed Speed Air Conditioners ............................................................ 26
4.3.1 Market Distribution of Fixed Speed Air Conditioners Related to
Energy Efficiency .......................................................................... 27
4.3.2 Discussion on Policy Implications ................................................ 29
4.4 Variable Speed Air Conditioners ........................................................ 30
4.4.1 Market Distribution of Variable Speed Air Conditioners Related to
Energy Efficiency .......................................................................... 32
4.5 Washing Machines ............................................................................. 35
4.5.1 Market Status of Energy and Water Efficiency ............................. 36
4.6 Flat Panel TVs .................................................................................... 38
4.6.1 Relationship between Television Energy Efficiency Index, Power
and Screen Size.............................................................................. 39
4.6.2 Impact of Proposed New Draft Energy Efficiency Standard on the
Market for Televisions Available in July 2012 ............................. 40
4.7 Refrigerators ....................................................................................... 42
4.7.1 Market Distribution of Refrigerated Appliance Efficiency and
Energy Efficiency Tiers ................................................................. 43
4.8 General Conclusion and Discussions from MACEEP Study ............. 46
5 COMPONENT II: ENERGY SAVING POTENTIAL ANALYSIS .................... 49
5.1 Methodology and Approach to Component II Study.......................... 49
5.1.1 End-use Modeling Approach ......................................................... 49
5.1.2 Impact Assessment ........................................................................ 51
5.2 Development of Scenarios .................................................................. 51
5.2.1 Cross-sector Information and Data Analysis ................................. 52
5.2.2 Products and Scenarios for Energy Saving Potential Analysis ..... 55
5.3 Findings of Energy Saving Potential Analysis ................................... 57
5.3.1 Fixed Speed Air conditioners ........................................................ 57
5.3.2 Refrigerator ................................................................................... 58
5.3.3 Washing Machine .......................................................................... 60
5.3.4 Rice Cooker ................................................................................... 61
5.3.5 Electric Storage Water Heater ....................................................... 62
5.3.6 Gas Instantaneous Water Heater ................................................... 64
5.4 Summary of Energy Saving Potentials for Key Energy-Consuming
Appliances .......................................................................................... 65
5.5 Products Prioritization Based on Saving Potentials ............................ 67
6 COMPONENT III: BENCHMARKING OF REFRIGERATOR ENERGY
EFFICIENCY STANDARDS ...................................................................... 69
6.1 Background: Why Benchmarking Study? .......................................... 69
6.2 Refrigerator Standards Review ........................................................... 70
6.3 Comparison of Efficiencies of Refrigerated Appliances among
Countries............................................................................................. 70
6.4 Comparison of Minimum Energy Performance Standard (MEPS)
Levels.................................................................................................. 72
6.5 Recommendations from Benchmarking Study ................................... 73
7 AN INTEGRATED APPROACH OF POLICY ANALYSIS ............................. 75
8 CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................... 79
9 FUTURE WORK ...................................................................................... 81
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................. 83
PUBLICATIONS .............................................................................................. 87
Table of Figures
Figure 1: Electricity Consumption for Typical Products in China (2011) ........ 2

Figure 2: Market Transformation by Standards and Labelling Polices ............ 3
Figure 3: An Example of China’s Energy Label............................................... 7
Figure 4: Typical Steps in Developing Appliance Standards and Labelling
Systems ............................................................................................ 11
Figure 5: Analytical Approach for Assessing China’s Energy Efficiency
Standards ......................................................................................... 21
Figure 6: Market Distribution within Energy Efficiency Tiers for Products
Available on Market ........................................................................ 25
Figure 7: Annual Sales of Room Air Conditioners in China .......................... 26
Figure 8: Fixed Speed Air Conditioner Energy Efficiency Tiers Distribution
......................................................................................................... 28
Figure 9: Fixed Speed Air Conditioner EET Distribution by Cooling
Capacity ........................................................................................... 28
Figure 10: Energy Efficiency Tiers Thresholds, Individual Model EER for
Tiers 1 and 2 ACs ............................................................................ 29
Figure 11: Sales and Market Share of Variable Speed Air Conditioner in
China ............................................................................................... 31
Figure 12: Variable Speed Air Conditioner Energy Efficiency Tiers
Distribution...................................................................................... 32
Distribution by Capacity Range ...................................................... 33
Figure 14: Market Distribution of Variable Speed Air Conditioners by SEER
......................................................................................................... 34
Figure 15: Distribution of Energy Efficiency for Tiers 1 and 2 Variable Speed
ACs .................................................................................................. 34
Figure 16: Distribution Energy Efficiency Tiers for Washing Machine........... 36
Figure 17: Distribution of Washing Machines by Product Type across Energy
Efficiency Tiers ............................................................................... 37
Figure 18: Relationship between TV EEI, Power, and Screen Size ................. 39
Figure 19: Energy Efficiency Index (EEI) vs Available TV Products.............. 40
Figure 20: Distribution of Available Refrigerator Models by Energy
Efficiency Tiers ............................................................................... 43
Figure 21: Distribution of Available Refrigerator Freezer Models by Energy
Efficiency Index .............................................................................. 44
Figure 22: Schematic of End-use Model for Energy Saving Potential
Analysis ........................................................................................... 51
Figure 23: Average Household Size (People/Households) (UN, 2010) ........... 53
Figure 24: Estimated Household Numbers (Rural and Urban) ......................... 54
Figure 25: Average Efficiency (EER) of New Air Conditioners by Scenario .. 57
Figure 26: National Energy Consumption by Air Conditioners by Scenarios .. 58
Figure 27: Average Consumption (kWh/year) of New Refrigerator by
Scenarios ......................................................................................... 59
Figure 28: National Consumption by Refrigerators by Scenarios .................... 59
Figure 29: Average Efficiency (kWh/kg/cycle) of New Washing Machines
by Scenario ...................................................................................... 60
Figure 30: National Energy Consumption of Washing Machines by Scenario
(GWh/year) ...................................................................................... 61
Figure 31: Average Cooking Efficiency (%) of New Rice Cookers by
Scenario ........................................................................................... 61
Figure 32: National Energy Consumption of Rice Cookers by Scenario ......... 62
Figure 33: Average Efficiency of New Electric Storage Water Heaters by
Scenario ........................................................................................... 63
Figure 34: National Electricity Consumption of Electric Storage Water
Heaters by Scenario ......................................................................... 64
Figure 35: Average Efficiency (%) of New Gas Instantaneous Water Heaters
by Scenario ...................................................................................... 64
Figure 36: National Consumption of Gas Instantaneous Water Heaters by
Scenario (GWh/year) ....................................................................... 65
Figure 37: Cumulative Energy Savings for Major Energy-consuming
Appliances to 2030 .......................................................................... 66
Figure 38: Comparison of Energy Efficiency for Refrigerator/Freezer across
a Few Markets ................................................................................. 71
Figure 39: Comparison of Minimum Energy Performance Standard (MEPS)
Levels for Refrigerator/Freezer in a Few Countries ........................ 72
Figure 40: Historic, Current and Future Normalized Maximum Allowable
Energy Consumptions for Chest Freezers ....................................... 73
Figure 41: Integrated Policy Analysis Approach .............................................. 75
Figure 42: Proposed Procedures for Prioritising Standards for Revisions ........ 76
List of Tables
Table 1: Overview of China’s Energy Efficiency Standards........................... 6

Table 2: Product Categories under China’s Energy Labeling System............. 6
Table 3: Summary of Major Data Sources Used in the Analysis .................. 23
Table 4: Summary of Data Used in the Research .......................................... 24
Table 5: Overview of Data Used for Fixed Speed Air Conditioner Analysis
......................................................................................................... 27
Table 6: Potential Revisions to the Current Minimum Efficiency
Requirements for Fixed-Speed Air Conditioners ............................ 30
Table 7: Overview of Data Used for Variable-speed Air Conditioner
Analysis ........................................................................................... 31
Table 8: Overview of the Data Used for the Analysis of Washing Machines
......................................................................................................... 36
Table 9: Summary of Data Captured on Domestic Refrigerated Appliances
......................................................................................................... 42
Table 10: Current and Proposed EES for Refrigerators .................................. 45
Table 11: Description of the Main Scenarios Developed for Energy Saving
Potential Analysis ............................................................................ 52
Table 12: Household Numbers in China ......................................................... 53
Table 13: Emission Factors in China ............................................................... 55
Table 14: Summary of Products and Scenarios (Actual Market Average
Values)............................................................................................. 56
Table 15: Cumulative Energy Saving for Major Energy-consuming
Appliances to 2030 .......................................................................... 66
Table 16: Cumulative Carbon Reductions of Major Energy-consuming
Appliances to 2030 (MT CO2) ........................................................ 67
1 Background
1.1 Appliances and Energy Consumption

Globally people consume 422 Exajoules (EJ) of marketed energy which
contributes about 25 to 30% of energy-related CO2 emissions, accounting for
26% of all anthropogenic CO2 emissions and 14% of our net contribution to
climate change from all greenhouse gases (Wiel, Martin, Levin, and Price,
1998). Global final energy consumption for appliances, lighting, cooking
and other buildings equipment accounted for roughly 45% of total final
energy used in buildings in 2010 , and its share expects to increase while the
value of the global home appliance market is expected to reach USD 295
billion in 2013 (IEA, 2013a).
In residential and commercial buildings, energy is consumed by appliances
from air conditioners, refrigerators, water heaters and clothes-washing
machines to microwave oven and televisions. In office buildings, energy is
consumed by everything from computers, copiers, fax machine, projectors,
and water coolers to lighting. Heating and cooling equipment is a collection of
energy-consuming equipment as well.
Appliance usages differ in various technologies; new household appliances
are purchased every 5 to 20 years globally (in average 5 years for computers,
10 years for televisions, and 20 years for refrigerators (CNIS, 2012a).
Meanwhile consumables, such as mobile phones, have much shorter life spans
(IEA, 2013b). Appliance usages also differ in various economies due to the
difference in demographics, industrial composition, economic growth, and
energy services that each energy consumer chooses or desires to purchase.
The market for domestic appliances in China has flourished in the recent
years, due to the continual increase in personal income, speed of urbanization,
and the population’s desire of improving quality of life (Zhou, Fridley, and
McNeil, 2011). With the sustained rises in both urban and rural appliance
ownership in the past decade, by far China has become the world’s largest
producer and consumer of household appliances, lighting, and other
residential and commercial equipment. In 2011 China overtook the United
States to become the world’s largest electricity consumer and its electricity
demand is projected to grow at an annual rate of 6% in the 2010-20 periods
(IEA, 2012). It was reported (China Statistical Bureau, 2013) that the total
national electricity consumption in China was 4.9591 trillion kWh in 2012,
increasing by 5.5% annually. Among them 22 key appliances, lighting,
1
cooking and other equipment totaled 3.24 trillion kWh in 2011 (CNIS, 2012a).
Figure 1 (CNIS, 2012a) shows the total electricity consumption for each of
these products. Electricity consumption of small and medium three phase
asynchronous motors, commercial unitary air conditioners, and room air
conditioners were at the top of the list, accounting for 36.2%, 7.5%, and 5.3%
respectively, of the total national electricity consumption.
Figure 1: Electricity Consumption for Typical Products in China (2011)
Improving appliance energy efficiency not only saves money and reduces
pollution but also improves the indoor environment of homes and the
productivity in commercial buildings.
Energy-efficient appliances can generate the highest energy savings and
financial gains in market segments with high energy consumption, more rapid
stock turnover, and where technological change can significantly reduce
energy consumption without increasing lifecycle costs (IEA, 2013b). For
example, better refrigerator technology may reduce energy consumption by
between 10% and 45% (DOE, 2012). World-widely, appliance sector implies
a great potential of energy savings and carbon emission reductions.
1.2 Rationale of Appliance Energy Efficiency S&L

Programs
Standards and labeling are two principal energy efficiency policies that
target market transformation in appliance markets. They intend to reduce the
energy consumption of appliance without diminishing the services they
provide to consumers.
Well-designed mandatory energy efficiency standards can transform
markets by removing inefficient products, with the intent of increasing the
overall economic welfare of most consumers without seriously limiting their
choice of products. Energy labels supplement standards by informing
consumers about the energy performance of a product and the benefits of
2
highly efficient products. Such labels can push the market to efficiency levels
even higher than those prescribed by the minimum standards (European
Commission, 2013b; Energy Star, 2012; Hamamoto, 2011). Energy labels
also empower consumers to make informed choices about the products they
buy and to manage their energy bills. The successful implementation of
energy efficiency labels in the wide range of countries has proved their high
effectiveness. In 2013, over 54 countries in the world had standards and
labeling programs, covering 80% of the world population (CLASP, 2013b).
Governments normally develop balanced programs, both voluntary and
regulatory, that removes cost-ineffective, energy-wasting products from the
marketplace and stimulates the development of cost-effective, energy-
efficient technology, as shown in Figure 2. (McMahon & Wiel, 2005)
Figure 2: Market Transformation by Standards and Labelling Polices
Figure 2 (McMahon and Wiel, 2005) illustrates the process of market

transformation and product distribution resulting from standards and labeling
policies. The average efficiency of appliances (without standards or labels) is
pushed towards the second curve (standards only) after implementation of
standards. Standards shift the distribution of energy efficient models of
products sold in the market upward by eliminating inefficient models and
establishing a baseline for programs that provide incentives for “beating the
standard.”
Introducing the third curve (Labels) can shift the distribution of
energy-efficient models upward by providing information that allows
3
consumers to make rational decisions and by stimulating manufacturers to
design products that achieve higher ratings than the minimum standard.
Therefore, the product distribution is represented by the three curves, which as
baseline, energy efficiency standards (mainly mandatory minimum energy
efficiency standards) and energy labels.
Together, these policies drive markets towards higher-efficiency products.
Such market transformation can be enhanced by policies such as tax rebates to
consumers for purchasing higher efficiency products, or phase-out of highly
inefficient products (McMahon and Wiel, 2005). For example, starting in
2009, China has highly subsidized the commercialization of efficient lamps
and issued a policy to phase out incandescent lamps before 2016 (CNIS, 2013).
Such combined policies of standards and incentive policies would create large
economies of scale for energy-efficient appliances (McMahon and Wiel,
2005).
When setting energy efficiency standards, there is no single methodology
for establishing a standard. The best approach may differ with goals,
appliance types and the local conditions. In most countries, the approaches
start with data collection, followed by data analysis, then a standards setting
process (Mahlia, Masjuki and Choudhury, 2002). In general, policy makers
need to access data on the impact of efficiency standards on consumers,
manufacturers, utilities and the environment in order to make the right
decisions. These data are served to focus discussions of possibilities, and to
quantify the implications of uncertain assumptions.
Every country based on its own conditions always apply analysis
methodologies that may differ from each other, and the analysis
methodologies and standard setting process are always an evolving process.
For instance, in the US, several changes have occurred in the efficiency
standards setting process in the past a few years, including increased
participation of manufacturers (Meyers, McMahon and McNeil, 2003). In the
international arena, countries try to learn from each other on methodologies
and approaches, therefore harmonization of test procedures and appliance
efficiency standards have been discussed at international conferences and
workshops. One recent tendency of standards making process is that more
attention is paid on the impact of standards on market transformation, and the
involvement of cost-benefit analysis for multiple stakeholders including
consumers, manufacturers, utilities, national energy and environment
authorities (Turiel, Chan and McMahon, 1997).
European countries were among the first to introduce standards and
labeling system to limit the energy consumption of appliances during the
1960s and 1970s. However, much of the early standards were weak and
poorly implemented and made little impact on appliance energy consumption
(Waide, Lebot, and Hinnells, 1997). In the recent year, driven by the
strengthened EU legislation and strong awareness of climate change, EU has
improved its standards and labeling systems. The EU’s energy efficiency
4
legislation for household appliances focus on two approaches: energy labeling
and MEPS. EU began through appliance labeling and has moved on to include
MEPS developed through ecodesign. The Energy labeling Directive
2010/30/EU and Ecodesign Directive 2009/125/EC are considered to be
pillars of the EU’s energy efficiency policy. The Ecodesign and Energy
Labeling Directives are complementary, as they, respectively, push and pull
the market toward more efficient products (European Commission, 2013a and
2013b).
In the past decades, the United States also developed a comprehensive
scheme for energy efficiency standards and labels. The US policy framework
includes mandatory appliance and equipment standards, mandatory Energy
Guide Labels, and voluntary Energy Star labels. The extensive use of energy
labeling tools has contributed highly to the improvement of energy efficiency
of equipment and appliances. The US Department of Energy (DOE)
Appliance and Commercial Equipment Standards Program develops test
procedures and minimum efficiency performance standards (MEPS) for
residential appliances and commercial equipment. The first appliance
standards were enacted in 1987, and since that time, a series of laws and DOE
regulations have established, and periodically updated, energy efficiency or
water use standards for over 50 categories of appliances and equipment used
in the residential, commercial, and industrial sectors (DOE, 2012).
1.3 China’s Energy Efficiency Standards and Labeling

System
Both Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) and the China
Energy Label (CEL) have gained increasing policy attention in recent years
in China, mainly due to China’s commitment to reduce energy and CO2
emission intensity per unit GDP from 2015 to 2020 (NDRC, 2010). China
first adopted minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) in 1989. By
the end of 2013, China has developed and implemented 52 energy efficiency
(EE) standards and 28 mandatory energy labels for a wide range of domestic,
commercial, and selected industrial equipment (CNIS, 2013).
Based on estimates made by CNIS in 2012 (CNIS, 2012a), the accumulated
energy savings of China’s energy efficiency standards have been
implemented for some time totaled 687.8 billion kWh of electricity, or 248
million metric tonnes of standard coal equivalent (tce). This resulted in 640
million tons of carbon dioxide emissions reduction and 2.82 million tons of
Sulphur Dioxide emissions reduction.
From 2006 to 2010, in China’s 11th Five Year Plan, appliance EE policies
contributed to a 19% reduction in energy intensity. In its most recent 12th Five
Year Plan, China identified an ambitious goal of reducing the energy intensity
5
of its economy by 40-45% by 2020 from 2005 levels (NDRC, 2010). Among
all the policies, appliances energy efficiency is one important element of
China’s overall energy efficiency policies (CNIS, 2012a). Table 1 below
provides an overview of China’s energy efficiency standards.
Table 1: Overview of China’s Energy Efficiency Standards

Product Group Implementation Date for
Energy Efficiency Standards
Heat pump water heaters 2013
Solar water heaters 2012
Set top boxes 2011
Copier and fax machines 2011
Televisions 2010
Domestic refrigerators/freezers 2009
Air compressor 2009
Electric rice cookers 2009
Electric fans 2009
Induction cookers 2008
Electric water storage heaters 2008
Variable speed air conditioners 2008
Gas water heaters 2006
Fixed speed room air conditioners 2004
Clothes washers 2004
Compact fluorescent lamps 2003
Linear fluorescent lamps 2003
China’s Energy Labeling System covers five product categories, including

household appliances, lighting equipment, commercial equipment, com-
mercial equipment and industrial equipment. Table 2 below illustrates the
product categories under China’s labeling system.
Table 2: Product Categories under China’s Energy Labeling System

Household Household refrigerators, room air conditioners, washing
appliances machines, household gas-fired tankless water heaters,
combined gas-fired air and water furnace, variable speed room
air conditioners, electric storage tank water heaters, household
induction cooktops, automatic electric rice cookers, AC electric
fans, flat panel televisions, household and similar purpose
microwave ovens, digital television receivers
Lighting Self-ballasted fluorescent lamps, high pressure sodium lamps
equipment
Office equipment Computer monitors, copy machines, printers, fax machines
Commercial Unitary air conditioners, water chillers, multi-split air
equipment conditioning (heat pump) systems, displacement compressors
Industrial Small and medium three phase asynchronous motors, power

equipment transformers, ventilation fans, AC contactors
6
The China Energy Label program has two classification scales – with either
3 or 5 tiers in responding to the different characteristics of appliances. In
both scales the lower the tiers, the higher the energy efficiency. Energy
efficiency tiers play key roles in the policies. Tiers 3 or 5 is the mandatory
minimum requirements for products to access the market. Tiers 2 and 1 are
generally endorsement requirements for the energy efficient product certi-
fication and incentive policies. An example of China’s Energy Label is as
Figure 3 below:
Manufacturer
Model number
Energy efficiency tier
Specific technical parameters
MEPS number
Figure 3: An Example of China’s Energy Label
1.4 Issues and Questions Related to China’s S&L

Programs
When China started to develop its policy scheme for appliance efficiency
from two decades ago, all government research resources were focused on
finding a right way to establish new energy efficiency standards, and how to
enforce the implemented standards. In the process very limited attentions
were paid on impact assessment, and ex-post evaluation of standards and
7
labeling systems (CNIS, 2012a). The unbalanced policy attentions led to a
steady growth of China’s new standards, but unknown of their impact after
entering into effect. Their effectiveness is unclear because few compre-
hensive assessments of these standards were carried out in the past two
decades. The reason for this is also due to the lack of assessment methods,
and lack of market data in supports such studies (CNIS, 2012a).
After appliance standards are issued, they often face big challenges of how
to keep up with the constant evolvement of technologies and market. For some
fast-developing technologies such as mobile phones, electronics or LED
lighting products, their performance standards may need to be upgraded in a
quick pace (CLASP, 2013a). If their energy efficiency requirements cannot
adjust in a timely manner that accommodates the rapid development of
technologies, the policy makers will find a saturated market with all top-level
energy-efficiency products, soon after the national standards become effective.
Under such situation consumers would not be able to differentiate the most
efficient ones from the rest of the market, hence cannot make informed
purchase decisions. In addition, this may send wrong signals to manufacturers
that investing in energy-efficiency technologies may not come with a
favorable market return.
Nevertheless, for some conventional type of appliance, such as clothes
washers, refrigerators, the nature of these appliance and their stable consumer
usage patterns determined their technologies will not change quickly and
innovations are often slow and capital-intensive. Investing on more efficiency
technologies in these sectors therefore require rather stable legislation
environment. If energy efficiency standards fail to consider the nature of such
appliances, the manufacturers may decide not pursue technology innovations
in order to avoid high-risk investment (Yu, Zeng, and Li, 2014).
Among the existing 52 energy efficiency standards issued by Chinese
government so far, only 10 of them get upgraded in the past two decades, this
left majority of China’s energy efficiency standards not revised since they
became effective back many years ago (CNIS, 2013). China National Institute
of Standardization (CNIS) is the government research institute responsible for
both the development and upgrade of energy efficiency standards. In the past
10 years, CNIS has made tremendous efforts on developing new standards,
but little attentions on making regular policy review and revisions. The reason
is that both little public funding is available and there are no policy guidelines.
Realizing this issue, the author of this thesis initiated this study with CNIS
researchers, aiming at tackling this issue. The objective is to find out answers
to the following questions:
 Among all the existing standards, how to prioritize which products for
standards revision?
8
 Under what market and technology conditions that the policy makers
need to initiate standards revisions process?
 How to evaluate the impact, especially energy saving impact, of existing
energy efficiency standards?
 Are Chinese standards advanced enough for further revisions? How to
compare Chinese standards with the ones of peer countries?
In answering these questions, the first step we take is to develop a

methodology that can be used for assessing the current energy efficiency
standards. To make it work practically, the methodology should ideally be
simple, less costly in data collection, and quick in generating results, yet
robust. In addition, it needs to reflect the evolving appliance market and
appliance technologies in a replicable and timely manner so that the policy
makers can repeat the analysis when needed, and monitor the impact of the
policies in order to make timely changes.
The purpose of this study therefore is to explore such a policy analysis
approach, and test this approach with real market data. Through this study, the
author hopes to provide some evidence-based and timely assessment results
for the policy makers to consider the priority products for their next policy
revisions.
9
2 Literature Review
As this thesis aims at exploring a method of conducting effective policy

analysis for improvement of energy efficiency standards in China, the
literature review has concentrated on international studies on theory,
methodology and practice on policy tools for the improvement of appliance
energy efficiency standards. More specifically, it reviews literature related to:
1) theories on design, development, evaluation of the S&L programs; 2)
energy saving potential analysis for policy measures; 3) benchmarking study
on energy efficiency standards.
2.1 Theories on Design, Development of Standards &

Labeling Programs
McMahon and Wiel with LBNL were the pioneers in developing theories on
design and develop standards and labeling programs. In 2003 both illustrated
the methodology and steps for governments to implement energy-efficient
standards and labels (Wiel and McMahon, 2003). It defines the term of
“standards” commonly encompasses two possible meanings: 1) well-defined
protocols (such as laboratory test procedures) by which to obtain a
sufficiently accurate estimate of the energy performance of a product in the
way it is typically used, or at least a relative ranking of its energy
performance compared to other models; and 2) target limits on energy
performance (usually maximum energy use or minimum efficiency) based
on a specified test protocol. In addition, they defined three types of
energy-efficiency standards: 1) prescriptive standards, 2) minimum
energy-performance standards (MEPS), and 3) class-average standards.
McMahon and Wiel also defined typical steps in the process of developing
consumer product energy-efficiency standards (McMahon and Wiel, 2005).
Figure 4 provides illustration of the steps.
10
Step 1. Decide
whether and how
to implement S&L
Step 5. Evaluate
the labeling or Step 2. Develop a
standards-setting testing capacity
programs
Step 3.Design and

Sept 4. Maintain
implement a S&L
and enforce
program, analyze
compliance
and set standards
Figure 4: Typical Steps in Developing Appliance Standards and

Labelling Systems
Step 1 needs to assess how local cultural, institutional, and political factors
are likely to influence the adoption and effectiveness of such programs, and
screen and select which types of products are the highest priorities; the Step
2 will decide the extent to which to rely on existing test facilities, test
procedures, and standards already established by international organizations
or neighbouring countries; the Step 3 will conduct engineering analysis,
national impact analysis, consumer analysis, manufacturing analysis,
stakeholder and consumer analysis, to ensure a standard that can eliminate
the less efficient models, harmonize with another country’s standards to
prohibit import of inefficient products, and encourage importers and local
manufacturers to develop the most economically efficient products; the Steps
4 and 5 try to ensure the standards have a plan to monitor its performance to
gather guidance for adapting the program to the changing circumstances.
McMahon and Wiel also argued that periodic review is necessary to allow
the policy makers to adjust test procedures, and adjust or “ratchet” the
stringency of standards upward as new technology merges and use patterns
change. Review cycles in countries with such programs typically range from
3 to 12 years, depending on the product life, the rate of technological
advances, and national priorities.
In 2005, McMahon and Wiel with the Collaborative Labeling and
Appliance Standard Program (CLASP) published a guidebook entitled
“Energy-Efficiency Labels and Standards: A Guidebook for Appliances,
Equipment, and Lighting” (McMahon and Wiel, 2005). This guidebook
11
further discussed the pros and cons of adopting energy-efficiency labels and
standards and describes the data, facilities, and institutional and human
resources needed for these programs. It provides guidance on the design,
development, implementation, maintenance, and evaluation of the programs
and on the design of the labels and standards themselves. However, this
guidebook didn’t provide detailed guidance on how to access the market
transformation after the energy efficiency standards and labeling are
implemented, and how to make continual improvement of energy efficiency
standards.
The US approach to standard setting addressed a broader range of factors.
In an iterative process stakeholder views are sought, analysis (market,
engineering and cost–benefit) undertaken, further consultation sought on
preliminary results, and analyses repeated where necessary. Factors statutorily
required to be taken into account include, for any proposed standard,
economic impacts, energy savings, any performance reduction, competition
effects, and any other relevant factors. In addition, the standard setting process
must result in levels which achieve the maximum improvement in energy
efficiency which is technically possible and economically justified (Kelly,
2012).
According to Mahlia, Masjuki and Choudhury (2002) and Turiel, Chan and
McMahon (1997) there are two approaches used to introduce energy
efficiency standards, namely, an engineering economic approach and a
statistical approach. The engineering/economic approach is more sophi-
sticated and data intensive, involving a cost benefit analysis and the impacts
on manufacturers, consumers, national energy balance and environment. And
it allows for consideration of new designs that are not included in existing
models yet or for some combination of designs that result in higher efficiency
than in any existing models found. However, the disadvantages of this
approach are the efficiency and cost of a project may be subject to significant
uncertainty because the appliance has not been produced, and many technical
data are also required, which is rather impossible or time consuming to collect
such data, especially in the developing countries.
Another method is the statistical approach in which less analysis is required
than in the engineering/economic approach, and the data are easier to obtain.
The data required are those that give a current characterization of the market
place for the products of interest, namely the number of models by efficiency
rating currently available for sale. Standards can be set and then selected after
a decision has been made as to the desired energy savings. This method seems
more practical than the engineering economic approach as market data are
more assessable than engineering and economic data in many countries, and
the market data can be collected quickly through survey. Certainly the
drawback of the market data is that it may not precisely predict the tendency
of technology development and its impact to the market. When facing budget
12
and time constraint, market data approach is often a more preferred approach
in many countries.
In addition to these two methods, there are other arrangements (e.g., in
Japan) where a less formal process is used to establish standards by a group of
industry and government participants using limited analyses but expert
knowledge of the marketplace and of available technologies for a particular
product (Nakagami and Litt,1997).this seems a blend way of taking the
advantages of both methods, but very much limited to countries like Japan that
the Government can work closely with industry in developing policies
together.
2.2 Theories on Evaluation of S&L programs

According to Wiel and McMahon (Wiel & McMahon, 2003), if a
government is to maintain an energy-efficiency labels and standards program
over the long run, it will have to monitor the program’s performance to
gather guidance for adapting the program to changing circumstances and to
clearly demonstrate to funding agencies and the public that the expected
benefits are actually being achieved. Periodic review allows the government
to adjust test procedures, redesign labels, and adjust or ‘‘ratchet’’ the
stringency of standards upward as new technology emerges and use patterns
change. Due to the difference in countries, any country needs to customize
existing data and analytical models to fit its own needs, train government
staff or others to perform the analysis, and review the analysis to verify
results.
On a regular evaluation of energy efficiency standards, some (Vine and Du
Pont, 2001) pointed out that achieving evaluation results by defining
objectives, identifying the necessary resources, monitoring the program
performance, and assessing the impacts is a valuable output of a standards and
labeling program. The results can be used to revise an existing program’s
objectives or as building blocks in establishing a new program. But, the
difficulty in measuring program’s performance and impacts is ever present. In
some cases it is due to a lack of data or a lack of resources to obtain that data.
Given real world constraints in budget and time, it is difficult to do a “perfect”
and comprehensive evaluation. However, even paying limited attention to
evaluation can provide very useful input to program planners and imple-
menters. In this case, doing something is better than doing nothing.
A British case of examination of the effectiveness of the EU minimum
standard on cold appliances showed that the minimum standard can result in
substantial energy savings and the society could afford more ambitious
standards (Schiellerup, 2002). In U.K., retailers and manufacturers delayed
efficiency improvements to the UK market for as long as possible, which
resulted in more than one year after the standard came into effect, a significant
13
proportion of sales were not meeting the standard. This demonstrates that
society could well have afforded a more ambitious standard.
China National Institute of Standardization (CNIS) expressed an urgent
need of establishing a framework for regular S&L evaluation in 2012 (CNIS,
2012b). It emphasized the importance of post-evaluation after energy
efficiency standards become effective, but also raised concerns on the lack of
mature evaluation method for such study. The Chinese appliance industry is
developing its technologies in a fast pace, lagging behind of making stringent
standards could lead to inefficient use of China’s previous energy.
To evaluate the effectiveness and impact of current policies, China has
implemented some pilot projects during 2006 to 2009 to verify appliance and
equipment compliance with China’s mandatory energy label and efficiency
standards. It was found (Khanna, Zhou and Fridley, 2013) that both
improvement and some fallback of in compliance rates overtime. Compared
to earlier efforts, China’s 2009 check-tests covered a wider regional and
product scope but demonstrated greater variation in compliance rates.
Labeling display and energy efficiency compliance was generally high across
regions and most products, but lower compliance rates were observed in less
economically developed regions and for lighting and industrial products.
Some facts (Zhou, Levine, and Price, 2010) show that Chinese industry can
do more to improve their energy efficiency. After China central government
implemented energy efficiency standards, there were cases in China that some
local provinces implemented more stringent standards ahead of the national
implementation schedule. For instance, in 2007, Jiangsu province had adopted
the national reach standard for room air conditioners ahead of the national
implementation schedule for 2009. Jiangsu set up its new reach standard that
is a Co-efficient of performance for air-conditioners (COP) of 3.2 instead of
current 2.6, to go into effect in the middle of 2007, which was two years ahead
of national policy. However, the 2007 deadline face strong resistance from the
manufacturers. As a comprise solution, Jiangsu Economic and Trade Com-
mission decided to enforce the standards in governments buildings first, thus
requiring all government departments to purchase products which meet the
Reach standard (the highest standard that reflect the best available techno-
logies in the market). This showed that through the right understanding on
technologies in the market, the government can push the appliance industry to
do more to achieve more energy savings.
2.3 Review of Methodologies on Energy Saving

Analysis
The methodology for energy saving analysis was firstly developed in
countries or regions like United State and Europe where energy efficiency
14
S&L were developed in a few decades ago. One paper (Meier, 1997)
concluded that no country had directly measured the actual energy savings
resulting from efficiency standards, but many studies-mostly in North
America-have indirectly observed savings. Methodological and practical
obstacles to observing savings include the difficulty of defining baseline
energy use and isolating the impact of technical improvements in efficiency
from other changes in usage patterns. Laboratory measurements are cheaper
and faster than field measurements, but they still must be calibrated to field
use. Energy savings resulting from refrigerator efficiency improvements
have been the most closely examined. Savings have been observed through
laboratory comparisons, field measurements, and utility bill analysis. Actual
savings correspond closely to those predicted in laboratory tests. Laboratory-
measured differences in efficiency generally give accurate estimates of
percentage savings, but give poor estimates of absolute savings. The
generally large percentage savings observed in North America may also
apply to Europe and Japan although the absolute savings will be smaller.
Savings from new standards created in these countries must be verified.
Meyers, McMahon and McNeil (2003) estimated energy, environmental,
and consumer impacts of US federal residential energy efficiency standards
taking effect in the 1988–2007 period. These standards have been the subject
of in-depth analyses conducted as part of the US Department of Energy’s
(DOE) standards rulemaking process. This study drew on those analyses, but
updated key data and developed a common framework and assumptions for all
of the products. It was estimated that the considered standards will reduce
residential primary energy consumption by 8–9% in 2020 compared to the
levels expected without any standards. The standards will save a cumulative
total of 26–32 EJ (25–30 quads) by the year 2015, and 63 EJ (60 quads) by
2030.
Mahlia, Masjuki, Saidur, Choudhury, and NoorLeha (2003) made calcu-
lations on energy saving potential for Malaysian’s new MEPS standards on
refrigerator-freezers. Based on the ownership data in Malaysian households,
and projections of Malaysian economic growth, the projection suggested that,
by implementing the programs in 2004, about 8,722 GWh will be saved in the
year 2013. Therefore, efficiency improvement of this appliance will provide a
significant impact in future electricity consumption in Malaysia.
Wei Lu (Lu, 2006) conducted an energy saving potential analysis for
household refrigerators in China in 2005. He developed a mathematic model
to evaluate the potential energy savings and environmental impacts of China’s
MEPS standard on refrigerators. The estimated results indicate implementing
the standard will save large energy, as well as benefit greatly to environment.
According to Lu, in the short or middle term, the quantity of electricity
savings is dramatically huge. And the emissions reduction is striking too. The
accumulative energy savings of energy efficiency tiers 1 which is
1,292.9 TWh in 21 years, tiers 2 which is 785.9 TWh, and tiers 3 which is
15
494.6 TWh and practical case 529.7 TWh, accounting for 79.8%, 48.5%, 30.5%
and 32.7% of China’s total consumption in 2002. In other words, if the
operating time of a coal-fired power plant is 5,000 hours per year, tiers 1, 2
and the practical case can save 259, 157 and 106 large (for instance,
1,000 MW) coal-fired power plants in 21 years, respectively. Thus, it is very
necessary to implement energy efficiency standard for refrigerators in China.
In 2010, Jing and Yu (Jing and Yu, 2011) evaluated the impacts of the
standards on the environment, manufacturers and consumers over a long-term
period of 2003–2023 in China. It first evaluated the potential electricity
conservation and GHG emission reduction resulting from energy efficiency
improvements driven by the standards. Next, manufacturers’ technological
and economic concerns about complying with the standards were discussed.
The return of consumers from investing in efficiency was analyzed based on
lifecycle cost saving of the improved models. The economic viability of the
standards was then evaluated by national consumer costs and benefits. Results
showed that the considered efficiency standards will potentially save a
cumulative total of 588–1,180 TWh electricity, and reduce emission of 629–
1,260 million tons of CO2 by 2023, depending on sale share of models by
efficiency. However, the preference to high-efficiency models is substantial
influenced by consumer’s expectation on return from the additional cost on
efficiency.
Some other international study also showed large saving potential of
energy efficiency standards. For instance, ENERGY STAR is a voluntary
energy efficiency-labeling program operated jointly by the United States
Department of Energy and the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (US EPA). Since the program’s inception in 1992, ENERGY STAR
has become a leading international brand for energy efficient products.
Through 2006, US EPA’S ENERGY STAR labeled products saved 4.8 EJ of
primary energy. And it is projected that US EPA’S ENERGY STAR labeled
products will save 12.8 EJ and avoid 203 Tg C equivalent over the period
2007–2015. A sensitivity analysis examining two key inputs (carbon factor
and ENERGY STAR unit sales) bounds the best estimate of carbon avoided
between 54 and 107 Tg C equivalent (1993–2006) and between 132 and 278
Tg C equivalent (2007–2015) (Sanchez, Brown, Webber, and Homan,
2008).
The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) and CLASP has
developed an analysis tool called Bottom-up Energy Analysis System
(BUENAS) (McNeil, Letschert, Stephane, and Ke, 2013), which calculates
potential energy and green-house gas emission impacts of efficiency polices
for lighting, heating, ventilation and air conditioning. The model includes 16
end use categories and covers 11 individual countries plus the European
Union. BUENAS is a bottom–up stock accounting model that predicts energy
consumption for each type of equipment in each country according to
engineering-based estimates of annual unit energy consumption, scaled by
16
projections of equipment stock. Energy demand in each scenario is
determined by equipment stock, usage, intensity, and efficiency. When
available, BUENAS uses sales forecasts taken from country studies to project
equipment stock. Once the business as usual scenario is established, a
high-efficiency policy scenario is constructed that includes an improvement in
the efficiency of equipment installed in 2015 or later. Policy case efficiency
targets represent current “best practice” and include standards already
established in a major economy or well-defined levels known to enjoy a
significant market share in a major economy. BUENAS calculates energy
savings according to the difference in energy demand in the two scenarios.
Greenhouse gas emission mitigation is then calculated using a forecast of
electricity carbon factor. According to this study, it found that mitigation of
1,075 mt annual CO2 emissions is possible by 2030 from adopting current best
practices of appliance efficiency policies. This represents a 17 % reduction in
emissions in the business as usual case in that year.
BUENAS is implemented using the Long-Range Energy Alternatives
Planning system (LEAP), developed by the Stockholm Environment Institute
(Stockholm Environment Institute, 2013). LEAP is a general-purpose energy
accounting model in which the model developer inputs all data and
assumptions in a format that is then transparent to other users. For this study,
we took an approach that is similar to BUENAS and LEAP, but developed a
tool that is based on Excel spreadsheets, which is tailor-made for China
analysis.
In a summary, the methodology for energy saving analysis for appliances
was developed in countries or regions like United State and Europe since a
few decades ago. But limited studies were found on energy saving analysis for
appliances in China, and the Chinese government research institute CNIS
hasn’t developed a comprehensive method to estimate the energy saving
impact of China’s appliance policies (CNIS, 2012a).
2.4 Review of Benchmarking Studies on Energy

Efficiency Standards
To the author’s surprise, there were very limited publications on bench-
marking studies on international standards, letting alone no literature
identified to compare Chinese standards with other peer economics.
CLASP has published a cooling benchmarking study in 2012 (CLASP,
2012). The report presented an in-depth review and comparison of the
testing procedures used in major economies, leading to the derivation of
conversion functions between metrics used in different economies. This
report also introduced a ranking tool that was developed to compare the
stringency and performance of various economies’ room air conditioners
17
S&L programs. The tool is based on analysis of the S&L policy and regu-
lation frameworks in the economies analyzed as well as input from S&L
experts.
This CLASP cooling benchmarking report provided valuable information
on methodology of conducting benchmarking study, and a ranking tool to
compare the stringency of standards in various countries, however, due to data
limitation, this report didn’t include the latest standards information from
China.
2.5 Summary of Literature Review

From the literature review above we can draw the following conclusions:
 Although there are some studies available providing theories for

developing new energy efficiency standards, there are limited practical
guidelines or policy analysis tools for assessing the stringency and
impact of current standards and labeling system. In addition, there is few
standardized method for product prioritization for standards develop-
ment or revisions.
 Data access is always a major issue for appliance policy analysis, and a
market-based statistical approach requires different set of data from the
engineering/economic approach, therefore can be accessed for a lower
cost than the comprehensive technology and engineering analysis.
 Experience from various countries showed that periodic review of
energy efficiency standards are needed as it allows the government to
adjust or ‘‘ratchet’’ the stringency of standards upward as new techno-
logy emerges and use patterns change.
 There were previous experience on energy saving potential analysis for
appliances standards; LBNL/CLASP’s BUENAS model calculates
energy savings according to the difference in energy demand in the two
scenarios. This offered a good direction of projecting energy saving
potential based on BUENAS experience and data situation in China.
 Benchmarking study on energy efficiency standards across various
countries has proven to be a challenge work and few studies were carried
out in the past decade. This was mainly due to the lack of market data,
and difference in test procedures in various countries, and lack of
funding opportunities. However, CLASP has developed sound method in
conducting benchmarking studies through theoretical analysis and
comparison test in testing labs. Due to the high cost of lab testing, and
limited availability for market data, few studies have been carried out
18
previously to compare Chinese energy efficiency standards with peer
countries.
 Although advanced countries in S&L such as U.S. and Europe have done
some studies on either market data analysis, or energy saving potential
analysis, or benchmarking studies, there is very limited observation of
any integrated analysis approach covering all these elements.
19
3 Objectives and Methodology
This study aims to develop and test a policy analysis approach that could be
used by the policy makers to prioritize products for energy efficiency
standards revisions.
This study developed a policy analytical approach with three components
in assessing the stringency of the current energy efficiency standards in China,
which comprises 1) market data analysis, 2) quantification of energy savings
potential, and 3) benchmarking China’s EE standards to those of peer
economies around the world. This is an approach that has not been used in
China before.
1) Market Analysis of China Energy Efficient Products (MACEEP)

The literature review suggested that data accessibility is often a constraint
for appliance policy analysis, and a market-based statistical approach often
requires less data than the engineering/economic approach. In addition, in
many cases, collecting market data has proven to be less costly than
collecting other type of data such as engineering data. Thus this study aims
to collect market data to compare the market distribution of energy efficient
products within existing EE tiers.
2) Energy Savings Potential Analysis
This study aims to quantify energy savings potential of appliance on the
market, and based on the analysis, to provide recommendations on the ranks
of products for policy revision.
There were previous experience on energy saving potential analysis for
appliances standards; LBNL/CLASP’s BUENAS model calculates energy
savings according to the difference in energy demand in the two scenarios.
This offered a good direction of projecting energy saving potential based on
BUENAS experience and data situation in China. In this study, we therefore
took a similar approach to LBNL and CLASP’s Bottom-up Energy Analysis
System (BUENAS). This analysis will take a bottom–up stock accounting
model that predicts energy consumption for each type of equipment according
to engineering-based estimates of annual unit energy consumption, scaled by
projections of equipment stock. Energy demand in each scenario is deter-
mined by equipment stock, usage, intensity, and efficiency.
20
3) Benchmarking of Energy Efficiency Standards
Due to the constraint of research budget, this study only selected refrige-
rators as one pilot product, to conduct benchmarking study. We aim to
compare China’s national product efficiency standards and energy efficiency
of products on the market for refrigerators with those of other economies,
such as the EU and the US, in order to provide evidence-based analysis to
show where the potential is of capturing additional energy savings by
adapting standards that are already in use in other countries around the
world.
4) Integrated Analysis
The literature review found that although some developed countries such as
U.S. and Europe have carried out studies on either market data analysis, or
energy saving potential analysis, or benchmarking studies, there is little
observation of an integrated analysis approach that covers all these elements.
This study adopts an integrated approach and tries to demonstrate that such
an approach is valuable for appliance standard analysis. The interrelationship
among the three components is illustrated as Figure 5 below. All the
three-component studies contributed to this comprehensive analysis. By
taking this approach we hope to generate evidence-based analysis for policy
analysis.
Energy Saving
Potential Analysis
(ESP Study)
Integrated
Policy Analysis
Market Analysis of Benchmarking
Eenergy Efficiency Analysis of
products (MACEEP Standards across
Study) Countries (BM
Study)
Figure 5: Analytical Approach for Assessing China’s Energy

Efficiency Standards
It has taken the author about three years conducting this study, the research
on each of the three components mostly took place in the year of 2012,
following the market analysis, the author’s comprehensive analysis was
21
carried out in 2013. The methodology of each individual component of the
analysis is described in each of the individual analysis sections. An outline
of this thesis is as following:
1) Component I: Market analysis

2) Component II: Energy saving potential analysis
3) Component III: Benchmarking analysis of energy efficiency standards
4) An integrated approach of policy analysis
5) Conclusions
6) Future work
22
4 Component I: Market Analysis of China
Energy Efficiency Products (MACEEP)
4.1 Methodology and Approaches for Component I

The goal of Component I study is to provide a comprehensive and
transparent picture of the Chinese market for domestic appliances. This
includes the number of appliances currently available on the market, the
energy efficiency and consumption distributions of these appliances.
Nine specific products under this study included fixed and variable speed
air conditioners, induction cookers, copy machines, monitors, refrigerators,
rice cookers, televisions, and washing machines. The author has collected data
from surveys of products available on the market in July 2012, and
information from public sources such as the China Energy Label website and
the China National Bureau of Statistics (Table 3). Overall, this study collected
over 11,734 individual appliance models.
Table 3: Summary of Major Data Sources Used in the Analysis

Source Data gathered Notes
On-line dealer websites: Source of data on products Single data collection in

www.360buy.com available in the market in July 2012 July 2012.
www.zol.com.cn and associated product attributes. Where attribute values
www.suning.com Attributes are product specific but varied by supplier, the
www.gome.com.cn include information such as to draw average value across
data as follows: suppliers was used. In
Product model numbers; particular, such
Energy Efficiency (EE)and EE averaging was used for
Tiers; price.
Size/Volume/Capacity;
Power;
Type;
Price
Product’s energy label Verification of product attributes
information from the data where part of the declaration
China Energy Label and displayed on the China Energy
website Label website. Also data of product
registration.
China National Bureau of Macro national and regional
Statistics (NBS) statistics ranging from population to
product ownership levels.
23
Source Data gathered Notes
Miscellaneous Mainly macro statistics and generic

publications and reports. technical information on certain
product types such as shipment,
stock, products’ average lifetime,
etc.
Table 4 is a summary of data used in this research. Although the 11,734

models data (Zeng, Li, and Yu, 2013) do not cover a full database of
appliances in China, the data for this study covered the majority of large
retail chains (e.g. GOME and Suning) and some of the largest manufactures’
online supply capacity. Thus we believed the data should represent a good
approximation of the market for most products in July 2012.
The author conducted data analysis on a model (not sales) basis for the
reason of difficulty in accessing sales data.
Table 4: Summary of Data Used in the Research

Product Type Number of Models
Induction cooker 989
Monitor 760
Copier 393
Refrigerator 1693
Rice cooker 1276
Flat Panel TV 2337
Washing Machine 1406
ACs (Fixed Speed) 1876
ACs (Variable Speed) 1004
Based on the real market data collected in 2012, the author conducted market
analysis for the 9 products; the key findings of the analysis are summarized
as below.
4.2 Overall Findings on the Market Analysis

Figure 6 below shows the tiers distribution in Chinese markets for key
appliances, as collected directly from market data in the MACEEP study.
For almost all products displayed in the Figure 6, the market reflects the
clustering of product models in energy efficiency (EE) Tiers 1 and Tiers 2,
especially for monitors, clothes washers, flat panel TVs, refrigerators, and
copiers. Their models of energy efficiency products have occupied the
majority share of the market.
24
EE Tier 1 EE Tier 2 EE Tier 3 EE Tier 4 EE Tier 5
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Figure 6: Market Distribution within Energy Efficiency Tiers for

Products Available on Market
Copiers have 94% of their products in the market reached energy efficiency
tiers 1. The flat panel TVs just implemented a national energy efficiency
standard in 2010, by middle 2012 TVs have already more than 60% of the
market reached energy efficiency tiers 1. Monitors and washing machines’
tiers 1 products reach over 50% of the market. For the above products, due
to the large market share of Tiers 1 products in the market, the role of energy
efficiency standards are no longer effective, as most consumers are no longer
able to distinguish the most efficient products at the market.
Figure 6 shows that air conditioners (fixed and variable speed), rice
cookers and induction cookers have tiers 1 product below 8% of the market
share. For rice cookers and induction cookers, their tiers 1 products are almost
not available on the market. For the above products, tiers 1 can truly represent
the most efficient products on the market, and consumers are able to purchase
the most efficient products by following information provided by energy
efficiency tiers.
Figure 6 also tells that for the products with 5 tiers, in general the market
share of tiers 4 and 5 products is relatively low. Variable-speed air
conditioners have a 16% of market share for tiers 4 and 5 products, while
refrigerators’ share of tiers 4 and 5 are only 0.9%, and most products have a
market share of below 2% in the market. For washing machines, their market
share for tiers 4 and 5 products is so low that these products can be ignored
from the market.
25
The large proportion of products qualifying for the higher efficiency levels,
or “Tiers” in the market showed little apparent difference in efficiency for a
number of products. This means that consumers do not have the opportunity to
preferentially select the most efficient products at the point of purchase.
Moreover, there is limited incentive for manufacturers to develop higher
efficiency products, since they will not be distinguished in the market.
4.3 Fixed Speed Air Conditioners

ACs have enormous energy consumption in China. In 2011, China’s com-
mercial unitary air conditioners and household air conditioners accounted for
12.8% of the China’s annual power consumption (CNIS, 2013). The annual
sales number of ACs has been around 40 million units per year for recent
years (Figure 7). Figure 7 illustrated two types of dominating ACs in China,
one is Variable Speed ACs (VSD AC), and the other type is Fix-speed ACs
(FS AC).
Figure 7: Annual Sales of Room Air Conditioners in China

Data source: AVC Market Research (AVC, 2013), sales based
on cooling year from September-August
The air conditioner study selected the most common type of fixed speed ACs
for analysis (Table 5). In total 1,876 AC models were selected according to
their Cooling Capacity (CC).
26
Table 5: Overview of Data Used for Fixed Speed Air Conditioner
Analysis
Data type Notes
Total Number of Models* CC**≤2,800 587
2,800<CC**≤4,500 604
4,500<CC**≤7,100 360
7,100<CC** 325
Cooling capacity Range: 2,200–12,600
Energy efficiency Tiers Range: 1–3
Energy efficiency ratio (EER) Range: 3-4.1
Price/RMB Range: 1,399–15,099
Heating capacity Range: 2,500–14,000
Co-efficiency of the performance (COP) Range: 2-4.89
*The EES does not use the CC≤2800 category. However, given the large
number of models in this group, this extra categorization assists in
product analysis.
**CC = cooling capacity
4.3.1 Market Distribution of Fixed Speed Air Conditioners

Related to Energy Efficiency
This study revealed that the market for fixed speed air conditioners could
also be segmented into units that provide cooling only and units that provide
both heating and cooling. As the following figure shows, in July 2012, 75%
of fixed speed air conditioners available on the market had both cooling and
heating functions.
At the time of data collection in July 2012, the share of models available
registered as Tiers 1 remained very low (3.8%) with the remaining products
evenly distributed between Tiers 2 and 3 as shown in Figure 8.
27
Figure 8: Fixed Speed Air Conditioner Energy Efficiency Tiers
Distribution
Examining the breakdown further, as shown in Figure 9, we found the low

cooling capacity ACs (below 4,500 cc) have higher share of energy efficient
products than the higher capacity ones (4,500 cc and above). However, for
all size of ACs, there are very limited models on the market that can meet
the highest energy efficiency level (Tiers 1). This showed a large
improvement potential for all Fixed speed ACs.
Figure 9: Fixed Speed Air Conditioner EET Distribution by Cooling

Capacity
28
Figure 10 illustrates the energy efficiency levels of each investigated ACs in
comparison with the energy efficiency requirements of tiers 1 and tiers 2.
Each of the dots represents one model. All together we found that most of
the ACs managed to meet their targeted tiers, this implied the current AC
standards indeed played a role in influencing AC manufactures’ technology
development. In addition, we can also find some ACs have remarkable
performance which is well above the Tiers 1 requirement. An example is that
some models have reached EER of 4.1, while the Tiers 1 requirement is only
EER of 3.6. This showed some more ambitious technologies are already
available in the market for saving more energy.
Figure 10: Energy Efficiency Tiers Thresholds, Individual Model EER

for Tiers 1 and 2 ACs
Source: MACEEP 2013 Report (Zeng, Li, and Yu, 2013)
4.3.2 Discussion on Policy Implications

1) Need to Increase Stringency of the Energy Efficiency Standards
The distribution of fixed speed air conditioners within the energy efficiency
Tiers remains heavily skewed to Tiers 2 and 3 products, with few products in
Tiers 1. As the revision of the performance metric will take some time for
products to be tested and registered, the author therefore suggested the
policymakers to immediately increase the stringency of the current Tiers
thresholds as proposed in Table 6.
29
Table 6: Potential Revisions to the Current Minimum Efficiency
Requirements for Fixed-Speed Air Conditioners
Cooling capacity range (W) Tiers 1 EER Tiers 2 EER Tiers 3 EER
requirement requirement requirement
CC ≤ 4,500 3.7 3.5 3.3
4,500 < CC ≤ 7,100 3.6 3.4 3.2
7,100 < CC 3.5 3.3 3.1
Such a revision would remove the worst performing products within Tiers 3
and move the poorer performing products within Tiers 2 to Tiers 3 without
significantly affecting the proportion of Tiers 1 products. Further, the
revision would not only improve the overall average efficiency of new fixed
speed air conditioners, but would also reduce the number of (currently) less
efficient Tiers 2 models receiving government subsidy support.
2) Need to Revise the Energy Efficiency Standard and Label to

Include Heating Functions
Currently the energy efficiency standard and associated label for fixed speed
air conditioners are presenting a distorted picture to the market. In particular,
while 75% of fixed speed air conditioners have a heating function, the
energy consumption impact of the heating function is not included in
information given to the consumer on the energy label.
Moreover, the exclusion of this information, combined with the difference
in the measurement of product performance, makes it almost impossible for
consumers and retailers to compare the performance of fixed and variable
speed air conditioners. This may lead to consumers buying products that
appear more efficient than competing products, but ultimately may not be so
and potentially use more energy.
Therefore, we suggest Chinese standard authority to consider revising the
metric by which fixed speed air conditioners are measured. The use of
Seasonal Energy Efficient Ratio (SEER) would have the dual benefits of
including the energy consumption of the heating element of the product and
making the performance of fixed speed air conditioners more directly
comparable to the performance of variable speed units.
4.4 Variable Speed Air Conditioners

The variable speed AC analysis showed that variable speed air conditioners’
sales remained low until 2009. In 2010 and 2011, sales doubled on an annual
basis, with their market share growing from 16% in 2009 to 35% in 2011
(Figure 11) (AVC, 2013).
30
Sales plateaued in 2012, but the overall market share increased to 44% as a
result of declining sales of fixed speed units.
Figure 11: Sales and Market Share of Variable Speed Air Conditioner
in China
The data used for variable speed AC analysis are illustrated in Table 7
below:
Table 7: Overview of Data Used for Variable-speed Air Conditioner

Analysis
Data type Notes
Total Number of Models* CC**≤2,800 315
2,800<CC**≤4,500 379
4,500<CC**≤7,100 174
7,100<CC** 136
Cooling capacity Range: 2,300–12,500
Energy efficiency Tiers Range: 1–5
Seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) Range: 2.84–7.33
Price/RMB Range: 1,750–14,489
Heating capacity Range: 2,600–10,500
Co-efficiency of the performance (COP) Range: 2.10–5.00
*The EES does not use the CC≤2,800 category. However, given the large
number of models in this group, this extra categorization assists in product
analysis. **CC = cooling capacity.
31
4.4.1 Market Distribution of Variable Speed Air Conditioners
Related to Energy Efficiency
The distribution of variable speed air conditioners between the Energy
Efficiency Standard (EES) efficiency Tiers is shown in Figure 12 below. As
can be seen, Tiers 3 products dominate the market, with over 50% of all
models. Energy Efficiency Tiers 5 models (2.2%) have been almost
eliminated from the market. 31% of the market is from Tiers 1 and 2 models.

Distribution
Breaking this distribution down into the major cooling capacity groupings,
as shown in Figure 13 below, the overall Energy Efficiency Tiers (EET)
distribution remains broadly the same, with the minor additional observation
that a higher proportion of Tiers 1 products are in the two smaller capacity
ranges.
32
Distribution by Capacity Range
As Tiers 4 and 5 products account for approximately 16% of the market, this
indicates that there is significant potential to revise the Energy Efficiency
Standards (EES) and reset the Minimum Energy Performance Requirement
(MEPR) to remove these products from the market without causing
limitations in product supply in any capacity range.
Interestingly, we found that products are available with SEER values in
excess of 7 (Figure 14, 15). This indicates that the current Tiers 1 thresholds
are relatively low compared with the range of products on the market.
Therefore, there appears potential for policymakers to revise the current Tiers
1 thresholds to a higher level, enabling consumers to identify premium
efficiency products more readily.
Figure 15 shows the distribution of average SEER values at each capacity
for Tiers 1 and 2 models in relationship to the EET thresholds. As noted
previously, the majority of energy efficient products (Tiers 1 and 2) come
from the product group with cooling capacity below 2,800W. Fewer Tiers 1
models are available as the cooling capacity increases.
33
Figure 14: Market Distribution of Variable Speed Air Conditioners by
SEER
Figure 15: Distribution of Energy Efficiency for Tiers 1 and 2 Variable

Speed ACs
34
Need to revise the energy efficiency standard and efficiency label. Only 16%
of models in the market remain in Tiers 4 and 5, as evidenced by the current
Energy Efficiency Tiers (EET) distribution. This presents an opportunity to
strengthen current Minimum Energy Performance Requirement (MEPR)
levels.
Variable speed air conditioners with SEER values in excess of 7 are present
in the market. This far exceeds the current Tiers 1 threshold levels; thus, the
most efficient units are not clearly indicated to consumers at the time of
purchase.
Currently the EES for variable speed air conditioners is based only on the
cooling efficiency (SEER) of the unit, even though almost all variable speed
models have the capacity to heat spaces. Therefore, there is a risk that only the
cooling functions of units are optimized and do not maximize energy
reduction opportunities during heating functions.
Therefore, based on our technical analysis above, we come up with the
following suggestions:
 Revising China’s current energy efficiency standards (2008 version) to
set a new minimum requirement level (MEPR) at the lower threshold of
the existing current Tiers 3 boundary, thus removing approximately 16%
of models from the market.
 A revision of the Tiers 1 threshold, we suggest a SEER level of
approximately 6 for smaller capacity units would help to clearly identify
the most efficient products in the market.
 Consider the current policy did not include heating perimeter, including
heating within the overall performance measure for variable speed air
conditioners will ensure the most efficient operation across all
operational conditions.
 Due to this technical analysis is based on market data, engineering
analysis is not made to assess the technology potential for AC energy
efficiency improvement. The policymakers may need to consider
supporting such engineering analysis to ensure technology potential is
considered when revising the energy efficiency standards.
4.5 Washing Machines

Based on the projections (Lane and Zeng, 2013), approximately 366 million
washing machines were installed across China by the end of 2012. This
stock is expected to rise to 484 million in 2030. Such projections clearly
demonstrate the need to address the energy efficiency and overall con-
35
sumption of washing machines. Table 8 below is an overview of data
collected for washing machines analysis:
Table 8: Overview of the Data Used for the Analysis of

Washing Machines
Data type Note
Number of models 1,406
Rated load/capacity (Kg) Range: 2 - 13
Energy efficiency Tiers Range: 1 – 5
Energy efficiency (kWh/Kg) Range: 0.011 - 0.19
Water efficiency (liters/Kg) Range: 6 -37.3
Price (RMB) Range: 287 – 16,899
4.5.1 Market Status of Energy and Water Efficiency

The washing machine Energy Efficiency Standard (EES) contains five
energy efficiency Tiers. If both impeller and drum washing machines are
grouped together, this study found that Tiers 1 and Tiers 2 products account
for more than 85% market share in 2012, while there are almost no Tiers 4
and 5 products available as shown in Figure 16 below.
Figure 16: Distribution Energy Efficiency Tiers for Washing Machine

However, when breaking the market down by product type, as shown in the
following figure, it is clear that all drum machines are currently Tiers 1
products, with almost 80% of impeller units ranking at Tiers 2, and over 10%
at Tiers 1.
36
Figure 17: Distribution of Washing Machines by Product Type across
Energy Efficiency Tiers
However, if we examine the actual distribution of declared energy and water

efficiencies, we find that there is a wider range of efficiencies of products in
the market than currently indicated by the energy efficiency tiers (EETs).
This situation presents a problem because the current energy efficiency Tiers
definitions are:
 Limiting choice for consumers by not accurately reflecting the spread of
product efficiencies in the market place.
 Failing to achieve the goal of only allowing the most efficient products
to be ranked in Tiers 1 and 2 (and hence considered “energy efficient
products”).
 According to Weil and McMahon (McMahon and Wiel, 2005), this may
lead to failing to motivate manufacturers to increase the efficiency of
their products to differentiate from their competitors.
 Not creating a wide distribution in efficiency of products, thus limiting
the opportunities for future revisions of the EES and in particular, the
MEPR.

Need to improve the current energy efficiency standards. Analysis above
shows that although almost all products rank at Tiers 1 or 2, there is still a
37
reasonable distribution of declared energy efficiency values for drum and
impeller washing machines.
This demonstrates that an urgency of make revisions to the Energy
Efficiency Standards (EES) by increasing the stringency for Tiers 1 and 2
products. Such revisions would:
 Remove the very worst performing products of each type from the
market.
 Provide consumers with more product differentiation based on
comparative efficiency, allowing them to preferentially choose the more
efficient units (of a particular type) at the time of purchase.
 Incentivize manufacturers whose products are currently categorized as
Tiers 4 or 5 to improve their product performance so as not to appear
“inferior” in comparison with competitive models.
 Introduce technology-neutral tests.
This would allow consumers to truly compare declarations of energy con-

sumption, water consumption, and wash quality between machines types.
Such a direct comparability of test results would also allow policymakers to
more accurately develop energy efficiency standards and projections of
national energy consumption, as well as identify the “most efficient” products
for labeling and other policy purposes such as subsidy support.
4.6 Flat Panel TVs

In 2013, household penetration of televisions in China is already high and
still rising. The number of units per household is also growing, as a result of
increasing disposable incomes. Projections indicate that the number of
televisions installed in homes or similar applications will rise from
approximately 579 million in 2012 to 735 million in 2030 (Lane and Zeng,
2013). Under the business as usual scenario, the projected stock of
televisions would consume approximately 154 TWh of energy per year by
2030, and TVs have a large energy saving potential, right next to air
conditioners (Lane and Zeng, 2013). This clearly demonstrates the need to
address the energy efficiency and overall consumption of televisions.
Currently, there are two basic types of flat panel technologies that
dominate the television market, plasma display panels (PDPs) and liquid
crystal displays (LCDs). It is reasonable to assume these will remain the
dominant products for at least the next decade.
LCD televisions break down further into two sub-types, differentiated by
the backlighting source. These are cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFLs) or
38
light emitting diodes (LEDs). Currently, the LCD television market is
undergoing a transition from CCFL to LED backlighting as LEDs consume
less energy, have a thinner profile, and are more durable.
There are a number of technological differences between PDP and LCD
televisions, and for some models this may result in differences in picture
quality or other performance metrics. However, our analysis focuses on
comparisons from an energy use perspective only and assumes that, in general,
television performance between technologies is similar.
4.6.1 Relationship between Television Energy Efficiency Index,

Power and Screen Size
Figure 18 shows the relationship between the energy efficiency index, power,
and screen size of televisions. As would be expected, the power demand of
the television is strongly related to the screen size, with LED units
consuming the lowest power over all screen sizes, and PDP units consuming
the most from the point (40–44”) where they enter the market. There appears
to be relatively little relationship between EEI and screen size, although
there is a slight tendency for EEI to increase with increasing screen size up
to 52–58”, after which there is a slight drop for all but CCFL units.
Figure 18 clearly illustrates the proportionately increasing energy con-
sumption of televisions as screen size increases.
Figure 18: Relationship between TV EEI, Power, and Screen Size
39
4.6.2 Impact of Proposed New Draft Energy Efficiency Standard
on the Market for Televisions Available in July 2012
In 2012, when this study was underway, Chinese government proposed a
draft version of TV Energy Efficiency Standard (EES) for public comments.
To provide an idea of the potential impact on the availability and Energy
Efficiency Tiers (EET) distribution of televisions if this draft 2012 EES is
introduced, Figure 19 plots the EEI values of products available in the
market in July 2012 against the requirement of the proposed 2012 EES.
Figure 19: Energy Efficiency Index (EEI) vs Available TV Products

Note: Energy efficiency Tiers of the 2012 proposals have been
adjusted to equivalent EEI derivation in the 2010 energy
efficiency standard to ensure comparability with declared
product energy efficiency indices
Assuming that manufacturer’s current EEI declarations for their products are
accurate, the proposed Energy Efficiency Tiers (EET) and associated
Minimum Energy Performance Requirement (MEPR) thresholds in the 2012
EES draft pose some significant problems. In particular, there are very few
televisions with a power demand below 100W that can meet the new EET
Tiers 3/MEPR requirements, televisions with power demand lower than
100W are normally CCFLs below 30” and LEDs below 38”. This implies
that many of these low energy-consuming products will be eliminated from
the market. In other words, low power, and consequently low energy-
consuming products are being removed from the market, forcing consumers
40
to buy higher power-consuming units. This appears to be an awkward
outcome from a policy maker’s perspective.
Additionally, well over half of the LED models, more than 80% of CCFL
models, and more than 95% of PDP models will be eliminated from the
market. Excluding the issue of low energy using models potentially being
completely removed from the market, this is a good outcome in terms of
energy saving. However, this level of influence on the market may result in
unexpected challenges to the industry. For example, manufacturers will
potentially need to invest considerable capital in new production capacity in
the very short term, which may not be a good pathway for the industry
development.
Therefore, from the available evidence, we came to a conclusion that
policymakers may need to reconsider the MEPR value set in the draft EES.
Alternatively, if the MEPR value is based on policymakers’ knowledge that
manufacturers are definitely under-declaring product performance, and the
actual performance of most products could meet the new MEPR, then this new
requirement should not cause the market restriction concerns and therefore no
reconsideration is needed.

1) Need to Revise Energy Efficiency Tiers
Based on our analysis, we found that the current proposed revisions to the
energy efficiency standard by China National Institute of Standardization
(CNIS) in the August 2012 draft are both challenging and robust for
manufacturers as it sets the bar rather high. In addition, we discovered that
the proposed EET thresholds are significantly more stringent for smaller
televisions when compared with larger televisions. This implies that the
energy efficiency requirement intends to be more relaxed for large-size of
TVs than the small-size TVs. This provides a wrong signal to the market that
buying a large-size TV has higher energy efficiency than small-size ones,
regardless the large-size may consume much more energy than small ones.
This is potentially controversial because it is counter to the typical
policymakers desire to minimize energy consumption.
Additionally, at the proposed MEPR levels, we found that there are very
few televisions with a power demand below 100W that could remain in the
market. This would have a potentially perverse outcome from the policy
maker perspective, as low energy-consuming products are being removed
from the market, forcing consumers to buy higher power-consuming units.
Thus, we think that policy makers need to reconsider the MEPR value set
in the draft EES to accommodate smaller televisions.
41
2) Need to Consider the Issue of Size vs Energy Efficiency
As the purpose of Energy Efficiency Standard is to saving energy, we need
to avoid encourage consumers to purchase more efficient, but large-size TVs,
therefore the absolute energy consumption will increase instead of decrease.
Figure18 showed that policy makers may also need considering introducing
an absolute cap on the energy consumption of televisions, or adjusting the
derivation of EEIs to have the same effect, to discourage the development of
larger televisions that have equivalent or better levels of efficiency, but
which actually consume much more energy.
4.7 Refrigerators
Refrigerated appliances consume a lot of electricity due to their high levels
of household penetration and their typically 24 hour running cycles. Even in
rural areas, the penetration of refrigerators is rising rapidly in line with
increasing incomes.
China is currently the world's largest refrigerator production base and the
largest consumer market. There are more than 100 domestic refrigerator
manufacturers, some of which have production capacity of four million
refrigerators per year therefore regarded as the world’s leading refrigerated
appliance manufacturers. In 2011, the overall Chinese refrigerator industry
output was over 73 million units, of which more than 45 million units were
sold in the domestic market (CHEAA, 2013).
By the end of 2011 Chinese government sources estimated there are
approximately 300 million domestic refrigerator appliances (MOF, 2012)
being used in China.
Based on the projections prepared as part of this analysis (Lane and Zeng,
2013), approximately 340 million refrigerated appliances were installed
across China by the end of 2012. This stock is expected to rise to just over one
per household to 580 million in 2030, and under the business as usual scenario,
these refrigerated appliances are estimated to consume approximately 24
TWh/yr of energy. Table 9 below shows the data collected for refrigerator
analysis in this report.
Table 9: Summary of Data Captured on Domestic Refrigerated

Appliances
Data type Notes
Models 1,693
Types BC, BD, BC/BD, BCD and BCDW
Number of Doors Single, Double, Three, Side-by-Side, Multiple
Volume (L) From 45 to 829
Energy Consumption (kWh/24h) From 0.23 to 2.80
42
Data type Notes
Price (RMB) From 499 to 29,999
Energy Efficiency Tiers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
4.7.1 Market Distribution of Refrigerated Appliance Efficiency

and Energy Efficiency Tiers
The distribution of refrigerated appliances available in the market by EES
Tiers is shown in the following Figure 20. As can be seen, 73% of the
models are labeled Tiers 1 and 23% are Tiers 2, i.e. models that can apply to
be certified as energy-efficient refrigerators account for 96% of all available
models. This skewed distribution to Tiers 1 and 2 presents the following
problems:
 It is removing choice for the consumer. As almost all products are
“high-efficiency”, it is not possible for the consumer to preferentially
select the best performing products at time of purchase
 It is limiting appropriate policy actions. It is not possible for policy
makers to focus support (e.g. governmental subsidy) on the best
performing products as there is very little apparent differentiation in
product performance.
1400
1200
1000
Number of Models
800
600
400
200
0
Tier1 Tier2 Tier3 Tier4 Tier5
>300L 258 61 8 4 1
240-300L 146 52 8 1 0
<=240L 823 283 25 11 12
Figure 20: Distribution of Available Refrigerator Models by Energy

Efficiency Tiers
43
Figure 21 shows the distribution of the 1,143 refrigerator freezer (BCD)
models for which Energy Efficiency Index (EEI) values are available.
Clearly the spread of EEI values of models on the market is much more
extensive than the current EET distribution suggests. In particular, the
distribution of current Tiers 2 products splits into two equal halves, with
broadly equal numbers of models above and below the 45% EEI midpoint.
By setting a new Tiers 5 threshold at this 45% midpoint, it would remove
approximately 20% of the worst performing products from the market in line
with the typical target when setting new MEPR levels. Further, setting the
Tiers 1 thresholds at EEI=25 and the Tiers 2 threshold at EEI=32 would also
ensure a small number of products would be identifiable as premium Tiers 1
products, and approximately 20% of products would achieve the “high
efficiency” designation for Tiers 1 and 2 products. The remaining products
could then be distributed between the remaining three Tiers.
Figure 21: Distribution of Available Refrigerator Freezer Models by

Energy Efficiency Index
Note: Distribution based on only 1,143 BCD models for which
data was available. Also note EEI ranges on x-axis are of
different sizes. Dark green columns are EET Tiers 1 products,
light green EET Tiers 2 products and yellow EET Tiers 3
products.
Such an approach would:

 Remove the very worst performing products from the market.
44
 Provide consumers with more product differentiation based on the
comparative efficiency of the products allowing them to preferentially
choose the more efficient units at the time of purchase.
 Incentivize manufacturers whose products have now been categorized as
Tiers 4 and 5 to improve their product performance so as not to appear
“inferior” compared with competitive models.
 Allow policy makers to more appropriately focus other policy support
measures on only the most efficient products.

Revise the energy efficiency standard and energy efficiency tiers thresholds.
The current distribution of refrigerated appliances is much skewed (73% of
the models are labeled Tiers 1 and 23% are Tiers 2, i.e. models that can
apply to be certified as energy-efficient refrigerators account for 96% of all
available models). This skewed distribution to Tiers 1 and 2 presents with
two problems:
 It is removing choice for the consumer. As almost all products are
“high-efficiency”, it is not possible for the consumer to preferentially
select the best performing products at time of purchase.
 It is limiting appropriate policy actions. It is not possible for policy
makers to focus support (e.g. subsidy) on the best performing products
as there is very little product differentiation.
This suggests the thresholds within the EES could be revised (Table 10). The
simple solution would be to remove the current Tiers 3-5 and use the current
Tiers 2 thresholds to become a new lower Tiers 5 threshold and METR limit.
The remainder of the Tiers 1 products could then be redistributed to new
Tiers levels. We therefore proposed a revision of the EES as the following
table. After such as revision, the ideal goal is for the market share of the tiers
I and II products be reduced to a reasonable level of 15% that may drive the
whole markets to pursue higher technologies that already existed in the
market.
Table 10: Current and Proposed EES for Refrigerators

Energy Efficient Tiers 1 Tiers 2 Tiers 3 Tiers 4 Tiers 5
Requirement (EEI) and
market share
Current EEI requirement and ≤40 ≤50 ≤60 ≤70 ≤80
its market share (73.2%) (21.3%) (4.4%) (0.3%) (0.6%)
Proposed EEI requirement ≤25 ≤30 ≤35 ≤40 ≤50
and its market share (3.2%) (12.0%) (23.6%) (38.7%) (22.5%)
45
4.8 General Conclusion and Discussions from
MACEEP Study
1) Revise Current Strategy for Developing Energy Efficiency Tiers
The market data analysis as above has provided the fact that there is
relatively little spread in efficiencies between products according to the
current energy efficiency standards, the policy makers lack of additional
efficiency requirements that can effectively implement additional policy
support measures (such as subsidies to efficient products) or to promote the
most efficient products. (Zeng, Li, Yu, and Yan, 2014) The effectiveness of
current energy efficiency standards is also limited.
Therefore, it is recommended for policy makers to consider a strategy
whereby future revisions to the energy efficiency Tiers for all appliances will
introduce new performance requirements such that:
 Tiers 1 requirements are set at the efficiency level of the best performing
appliance in the market at that time, thus creating the equivalent of a
“Top Runner” target – i.e., the top 5% of products in terms of energy
efficiency – to encourage the development of new high performance
products, and as desired by policymakers under separate initiatives.
 The Tiers 2 requirements dictate that only the top 10% of efficient
appliances are eligible for qualification at the time the standard is
introduced.
 The remaining products are evenly distributed across the remaining
labeling categories.
Furthermore, based on the market data analysis, and an interview with policy
makers at CNIS on March 2013 (Li, 2013), it is considered as reasonable if
we consider an automatic revision of the Tiers requirements that could be
initiated when certainly percentage (we propose 10%, but further study is
needed to assess the appropriateness of the exact percentage) of products in
the market achieve Tiers 1 performance, or 25% of products achieve Tiers 2
performance. This may provide an opportunity to ensure that higher
efficiency products are continually differentiated from other appliances on
the market.
Such a strategy would allow consumers to choose higher-efficiency
products and allow policymakers to more effectively pursue other policy
support measures that target the best performing products. This strategy is
also in line with current (or likely) developments in other countries such as
Australia, Canada, Korea, and Japan – where premium products are
effectively identified in the market, or automatic standards revisions are
46
undertaken when approximately 25% of products reach a level considered to
define premium efficiency.
2) Make Efficiency Requirements Technology-neutral

This study found that a number of appliances with the same functionality
qualify for differing energy efficiency Tiers based on different technologies.
For example, plasma display panel (PDP) and liquid crystal display (LCD)
televisions, ceramic and non-ceramic rice cookers, and impeller and drum
washing machines all have differing energy performance requirements – and
in some cases, different test procedures. This is very likely to mislead
consumers in the relative performance of the various appliance types and is
likely to lead to inadvertent purchases of products that consume significantly
more energy than necessary.
Therefore, the study strongly recommends that policymakers attempt to
ensure that all appliance standards are based on technology-neutral test
methods and performance requirements. It should be noted that some
manufacturers may require additional policy support to shift production
where their existing product range is adversely affected by the switch to a
technology-neutral standard.
3) Consider a Technical Study Examining Variations in Standby

Modes
In general, existing energy efficiency standards have some Tiers or
minimum performance requirement related to the “standby” of the appliance.
Typically these standards refer to a single standby mode; for example,
“off-mode power” where a unit is plugged into the main power supply but
the appliance is switched off. However, with the advent of microprocessor
control and additional appliance functionality, an increasing number of
appliances have varying standby modes. For example, televisions have “fully
off,” “standby with no activity,” instant “on” functionality, internet
connectivity, and so on – all of which have varying levels of energy con-
sumption that are not currently captured by existing Chinese test method-
ologies.
Therefore, this study recommends that policymakers may wish to conduct
a technical study examining appropriate appliances to establish the type and
extent of standby modes currently available. This study, in combination with
consumer research on typical usage patterns, should identify any additional
standby modes that result in significant energy consumption and are
commonly used by consumers. The results can then be integrated into the
testing and energy efficiency standards for that appliance.
47
4) Improve the Collection of Sales Data
The analysis in this report was conducted on a product basis rather than a
sales weighted basis due to limited access to sales data. This study found
although the results of sales and models analysis come close, the difference
between analysis results based on sales and models are less than 10% (Zeng,
Li and Yu, 2013). This has the potential to distort findings as, for example,
particularly efficient or inefficient products may sell in significantly larger
quantities than an average product on the market. If policymakers are
similarly limited in their access to sales figures for products, it may lead to
similar potential distortions in the analyses conducted for the development of
energy efficiency standards and associated energy saving projections.
Therefore, policymakers may wish to consider following the examples of
Australia, Canada, and Korea, and require suppliers of all appliances
registered for sale within China to supply annual sales figures for those
appliances, or to formally advise the China National Institute of Standard-
ization that the products are not currently on the market.
48
5 Component II: Energy Saving Potential
Analysis
Based on the data collected through the Component I (MACEEP study), this
Component II study aims to analyze the status of energy efficiency of major
appliances in the Chinese market, and the energy saving potential of
different policy interventions, such as increasing the stringency of energy
efficiency requirements. This study covered all the nine MACEEP products.
In addition to MACEEP data source, this study also used other nationally
available statistics.
5.1 Methodology and Approach to Component II Study

To estimate the potential savings from implementing policies or markets
reaching theoretical levels, it is common to make use of stock models. This
section provides an outline of how the Component II undertakes such a
process, including the issues to consider during development.
5.1.1 End-use Modeling Approach

A sales-stock model allows for the time-related energy effects of new
products entering and old ones leaving the national stock of appliances, and
importantly enables an ex-ante appraisal of the likely impact of technical and
policy options on national energy consumption.
This can be extended to undertake cost-benefit assessments of such options.
This type of end-use model is described mathematically by the following
equations (Lane, 2000).
2030 k
Energy(k) = ∑ ∑ (Sales(j) x Remain(j, k)x Power(j)x Use(k))

k=1990 j=1990
Equation 1: Energy Consumption Calculation for Energy Saving

Potential Analysis
Where Energy(k) is the estimated energy consumption (kWh/year) of all

appliances in year k. This can be divided by 1,000,000 to provide the energy
49
estimates in units of GWh/year; Sales(j) is the number of appliances sold in
year j; Remain(j,k) is the proportion of the appliances sold in year j and still
remaining in the stock in year k; Power(j) is the average power demand of
the appliances sold in year j; Use(k) is the annual use of the product.
The units of the Power (j) and Use (k) will depend on the individual
product being examined. The model can be simplified by reducing the Power
and Use part of the equation to provide a single Unitary Energy Con-
sumption (UEC) figure, with unit kWh/year.
If the household ownership levels are known, then the stock of appliance
is simply the product of ownership and household numbers:
Stock(k) = Household(k) x Ownership(k)

Equation 2: Stock Calculation for Energy Saving Potential Analysis
Where Households(k) is the number of households; Ownership (k) is the

household ownership (as a proportion) for the country.
Mathematically speaking, ownership levels, annual sales and the lifetime
of an appliance are inter-related variables; so that it is possible to estimate
the third if any two are known. For instance, a new purchase is either going
to be a first-time purchase (increasing ownership levels) or to replace an
existing machine that has broken down (at the end of its useful life). Thus,
any unknown sales volume data could be estimated from ownership data if
the average appliance lifespan is known. The average lifespan is sometimes
available from life cycle analyses, though it can be estimated numerically if
sufficient sales and ownership data are available. Through rationalizing
known sales and ownership data it is also possible to provide an estimate for
the average lifespan over the whole observation period. Where there are
sufficient data, this approach is preferable since it provides a better estimate
of the useful appliance lifetime.
Estimating sales from the ‘known’ stock of appliance can be represented
as follows:
2030 k−1
Estimated. Sales(k) = Stock(k) − ∑ ∑ (Estimated. Sales(j) x Remain(j, k))

k=1990 j=1990
Equation 3: Estimated Sales for Energy Saving Potential Analysis
The function Remain (j,k), which is the same function as in Equation 3,

describes the proportion of the appliances sold in year j and still remaining in
the stock in year k. In the current project it is derived by assuming that the
lifespan profile of each appliance type follows a normal distribution
(modeled by two parameters: the mean and the variance). The average
lifespan, or half-life, is defined as the time taken for 50% of each appliance
50
type sold in a given year to leave the stock of appliances. Other decay
functions are sometimes used, e.g. Weibull distribution.
A schematic of the model input-output structure is shown in the following
figure.
Figure 22: Schematic of End-use Model for Energy Saving Potential Analysis
5.1.2 Impact Assessment

As mentioned above, the stock model is the basis for undertaking impact
assessments that we can take numerous factors into consideration. The
current study will examine the energy saving potential from changes to
products sold in the market. Given the carbon emission factor is known,
from energy saving potential data we can also estimate how much the CO2
emissions savings can be obtained.
5.2 Development of Scenarios

Once the stock model has been constructed, we need to choose a reference
scenario which reflects the best estimate of energy consumption into the
future. We set this reference scenario as what is expected to happen with no
further policy interventions. Even if this reference scenario has not been well
estimated, it can still be used as the basis for estimating the impact of
potentially different futures.
These scenarios will be driven by making changes to the average
efficiency/consumption of equipment sold. A summary of scenarios selected
for Component II analysis is as Table 11 below:
51
Table 11: Description of the Main Scenarios Developed for Energy
Saving Potential Analysis
Scenario Description
Business as The Business as usual (BAU) scenario is a projection of what we expect to
Usual (BAU) happen if there are no further policy measures introduced. That is, only
policy measures that has already been agreed and in progress will be
included in this baseline scenario.
Revised MEPS This is the MACEEP illustrative energy saving scenario. It is what we
standard expect to happen if a series of ambitious, yet realistic short-term policy
(MEPS2) measures are set in place over the next few years. They rely mostly on a
new round of mandatory MEPS (MEPR).
Note the chosen levels are not based on expensive detailed engineering
cost analysis, rather information and knowledge of the current market and
sometimes information from other regions.
Continued In this scenario we assume efficiency of new products improves every few
improvement years.
scenario (CIS)
Best of Market This is a hypothetical scenario, where all the products sold in the future
(BOM) reach the current (2012) best on the market (BOM). This is sometimes the
BOM for the class of product, or weighted for the best average (to account
for size issues for example). As it is a hypothetical scenario it is to show
the expected size of the potential savings that available, which will
provide some indication of the relative contribution of potential savings
that each product may provide.
There may be other more efficient products in other parts of the world.
These could be used as target values, though there is usually an issue with
different testing procedures being used in different regions. A separate
CLASP project is examining the potential for energy savings by
examining testing standards and reaching global best practice products.
Reach scenario All new appliances are as efficient as the best products in China or
(REACH) elsewhere by 2014 or 2015. This is not necessarily a realistic scenario.
We regard the difference between the BAU and the BOM scenario will
provide the likely savings from all the products being installed in the future
matching the current best on the market. This is purely a hypothetical
scenario to provide an indication of potential savings, which may allow
some prioritization and allocation of effort to be attributed.
Similarly, the difference between the BAU scenario and the MEPS2
scenario will provide an estimate of the energy savings from introducing
new performance requirements for MEPS (standards and labels). However,
these should not be taken as policy proposals, rather to show the expected
impact from such measures.
5.2.1 Cross-sector Information and Data Analysis

Stock models rely on some numbers that are common across different
end-uses. These should be applied consistently, across all the products; and
the numbers used in this study are presented below.
52
Household Numbers
The underlying data are based on a census data that are reported in the
National Statistics Year Book. Unlike population statistics in some countries,
a distinction is made between urban and rural (Table 12).
Table 12: Household Numbers in China

Year 1964 1982 1990 2000 2002 2010
Household numbers - Rural 131.05 180.80 210.59 234.7 230.80 216.49
(million)
Household numbers - Urban 29.35 47.80 75.68 133.26 148.11 216.05
(million)
Household numbers - all (million) 156.79 228.61 286.27 367.96 378.91 432.54
Average household size 4.33 4.41 3.96 3.44 3.39 3.1
(people/house)
Source: (Lane and Zeng, 2013)
For the modeling, a projection on the number of households is needed. These

are not formally done; however, projections of population are routinely done,
and these can be used to infer the number of households.
These average people/household data are shown in the following Figure
23.
Figure 23: Average Household Size (People/Households) (UN, 2010)
According to “China’s Sustainable Energy Scenarios in 2020” published by

China Environmental Science Press in 2003 (Zhou, 2003), China’s
population will grow in 3 scenarios in 2020, the high scenario is 1.485
billion, the middle is 1.47 billion, and the low one is 1.445 billion. The peak
of China population will be 1.5 billion in 2030, and then start to stabilize and
53
decease after 2030. The people living in urban area will continue to grow to
53% to 58% in 2020, and reach over 60% in 2030.
These are from 2003 source of data, so a few years out of date. More
recent data are the later UN-ESA numbers (UN-ESA , 2010) on population
projections. The medium variant is suggesting 1.37 billion in 2030.
These population data have been interpolated for the missing years, and
then dividing by the household size has provided the number of households.
There are some data on historic urbanization rates, however, no official
statistics. “China’s Sustainable Energy Scenarios in 2020” (Zhou, 2003)
predicted the people living in urban area will continue to grow to 53% to 58%
in 2020, and reach over 60% in 2030.” We will use these projected
urbanization rates, and interpolate missing values.
Using the household numbers derived from the population and household
numbers, it is possible to estimate the number of urban households and rural
households using the urbanization rate above.
Figure 24 shows a projection of both urban and rural household numbers
to 2030, it projects China’s urban household number will continue to
increase till 2030.in the next 15 years, urban household number will increase
to 3 million, and rural number will be stabilized to 2 million.
Figure 24: Estimated Household Numbers (Rural and Urban)
54
Carbon Factors
To make a conversion from electricity savings to carbon emission avoided,
standard conversion factors are used, based on the known generating mix.
The generation of electricity in China is predominantly based on coal-
powered plants. The carbon emission figure so far is based on the emission
factor (OM) for the North-east China, 1.002 kgCO2/kWh. That is, around
1kg CO2 is generated for each kWh of electricity that is used in the home or
business. The figure is from a NDRC report (NDRC, 2012); the emission
factor is for North-east China. A more complete table for different regions is
given below (Table 13).
Table 13: Emission Factors in China
Electrical network region OM factor (tCO2/MWh) BM factor (tCO2/MWh)

North 1.0021 0.5940
Northeast 1.0935 0.6104
East 0.8244 0.6889
Central 0.9944 0.4733
Northwest 0.9913 0.5398
South 0.9344 0.3791
Source: NDRC (2012).

Note: in the table OM is 2008-2010 year electric quantity boundary
emissions factor weighted average; BM is up to 2010 capacity boundary
emissions factor. This report is for CDM project guidance, UNFCCC
have developed their own methodology, e.g. http://cdm.unfccc.int/
Statistics/Panels/meth/meeting/05/Meth18_repan8_OMBM.pdf. For the
current project, we will use a fixed figure of 1.0021 kgCO 2/kWh for each
assessment year into the future. This will also be the marginal emissions
factor.
Official data source (China Statistics Bureau, 2011), shows the electricity
price for the residential sector in 2010 is 0.47 RMB/kWh for Beijing, for the
convenience of calculation, we selected Beijing energy price as the average
price for this analysis.
5.2.2 Products and Scenarios for Energy Saving Potential

Analysis
A summary of the market average performance levels of the two main
energy-saving scenarios is presented in the Table 14 below.
55
Table 14: Summary of Products and Scenarios (Actual Market
Average Values)
Product BAU MACEEP CIS BOM (2014) Reach Target
(2012) scenario, scenario
MEPS2
(2014)
1-Air 3.34 EER 3.45 EER 10% every 3.90 EER 6.14 EER
Conditioner-Fixed 5 years (CLASP
speed from 2014 2011)
2-Air Conditioner 4.19 SEER Na 10% every 6.45 SEER 6.14 EER
–Variable Speed 5 years (CLASP
(VSD) from 2014 2011)
3-Refrigerator 0.5kWh/day 0.45 4.5%, every 0.25kWh/day 19% EEI
kWh/day 5 years
starting in
2014
4-Washing- Drum: - 10% every Drum: 0.153 0.15 for
machine (WM) 0.19 5 years kWh/kg front-load
kWh/kg from 2015
Impeller - 10% every Impeller 0.007
0.018 5 years 0.011 kWh/kg kWh/kg/cycle
kWh/kg from 2015 for top-load
5-Television On-mode On-mode - On-mode -
134 W 123W 89 W
Standby Standby Standby
0.5 W 0.3 W 0.1 W
6-Rice-cooker 81%; 83%; 4% every 5 88%; 95%
48Wh.h; 48Wh.h; years from 20Wh.h;
1.46W 1.5W 2015 0.5W
7-Induction-cooker 86.2%; 88.1%; - 90%; -
2.1W 1W 1W
8-Copier TEC = TEC = - TEC = -
5.96 4.24 2.43
kWh/week kWh/week kWh/week
9-Monitor EEI=1.1; EEI=1.14, - EEI=1.35; -
0.62W 0.5W 0.16W
10-ESWH Efficiency - 10% every 70% Heat Pump –
60.7 % 5 years 250%
(Linear starting in efficiency
trend from 2015
2009-2010)
11-Gas 88% 88% 6% higher 96% 96%
instantaneous than BAU
water heater
Note: The following units are used in the above table: EER is the energy efficiency
ratio; the higher the value, the more efficient; SEER is the seasonal energy
efficiency ratio; the higher value, the more efficient; TEC is a total energy
consumption figure for a standard use pattern over one week; EEI is the energy
efficiency index; the lower the value the more efficient.
56
5.3 Findings of Energy Saving Potential Analysis
5.3.1 Fixed Speed Air conditioners

Figure 25 below shows energy efficiency parameter for different policy
scenarios for fixed speed air conditioners. The REACH scenario is double of
the efficiency for actual and Business as Usual (BAU) scenario, which
shows large improvement potential for fixed ACs. While Best of Market
(BOM) scenario is less than 4.0, which shows the best technologies in
Chinese market is still below the most advanced technologies in the world.
Figure 25: Average Efficiency (EER) of New Air Conditioners by

Scenario
Using these input variables and the MACEEP-ESP model, the following
electricity consumption (figure 26) is estimated. It is evident that the
REACH scenario will bring the largest saving potential of 150,000 GWh/yr.
and the best available technologies in Chinese market can bring 50,000
GWh/yr saving potential.
57
Figure 26: National Energy Consumption by Air Conditioners by Scenarios
5.3.2 Refrigerator
scenarios for refrigerators. The parameter driving the model is the average
new UEC (kWh/year). The REACH scenario shows that if applied the most
advanced technologies in the world, Chinese refrigerators can improve its
efficient from about 0.5 kWh per day to 0.21 kWh per day, which is
efficiency improved of over 60%. If the best available technologies in China
market can be adopted, in a short term the efficiency can be improved by
15%.
58
Figure 27: Average Consumption (kWh/year) of New Refrigerator by
Scenarios
consumption is estimated. Figure 28 shows that under REACH scenario
annual 50 TWh can be saved in 2030, which is about 50% of the total energy
consumption under BAU scenario.
Figure 28: National Consumption by Refrigerators by Scenarios

Note: Reach = BOM
59
5.3.3 Washing Machine
scenarios for washing machines. Washing machines include both top-loading
and front-loading machines. The increasing uptake of front-loaders (drum,
higher energy consumption since warm wash) and decreasing sales uptake of
top-loaders (impellers, which use less energy since cold wash), means that
the average new washing machine is using more energy on average. Figure
29 also shows that by applying the REACH technology, washing machine
can achieve about 28% efficiency improvement. And the best available
technology in the Chinese market could improve about 25% of the
efficiency.
0.7
0.6
Average efficiency (kWh/kg/cycle)
0.5 Actual (kWh/cycle)
BAU (kWh/kg/cycle)
0.4
MEPS2 (kWh/cycle)
0.3 BOM (kWh/cycle)
CIS (kWh/cycle)
0.2
Reach (kWh/cycle)
0.1
0
1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
Figure 29: Average Efficiency (kWh/kg/cycle) of New Washing Machines

by Scenario
Note: This metric is not strictly an efficiency one. All other things
being equal, an improvement in efficiency should lower the
kWh/kg/cycle figure.
consumption is estimated. Figure 30 shows washing machines’ saving
potential is less than other products, even under the REACH scenario. This
also implies that technologies for washing machines have reached certain
level of maturity.
60
18,000
BAU-2012 (GWh/year)
16,000
Electricity consumption (GWh/yr)

14,000 BOM (GWh/year)
12,000 CIS (GWh/year)
10,000
Reach (GWh/year)
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
2000 2010 2020 2030
Figure 30: National Energy Consumption of Washing Machines by Scenario

(GWh/year)
5.3.4 Rice Cooker

scenarios for rice cookers. The REACH scenario shows an increase of
energy efficiency from 80% to 95%, which is only 15% increase. Comparing
to the best available technology in Chinese market, rice cooker can have a
potential of 6-7% increase of energy efficiency.
100%
95% Reach
Cooking efficiency (%)
CIS
90%
BOM (%)
85% MEPS2 (%)
BAU (%)
80%
Actual (%)
75%
70%
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Figure 31: Average Cooking Efficiency (%) of New Rice Cookers by Scenario
61
consumption is estimated. Figure 32 tells rice cooker has already reached
high energy efficiency of 81%, therefore rather small differences of energy
saving potentials among different policy scenarios. So there is not much
savings can be achieved for this product.
Figure 32: National Energy Consumption of Rice Cookers by Scenario
5.3.5 Electric Storage Water Heater

scenarios for electric storage water heaters. The REACH scenario is
substantially more efficient than the current average efficiency due to the
new heat pump technologies; the efficiency level has increased by 150%
than the BAU scenario.
62
Figure 33: Average Efficiency of New Electric Storage Water Heaters
by Scenario
Note:Tthis is to reflect efficiency improvement to match the
Reach scenario (relative 250%).
Figure 33 also shows that technology innovation may bring revolutionary

improvement of energy efficiency. If comparing heat pump technologies
with conventional best technologies at the market, the difference of
efficiency is about 140%. Using these input variables and the MACEEP-ESP
model, the following consumption is estimated.
Figure 34 shows a very large saving potential for electric storage water
heaters under REACH scenario, which implies that if all electric storage
water heater can be switched to use heat pump technology, significant power
saving can be achieved.
63
Figure 34: National Electricity Consumption of Electric Storage Water
Heaters by Scenario
5.3.6 Gas Instantaneous Water Heater

scenarios for gas instantaneous water heaters. If applying REACH
technologies, the efficiency can be improved from 87% to 96%. Overall, the
Gas Instantaneous Water Heater’s efficiency has been high therefore the
improvement space is rather limited.
Figure 35: Average Efficiency (%) of New Gas Instantaneous Water

Heaters by Scenario
64
consumption is estimated. From Figure 36, it clearly shows that the saving
potential for gas instantaneous water heaters is about 10,000 GWh per year if
the best of market technologies are adopted.
Figure 36: National Consumption of Gas Instantaneous Water Heaters

by Scenario (GWh/year)
5.4 Summary of Energy Saving Potentials for Key

Energy-Consuming Appliances
Based on ESP analysis of difference scenarios for each individual product,
we can arrive at a summary of estimated cumulated savings as seen in Figure
37 below. Figure 37 shows clearly that a few appliances have much larger
saving potential than the others under different scenarios. The REACH
technologies represent the best technologies in the world; therefore the wide
adaptation of these technologies may not be feasible in the short term in
China. But some products such as TVs show about a very high efficiency of
available technologies in Chinese market, which implies these technologies
may be feasible to be adopted in short to middle term and harvest large
energy savings. There are also a few appliances with conventional techno-
logies that have already reached high efficiency level and improvement
space is rather limited, but overall, if their efficiency level can be improved
continuously, cumulatively they can still achieved sizable energy savings.
65
Figure 37: Cumulative Energy Savings for Major Energy-consuming
Appliances to 2030
More specifically, the cumulative savings based on different scenarios are

illustrated in the following Table 15:
Table 15: Cumulative Energy Saving for Major Energy-consuming

Appliances to 2030
2011 Power
MEPS2 BOM CIS Reach Consumption
1-AC-Fixed speed 18 610 673 1,933 249.1
2-AC-Virable-speed - 189 - 189 38.0
3-Refrigerator 92 458 72 458 78.1
4-Clothes Washers - 37 27 44 13.0
5-TV 147 816 - - 176
6-Rice cooker 21 89 58 148 47.7
7-Induction cooker 40 117 - - 71.1
8-Copier 6 11 - - 3.71
9-Monitor 9 45 - - 5.2
10-Electric Storage Water Heater - 82 120 490 34.9
(ESWH)
SUM 332 2,454 949 3,262 716.7
66
Since the carbon emissions factor is higher for electricity than gas, it is
useful to show the savings as CO2 emission reductions, which is shown in
the Table 16 below. This shows that the relative impact of gas savings is less
than when comparing on a delivered energy (GWh) basis.
Table 16: Cumulative Carbon Reductions of Major Energy-consuming

Appliances to 2030 (MT CO2)
MEPS2 BOM CIS REACH
1-AC-Fixed speed 18 611 675 1,937
2-AC-Variable-speed - 190 - 190
3-Refrigerator 92 459 72 459
4-Clothes Washer - 37 27 44
5-TV 147 818 - -
6-Rice-cooker 21 90 58 148
7-Induction-cooker 40 117 - -
8-Copier 6 11 - -
9-Monitor 9 45 - -
10-Electric Storage Water Heater - 82 120 491
11-Gas Storage Water Heater - 18 11 18
SUM 333 2,477 963 3,286
5.5 Products Prioritization Based on Saving Potentials

From the MACEEP-ESP study the magnitude of savings ranking order is
clear. The top four products with large saving potentials (shown in the BOM
and REACH scenarios) are as below:
 Air conditioners using variable speed technology
 Televisions
 Refrigerators
 Electric storage water heaters (ESWH) using heat pump technology
Although this ESP study showed high saving potentials for the products
above, realizing much of these savings is challenging in the near term, and
realizing the BOM or REACH target values for Electric storage Water
Heaters (ESWH especially) and the uptake of Variable Speed ACs (ACVSD)
will take longer time. Since TV technologies develop very quickly, it is
obvious that improvements in TV’s efficiency are not being driven strongly
by policy; they may continue to do so independent of policy effort.
67
From the ESP analysis, copiers and monitors do not provide much short
term savings – relatively speaking. Though if the changes to regulations are
easy (from a policy-makers point of view) then they could still be con-
sidered.
68
6 Component III: Benchmarking of
Refrigerator Energy Efficiency Standards
6.1 Background: Why Benchmarking Study?

In standard making process, it is always helpful for policy makers to
understand the requirement of one country in comparison to peer countries
so that the policy makers can get a good sense of how advance is their own
standards in international standard, and what are the potential for further
improvements.
In reality, making truly comparison proves to be difficult because various
countries intend to adopt slightly different testing protocols. To making the
comparison possible, benchmarking study is necessary to make it possible
for such comparison.
To offer Chinese policy makers a useful policy analysis tool,
benchmarking study is one of the key components of our policy analysis tool.
However, unlike the MACEEP study and Energy Saving Potential (ESP)
study, conducing benchmarking study requires considerable time and cost as
product testing is commonly required. Due to resource constraint, we only
select refrigerator for benchmarking study.
Refrigerators and freezers available in different countries can vary
considerably by size, configuration, power input voltage and frequency, etc.
Although many countries have selected international standards for
measuring the energy performance and efficiency of these products, others
have adopted their own systems for rating and labeling these appliances
according to their energy consumption. These two conditions (variability
among products and differences in performance metrics) make complex the
evaluation of efficiency and performance of refrigerated appliances, and the
comparison against each other or against a national minimum efficiency
requirement.
The comparison of refrigerated appliances performance across various
economies requires that benchmarked models have comparable functionality,
and that an equivalent performance basis is used, i.e. operation under
equivalent ambient and loading conditions.
This study believed the results of such performance comparisons can
provide insight into the energy efficiency policies and requirements, as well
as the efficiencies of products available in these markets.
69
This benchmarking study compares test procedures and calculation
methods used to rate the energy consumption of selected products among
China, the UK and Canada (and by extension the EU and North America).
The most popular appliances in the Chinese market identified by this
study are refrigerators-freezers and freezers.
6.2 Refrigerator Standards Review

There are two specific components to measure and evaluate the energy
performance of a refrigerated appliance:
The first component is a repeatable test procedure under a specific set of
conditions to measure energy consumption. This component, the test method,
is important to ensure reliable, accurate, repeatable test results for the
measured 24-hour actual consumption of the particular model under test;
The second component is a reliable calculation method to determine
compliance with the minimum performance requirement for that particular
model (taking into account the type of appliance, its size, its temperature
control claims, climate zone, special features etc.). This second component,
the standard consumption of the product, essentially determines if an
appliance consumes less than a certain (calculated) amount of electricity
during a 24-hour period.
The comparison between the actual measured daily consumption and the
limit set by the regulation establishes not only whether the product complies
with the minimum requirement, but also the appropriate class level for a
product label (1 to 5 in China or Class G to A+++ in the UK).
6.3 Comparison of Efficiencies of Refrigerated

Appliances among Countries
A comparison of Chinese refrigerated appliances’ declared energy
consumption against that of models available in other markets shows
opportunities to increase energy efficiency levels in China.
A random sample of models available on the Chinese market was used for
this purpose; detailed information (including brand, model, annual energy
consumption, Energy Efficiency Index (EEI), defrost mechanism (manual,
automatic, frost-free), freezer location (top, bottom, side), number of doors,
number of external drawers, refrigerator volume, freezer volume, total
volume, through the door ice service, installation type (built-in, free
standing), among others) was collected for 744 models of refrigerators and
freezers from international and local brands on manufacturers’ websites.
70
This study had established a collaboration with the International Energy
Agency – Efficient Electrical End-use Equipment (IEA-4E) Mapping and
Benchmarking Annex (IEA-4E, 2013) which provided additional market
information from participating countries to the IEA program; the figures
below show the data set’s annual energy consumption against total
normalized adjusted volume for refrigerator-freezers in China (Figure 38),
refrigerator-freezers in a number of markets (Figure 39), and freezers in
China (Figure 40). The figures also include the current MEPS level in China,
showing the gap between the regulated level and the actual performance of
the products available on the market.
700 Australia 2010

Canada 2011
Annual Energy Consumption (normalised
Denmark 2011
600
UK 2010
USA HEM 2009
USA NPD 2011
500
China 2012
kWh/year)
400
300
200
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Total normalised adjusted volume (litres)
Figure 38: Comparison of Energy Efficiency for Refrigerator/Freezer

across a Few Markets
Note: The chart indicates normalized unit energy consumption and
normalized adjusted volume (EU method) for individual
refrigerator/freezer combination units of all configurations available in
a number of markets. All data shown most recently available 2009–
2012.
By making comparison of data across different countries, the distribution of

models available in various markets shows that for smaller appliances,
Chinese units appear to be more efficient than those in other economies (UK
and Denmark). For larger units, Chinese models appear to have higher
energy consumptions.
71
6.4 Comparison of Minimum Energy Performance
Standard (MEPS) Levels
In addition to the comparison of declared energy consumption values in
various markets, this study also compares the maximum allowable energy
consumption for refrigerated appliances in China and in IEA-4E
participating countries. We hope our findings can provides information on
opportunities to further improve energy efficiency requirements.
This comparison normalizes countries energy performance requirements
to a minor variation on the 2009 EU regulations and the associated EN
methodology.
From Figure 39, the country with the most stringent standard for
refrigerator-freezers is Switzerland. China’s requirements for smaller units
(normalized total adjusted volume < 500 L) are very similar to those of other
economies; for larger units, the maximum allowable energy consumption in
China is above (less stringent than) other countries considered; the gap
increases with larger volumes as the slope of the line representing the MEPS
in China is steeper. This suggests that the China MEPS levels are less
stringent for large volume units than smaller volume units (IEA-4E, 2013).
In the case of freezers (Figure 40), the MEPS level in China is above (less
stringent than) that of other economies for all volumes. Swiss levels are
again the most stringent for this product type.
Australia '05 Freezer Bottom

1300 Australia '05 Freezer Top
Australia '05 Freezer Side
1200 Australia '09 Freezer Bottom
Australia '09 Freezer Top
1100 EU '10/Switzerland '10 All Configurations
EU '14/Switzerland '11 All Configurations
(based on normalised kWh/year)
1000 Korea '08-10 <1000l

Korea '12 >1000l
Maximum permissible UEC
Switzerland '13 All configurations

900 USA '00, Canada '01 Freezer Top
USA '00, Canada '01 Freezer Side
800 USA '00, Canada '01 Freezer Bottom
USA '14 Freezer Top
USA '14 Freezer Side
700 USA '14 Freezer Bottom
CHINA MEPS (EU Vadj method)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1000
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Normalised total adjusted volume (litres)
Figure 39: Comparison of Minimum Energy Performance Standard

(MEPS) Levels for Refrigerator/Freezer in a Few Countries
72
Note: Figure 39 indicates historic, current and future normalized maximum
allowable energy consumptions for refrigerator/freezer combinations, all
configurations of frozen compartment relative to fresh compartment
(freestanding automatic defrost units with no ice maker or drinks cooling
facility)
1300
Australia '05 Chest
1200
Australia '09 Chest
1100 EU & Switzerland '10 Chest
EU '14, Switzerland '11 Chest
1000
Switzerland '13 Chest
900 USA '00, Canada '01 Chest

USA '14 Chest
800
China '12 Chest
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1000
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Figure 40: Historic, Current and Future Normalized Maximum

Allowable Energy Consumptions for Chest Freezers
6.5 Recommendations from Benchmarking Study

In light of the fact that China is in the process of updating the performance
requirements for refrigerators, refrigerator-freezers and freezers, this study
come to the following recommendations for discussion with Chinese policy
makers:
 The MEPS levels for China should become more stringent over time.
The slope of the line representing MEPS and Grade levels in a way
determines the relative “efficiency” of small vs. large appliances. The
difference in the slope of efficiency requirements between China and
other countries suggests that the China levels are less stringent for large
volume units than smaller volume units.
 The adoption of suitable, common international standards/test methods is
recommended in order to avoid re-testing products for export markets
and also to facilitate the comparison of performance across economies.
73
 China should consider adopting more stringent grade levels that closely
match the EU’s A+++ level for both refrigerator-freezers and chest
freezers.
74
7 An Integrated Approach of Policy Analysis
The three-component approach aims at providing comprehensive views on

what products to prioritize for energy efficiency improvement. The
mechanism of how the 3 components support policy making is illustrated as
the Figure below:
Prioritized
products for 1.Products with high
standards EE tiers saturated at
improvement the market
3.Products with
2.Products with standards less
high saving stringent than
potentials peer countries or
international
standards
Figure 41: Integrated Policy Analysis Approach
Figure 41 shows that the three studies play a commentary role in providing a
comprehensive analysis results that the policy makers could use to justify the
appropriate products and timing for initiating policy review and revision
process. The overlapped area for all the three circles indicated absolutely
high priorities. However, the overlapped space between circles 1 and 2 also
points out certain products have both high saving potential, and high
saturation of efficient products in the market, therefore they deserve
attentions from the policy makers too. By applying this approach the policy
makers can develop a simple but effective method to screen and select
priority products.
75
To initiate the standards review and improvement process, it is
recommended the following procedures for policy makers:
• Conduct a
Step 1: Have energy market
efficiency products analysis. If
(Tiers 1 and 2) taken
over 25% of the yes, move
market? to the next
step • Techno-
economic
analysis to
Step 2: Is there understand
technology potential the potential
for efficiency of EE
improvement? improvement.
if Yes, move
to the next
step. • Check if
saving
potential is
Step 3: High Saving
significant
Potential？
enough? If
yes, move to
the next step.
Step 4: How is the • If stringent

stringency level in already, go
comparison to the back to Step 2,
EE standards in peer if not, go to
countries? the next step.
Step 5: Initiate
standard revision
process for priority
products
Figure 42: Proposed Procedures for Prioritising Standards for Revisions
Figure 42 illustrated the steps can be taken following the integrated analysis
approach. To start the first step a question can be asked about if high energy
efficiency products (Tiers 1 and 2) already taken over 25% of the market? If
yes, the policy makers may consider conducting a techno-economic analysis
of these products to understand their technology potential for efficiency
improvements.
As illustrated before, some products may already found maturity of
technologies, therefore space for improvement will be limited. Once
techno-economic study shows good potential of technology improvement,
the third step will be taken to analyze energy saving potential under different
policy scenarios. If saving potential is limited, the policy makers may
consider switching to other higher saving potential products. If the products
showed high saving potential, the policy makers may move on to the next
step to consider how Chinese standards compare with peer countries. This is
an important step for policy makers to assess potential impact on imported
and exported appliances, in addition, this step also provides valuable back-
ground data on how to harmonize the revised standards with international
ones, and plan on how to make the most cost-effective savings that benefits
76
both consumers, manufacturers and maintaining the competitiveness of
Chinese products in the global market.
Since the three real-case studies have been conducted and preliminary
analysis results are provided, this author followed the integrated approach as
illustrated in Figure 41, and conducted an integrated analysis with con-
clusions as following:
Component I: The MACEEP study discovered a heavy clustering of
product models in energy efficiency (EE) Tiers 1 and Tiers 2, especially for
monitors, clothes washers, flat panel TVs, refrigerators, and copiers. Such
phenomenon diminishes consumers’ ability to differentiate products based
on energy efficiency – with so many models in the top two tiers, all models
appear to consumers to be most efficient. Hence this indicated that there is
substantial room to raise the EE standards for these products. Chinese
policymakers need to consider revising EE standards to eliminate least
efficient products from the market, and revise the tiers used in energy labels
to better differentiate the energy efficiency of product models. And by doing
so the market could be spur towards higher energy efficiency, and additional
energy savings could be captured.
Component II: Energy Saving Potential analysis (ESP study) concluded
that large energy saving potential remain with air conditioners using variable
speed technology, televisions, refrigerators and Electric Storage Water
Heaters (ESWH) using heat pump technology. It also showed 1) incremental
single-iteration short term policies do not realize large amounts of energy; 2)
uptake of best practice Variable-speed AC could save significant amounts of
energy, but care should be taken to only promote Variable-speed ACs, and
not ban lower efficiency variable-speed AC products which may be more
efficient than Fixed speed AC equipment; 3) Television has large savings
potential that requires attentions from multi-national policies and drivers.
Component III: Refrigerator benchmarking study showed that
refrigerator performance in China has improved rapidly since the last
revision of EE standards and labels in 2009. International comparisons show
that Chinese efficiency requirements for small-sized refrigerators are similar
to those of other economies, and the distribution of small-sized refrigerator
models on the Chinese market reflects higher energy efficiency than in other
economies. However, for larger units, Chinese energy efficiency standards
are less stringent than other countries. Currently, refrigerators found on the
Chinese market cluster at small adjusted volumes, which implies that
purchased refrigerators are energy efficient when compared to international
models. However, as the Chinese economy continues to grow, there is a risk
that if consumers begin to buy larger refrigerator models-as happened in the
US in the 1970s and 1980s (CLASP, 2013b)—then the current EE standard
will lead to large increases in energy consumption of refrigerators.
Following on the policy analysis procedures laid out in Figure 41, this
author also came to the following policy recommendations:
77
1) In short term (2-3 years), standards revision needs to focus on
refrigerators, flat panel TVs.
The market analysis showed that both TV and refrigerators already have
majority of their products reached energy efficiency tiers 1 or 2 in 2012, and
the ESP study showed that adopting the best technology in the market, TVs
have a potential to save over 800 TWh, and refrigerator have a potential of
saving 480 TWh in the next 16 years respectively. In addition, the
benchmarking showed that the big gap of minimum energy efficiency
requirements (MEPR) between China and other economies on large volume
refrigerators. Therefore, the policy makers have a good opportunity revise
both standards to capture the maximum savings.
2) In middle term (3-5 years), priorities need to be given to fixed

speed ACs, variable speed ACs, clothes washers, induction cookers,
monitors and copiers.
The market analysis showed that fixed speed AC has over 50% of market for
Tiers 1 and Tiers 2 products, and variable speed AC expects to catch up very
quickly from the current level of 30% in the next 2–3 years. Given the large
saving potential of both products, it is recommended that a revision of their
EE standards to be initiated in 2–3 years’ time (Zeng, Li, Yu, and Yan,
2014).
In 2012, clothes washers showed a high percentage (over 80%) of energy
efficiency products in the market. Because clothes washer’s has less
technical potential for saving energy, a revision of standard could be
considered in middle term of 3–5 years.
3) In long term (5-10 years), priorities need to be given to Electric

Storage Water Heaters.
This ESP analysis showed a cumulative 490 TWh saving potential in 2030, if
heat pump technologies can be applied to Electric Storage Water Heaters
(ESWH). Considering the high cost of converting current technologies to
heat pumps ones in short to middle term, it is recommended a long term
strategy for improving ESWH standard to allow accelerated adoption of heat
pump technologies.
78
8 Conclusions
While China has developed and implemented 52 energy efficiency (EE)

standards and over 20 mandatory energy labels for a wide range of domestic,
commercial, and selected industrial equipment in the past 25 years, ensuring
the stringency of standards is the key for China to capture energy savings in
the appliances sector. Therefore, for Chinese policy makers to keep the
relevance and efficiency of its appliance standards, it is imperative to
develop a product prioritization tool to support this process.
In the thesis, three-component comprehensive approach has been first
introduced to policy analysis for appliance standards. The three components
include: 1) collect and produce product-specific information about market
trends, and market distribution among the energy efficiency tiers; 2) analyze
potential energy savings; and 3) how Chinese policies compare with those in
peer economies. Each of these individual analyses provided Chinese
policymakers with useful insights, and when taken together, they provide a
snapshot in 2013 of China’s opportunities to improve appliance energy
efficiency.
Based on this approach, this thesis generated a list of recommendations
that in short term, standards revision needs to focus on refrigerators, Flat
Panel TVs, and in middle term, priorities need to be given to fixed speed
ACs, variable speed ACs, clothes washers, induction cookers, monitors and
copiers, and in long term, priorities need to be paid to Electric Storage Water
Heaters with heat pump technologies.
In order to ensure that higher efficiency products are continually
differentiated from other appliances on the market, this study also
recommended that an automatic revision of the Tiers requirements should be
initiated when 10% of products in the market achieve Tiers 1 performance,
or 25% of products achieve Tiers 2 performance.
This integrated product prioritization method could be applied to support
policy maker in a regular basis, and have a potential to be introduced to other
economies in the world.
Among the data from 10,000 product models used for the market analysis,
this study found although the results of sales and models analysis come close,
this has the potential to distort findings as, for example, particularly efficient
or inefficient products may sell in significantly larger quantities than an
average product on the market.
79
This study also found that some technologies develop much faster than
others, such as TVs vs refrigerators. TVs improve its technologies much
faster than refrigerators. Therefore, upgrading of their energy efficiency
standards may deserve more robust market analysis on TVs than on
refrigerators. Lastly, due to the limitation of funding, benchmarking study
has only limited to refrigerators in 2013, to make this prioritization tool
function more effectively, the scope of benchmarking study need to be
enlarged to cover more products in the future.
80
9 Future Work
The major contents of thesis were presented at a workshop with Chinese

policy makers in 2013. The author received very positive feedback from the
policy makers. In 2013, the author received a letter from China National
Institute of Standardization (CNIS), quoted as “The 2013 Market Analysis of
China Energy Efficient Products, for example, helped CNIS to prioritize
appliance policies for revision by identifying areas where current policies are
not keeping pace with market shifts and emerging technologies. The policy
is now being improved based on the author’s recommendations”.
However, the development of policy analysis approach is only the first
step of developing and applying a tool in actual technical support to policy
analysis in China. The following research activities are planned to be carried
out in the near future:
1) Turning the policy analysis approach into a policy analysis tool

Given the limited time and funding resources, this study was not able to
develop a more formal tool with support of computer or modeling software
to make it usable for policy analysis. As the next step, the approach defined
in this thesis will be further described and an analysis tool can be designed
and developed in following studies.
2) Developing automatic data collection tool

Up-to-date data is the key to the actual application of this tool to policy
analysis. Due to the time and budget limitation of this study, this study has
only took over 10,000 product models for the market analysis. It is therefore
imperative to develop a data collection tool that can support in regular
collection of data. Since data collection is a highly manpower-demanding
work, a computer-based on-line data collection tool needs to be developed to
feed consistent data to the tool. Through a regular market review, up-to-date
market information, and energy standards analysis can be conducted, to
support the policy makers to make timely revisions of energy efficiency
policies.
81
3) Expand benchmarking studies to cover more products
Due to the time and budget constraints, this study only made benchmarking
analysis to refrigerators. In the future, the scope needs to be expanded to
cover other energy-consuming products as well, such as room air
conditioners, flat panel TVs, and clothes washes. By doing so the missing
pieces of benchmarking information can be fed in the comprehensive policy
analysis tool.
4) Conduct new round of market analysis (MACEEP study) based on

sales data in the market
As indicated in the previous analysis that there are limitations of only relying
on model data. Sometime model data may not precisely reflect the sales
number in the market. Hence in the new research, efforts need to be spent on
collect sales data in the market, and compare the sales data with model data,
in order to increase the accuracy of the study.
82
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87
Paper 1
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
Energy Procedia 61 (2014) 2275 – 2279
͸Ȃ
ʹͲͳͶ
Developing a Products Prioritization Tool for Energy
Efficiency Standards Improvements in China
Lei Zenga,b,*, Jiayang Lia, Yang Yua, Jinyue Yanb
a
CLASP China, 6-1206 Wanda Plaza, Chaoyang, Beijing 100022, China
b
Malardalen University, Västerås, Sweden
Abstract
China is the world’s largest producer and consumer of household appliances, lighting and other residential and
commercial equipment. Since 1989, China has developed and implemented over 40 energy efficiency (EE) standards
and over 20 mandatory energy labels for a wide range of domestic, commercial and selected industrial equipment.
However, there are tremendous opportunities to capture additional savings through more stringent energy efficiency
policies for major energy-consuming appliances.
To assess the stringency of EE standards, this paper developed an integrated products prioritization tool for energy
efficiency standards improvements that comprises three component analyses: (1) analysis of market data, (2)
quantification of energy savings potential, and (3) benchmarking China’s EE standards to those of peer economies
around the world. This integrated approach led to three independent but complementary studies, and an
comprehensive analysis that resulted in a coherent set of policy recommendations on what products to prioritize for
China’s energy efficiency standards revisions, in order to maximize their energy savings.
© 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
© 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
Selection and/or
Peer-review peer-review of
under responsibility under responsibility
the Organizing of ICAE
Committee of ICAE2014
Keywords: Energy Efficiency; Energy Labels; Product Prioritization; Energy Saving Potential; Appliance; China
1.Introduction
China is the world’s largest producer and consumer of household appliances, lighting, and other
residential and commercial equipment. Since 1989, China has developed and implemented over 40 energy
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 10 5820 4479; fax: +86 10 58204462.

E-mail address: stevenzengl@163.com
1876-6102 © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of ICAE2014
doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2014.12.446
2276 Lei Zeng et al. / Energy Procedia 61 (2014) 2275 – 2279
efficiency standards and over 20 mandatory energy labels for a wide range of domestic, commercial, and
selected industrial equipment [1].
Despite China has developed comprehensive policy scheme for appliance efficiency, the effectiveness of
the appliances standards are not assessed comprehensively due to the lack of assessment methods and
market data. In addition, the government has no existing guideline on product prioritization for standards
revisions. As a result, it is difficult for the policy makers to identify further improvement opportunities
that can capture additional savings through more stringent energy efficiency policies.
In 2012, Collaborative Labelling and Appliance Standards Program (CLASP) initiated a set of studies to
identify further opportunities for energy savings through appliance efficiency. The goal of these studies
was to provide Chinese policymakers with key findings and recommendations, based on rigorous
analyses, which could be used to prioritize products and inform standards revisions.
To assess the stringency of EE standards, CLASP adopted a three-part approach which comprises: (1)
analysis of market data, (2) quantification of energy savings potential, and (3) benchmarking China’s EE
standards to those of peer economies around the world. This approach led to three independent but
complementary studies, the results of which enabled CLASP to produce a coherent set of policy
recommendations and product policy prioritization. The three studies are:
(1) Market Analysis of China Energy Efficient Products (MACEEP): This study collected market data to
compare the market distribution of energy efficient products within existing EE tiers.
(2) Energy Savings Potential analysis. This study estimates the energy saving potential of various
products in the market and provides evidence-based recommendations on the ranks of products for policy
revision.
(3) Benchmarking of refrigerators. This study compared China’s national product efficiency standards
and energy efficiency of products on the market for refrigerators with those of other economies, such as
the EU and the US. The study provided a clear illustration to Chinese policymakers of the potential to
capture additional energy savings by adapting standards that are already in use in other countries around
the world.
Based on the results of the three studies above, this research aims to create an innovative approach that
can integrate all the three perspectives together in order to provide a comprehensive and coherent set of
policy recommendations for the policy makers.
2. Study I: Analysis of market data
This study used product data from a snapshot of models available in the market in July 2012. All the data
were collected from online sources covering 11,734 individual appliance models [2]. it is believed that the
July 2012 snapshot should represent a good approximation of the market for most products at the time.
Table 1. Summary of data used in the research [2]
Product Induction Monitor Copier Fridge Rice Flat Washing Air Air
Type cooker cooker Panel TV Machine Conditioner Conditioner
(Fixed Speed) (Variable
Speed)
Number 989 760 393 1693 1276 2337 1406 1876 1004
of Models
According to Chinese energy efficiency standards, Tier 1 represents the most efficient products, and Tier
5 is the minimum allowed value for products to be sold in the market. Figure 1 shows the tier distribution
in Chinese markets for key appliances, as collected directly from market data in the MACEEP study. For
almost all products displayed in Figure 1, the market reflects the clustering of product models in energy
efficiency (EE) Tier 1 and Tier 2, especially for monitors, clothes washers, flat panel TVs, refrigerators,
and copiers. Their models of energy efficiency products have occupied the majority share of the market.
Lei Zeng et al. / Energy Procedia 61 (2014) 2275 – 2279 2277
dŝĞƌϭ dŝĞƌϮ dŝĞƌϯ dŝĞƌϰ dŝĞƌϱ
ϭϬϬй
ϵϬй
ϴϬй
ϳϬй
ϲϬй
ϱϬй
ϰϬй
ϯϬй
ϮϬй
ϭϬй
Ϭй

Figure 1: Energy Labels: market distribution within energy efficiency tiers [2]
3.Study II: Quantification of energy savings potential
The project used market data from MACEEP study to analyse the status of energy efficiency of major
appliances in the Chinese market, and the energy saving potential of different policy interventions. Based
on MACEEP data and other nationally available statistics, CLASP conducted an energy savings potential
analysis for all the nine MACEEP products.
This study is centred on developing scenarios, to show the expected impact from different actions. The
three scenarios examined are:
• Business as usual (BAU): what would happen with no further product policy measures;
• Revised MEPS (MEPS2): what would happen with revised performance levels for standards and
labels aligned with the MACEEP proposal;
• Best on Market (BOM): specifically, the best on the current Chinese market.
Based on the models developed, the estimated cumulated savings were identified, as seen in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Cumulative energy savings to 2030, MACEEP-ESP study [3]
From the energy saving potential study the magnitude of savings ranking order is clear. TVs, fixed-speed
air conditioners, variable-speed air conditioners, refrigerators, and induction cookers are among the top
five products with large saving potentials.
2278 Lei Zeng et al. / Energy Procedia 61 (2014) 2275 – 2279
4.Study III: Benchmarking China’s EE standards to those of peer economies around the world
This study compared the maximum allowable energy consumption for refrigerated appliances in China
and in a few economies. By making comparison we hope to provide additional information on
opportunities to further improve energy efficiency requirements.
This comparison normalizes countries energy performance requirements to a minor variation on the 2009
EU regulations and the associated testing methods for refrigerators. From Figure 3, the country with the
most stringent standard for refrigerator-freezers is Switzerland. China requirements for smaller units
(normalized total adjusted volume < 500 L) are very similar to those of other economies; for larger units,
the maximum allowable energy consumption in China is less stringent than other countries considered;
the gap increases with larger volumes as the slope of the line representing the Minimum Energy
Performance Requirement (MEPR) in China is steeper. This suggests that the China MEPR levels are less
stringent for large volume units than smaller volume units [4,5].
Australia '05 Freezer Bottom
1300 Australia '05 Freezer Top
1200 Australia '09 Freezer Bottom
Australia '09 Freezer Top
1100 EU '10/Switzerland '10 All Configurations
EU '14/Switzerland '11 All Configurations
1000 Korea '08-10 <1000l

Korea '12 >1000l

Switzerland '13 All configurations
900 USA '00, Canada '01 Freezer Top
USA '00, Canada '01 Freezer Side
800 USA '00, Canada '01 Freezer Bottom
USA '14 Freezer Top
USA '14 Freezer Side
700 USA '14 Freezer Bottom
CHINA MEPS (EU Vadj method)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1000
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1100
Figure 3: Historic, current and future normalized maximum allowable energy consumptions for refrigerator/freezer combinations, all
configurations of frozen compartment relative to fresh compartment (freestanding automatic defrost units with no ice maker or
drinks cooling facility) [4,5]
5.Integrated analysis on opportunities for energy efficiency improvement
The market analysis (Study I) indicated that the clustering of product models in energy efficiency (EE)
Tier 1 and Tier 2, especially for monitors, clothes washers, flat panel TVs, refrigerators, and copiers. This
diminishes consumers’ ability to differentiate products based on energy efficiency – with so many models
in the top two tiers, all models appear to consumers to be most efficient. Hence this indicated that there is
substantial room to raise the EE standards for these products.
The energy saving potential analysis (Study II) concluded that large energy saving potential remain with
the adoption of advanced technologies available in the market for air conditioners, flat panel TVs,
refrigerators, induction cookers and rice cookers.
The refrigerator benchmarking study (Study III) showed that Chinese efficiency requirements for small-
sized refrigerators are similar to those of other economies. However, for larger units, Chinese energy
efficiency standards are less stringent than other countries.
The product priority tool considered the key findings of all the three studies above, and arrived at the
following set of recommendations for energy efficiency standards improvement in China.
Lei Zeng et al. / Energy Procedia 61 (2014) 2275 – 2279 2279
z In short term (1-2 years), standards revision needs to focus on refrigerators, Flat Panel TVs.
z In middle term (3-5 years), Priorities need to be given to fixed speed ACs, variable speed ACs,
clothes washers, induction cookers, monitors and copiers.
6. Conclusions
To contribute to prioritizing product policy revisions in China, this study showed a product prioritization
tool that has a characteristics of integrated, three-part approach. Each of these individual component
provided Chinese policymakers with useful insights, and when taken together, they provide a snapshot in
2013 of China’s opportunities to improve appliance energy efficiency.
Based on this approach, the study generated proposal of priorities need to be given to fixed speed ACs,
variable speed ACs, clothes washers, induction cookers, monitors and copiers in the near future. In order
to ensure that higher efficiency products are continually differentiated from other appliances on the
market, this study also recommended that an automatic revision of the Tier requirements should be
initiated when 10% of products in the market achieve Tier 1 performance, or 25% of products achieve
Tier 2 performance.
This integrated product prioritization method could be applied to support policy maker in a regular basis,
and have a potential to be introduced to other economies in the world.
References
[1] CNIS, White paper for the energy efficiency status of China energy-use products 2012. China
Standardization Publishing House; China 2012, p. 6.
[2] Jiayang Li, Lei Zeng, Hu Bo, Zheng Tan, Market Analysis of China Energy Efficient Product
(MACEEP), CLASP, 2013. www.clasponline.org
[3] Kevin Lane, Summarizing product prioritization and energy saving potential (ESP) based on recent
MACEEP-ESP and LBNL studies, CLASP internal report, November 2013
[4]IEA-4E, Mapping and benchmarking report for domestic refrigerated appliances. 2013.
http://mappingandbenchmarking.iea-4e.org/matrix
[5] CLASP, Appliance Energy Efficiency Opportunities: China 2013, Appendices D.
http://www.clasponline.org
Biography
Lei Zeng is the director of China Program for CLASP. CLASP is a leading international voice and
resource for energy efficiency standards and labelling (S&L) for major appliances, equipment and
lighting products. CLASP’s primary objective is to identify and respond to the assistance needs of S&L
practitioners in targeted countries and regions while making the highest quality technical information on
S&L best practice available globally.
Paper 2
Applied Energy 133 (2014) 22–32
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy
China’s Promoting Energy-Efficient Products for the Benefit of the People

Program in 2012: Results and analysis of the consumer impact study
Zeng Lei ⇑, Yu Yang 1, Li Jiayang 1
Collaborative Labeling and Appliance Standards Program (CLASP), 1206, Wanda Plaza Building 6, #93 Jianguo Street, Beijing, PR China
h i g h l i g h t s
We investigate how the consumers purchase energy-efficient appliance in China.

We study the level of awareness for the energy-efficient appliance subsidy program.
We investigate consumers’ expectations on appliance subsidy.
Most consumers are only willing to pay less than 10% more for efficient appliances.
The consumers’ expectation for the subsidy size was between 20% and 30%.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: China launched the largest ($4.26 billion) energy-efficient appliances subsidy program in June 2012. This
Received 11 November 2013 paper investigates the impact of this program on consumers by surveying 2630 consumers in 10 cities
Received in revised form 29 April 2014 with different socioeconomic statuses. The results showed that the Chinese consumers were very
Accepted 21 July 2014
conscious about electricity savings and that they considered energy-saving an important factor when
selecting appliances. Only 13% of consumers claimed that the subsidy was the primary reason for them
to purchase energy-efficient appliances. The study found that the subsidy program raising a moderate
Keywords:
level of awareness, with 62% of interviewed consumers being aware of the program. However, the
Appliance efficiency
Subsidy program
consumers were found to lack an in-depth understanding of the program. More budget allocation for
Incentive policy marketing and outreach could potentially improve the public awareness of energy-efficient appliances
Consumer survey and facilitate market transformation in the long run. Compared with conventional appliances, most
Consumer behavior Chinese consumers were only willing to pay less than 10% more for energy-efficient appliances. The
Energy label consumers’ expectation for the subsidy size varied between cities, but on average, they would become
very likely to purchase energy-efficient appliances when the subsidy size was between 20% and 30%. It
was suggested that in the future, only Tier 1 appliances (the most efficient) would be subsidized, and
the size of the subsidy should be increased so to meet the consumers’ expectations.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The residential sector was soon recognized as one of the major
contributors to the overall energy consumption. As the living
The burgeoning Chinese economy over the past decades has standards of Chinese citizens improved dramatically since the
resulted in significant acceleration of urbanization and a notable opening-up of China, the ownership of household appliances
increase of Chinese citizens’ disposal income. With the rapid eco- increased rapidly and, in turn, the residential electricity consump-
nomic development, China’s energy consumption has continued tion increased exponentially. In 2010, the total electricity con-
to increase at an extraordinary rate and surpassed the United sumption in the residential sector was 512.5 TW h, accounting
States, becoming the world’s largest energy consumer in 2010 [1]. for approximately 12% of the total electricity consumption in China
[2]. The energy savings potential for the residential electricity con-
sumption was also huge. Murata et al. estimated a 28% reduction in
electricity consumption by the year 2020 through the means of
⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Malardalen University, Dept. IST, Box 883, SE- improving the efficiencies of end-use appliances [3].
721 23 Vasteras, Sweden. Tel.: +86 10 58204479; fax: +86 10 58204462.
Chinese policymakers recognized the importance of promoting
E-mail address: szeng@clasponline.org (L. Zeng).
1
Tel.: +86 10 58204479; fax: +86 10 58204462.
high energy efficiency household appliances and repeatedly
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.07.078
0306-2619/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Zeng et al. / Applied Energy 133 (2014) 22–32 23
highlighted it in many government plans, including the most this program, there has been little public discussion about its effec-
recent ‘‘Comprehensive Working Plan of Energy Conservation and tiveness. One particular concern is that, for many recipients, the
Carbon Reduction in the 12th Five Year Plan’’. A series of measures subsidy has no effect on behavior. This would be the case for house-
which aimed to improve household appliance energy efficiency holds which would have made the purchases anyway, even without
and to facilitate the market transformation toward energy effi- the subsidy. Moreover, there have been no studies on the effective-
ciency were designed and implemented. Since the 1980s, China ness of this, or similar programs from consumers’ perspectives.
has implemented 48 Minimum Efficiency Performance Standards Therefore, this study aimed to fill this gap by conducting a consumer
(MEPS) for energy-using products. In 2005, China started to imple- survey in 10 cities across different socioeconomic statuses in China.
ment the China Energy Label (Fig. 1), a mandatory, categorical The primary objectives of this study were (1) to investigate the
energy information label adapted from the EU categorical energy consumers’ behavioral characteristics in the purchasing of energy-
label [4]. The label categorize appliances into five tiers (or three efficient appliance; (2) to study the level of awareness the subsidy
tiers), with Tier 1 being the most efficient and Tier 5 (or Tier 3) program raised; and (3) to investigate the relationship between the
being the least efficient (which was also the minimum energy effi- size of the subsidy and consumers’ expectations under different
ciency required for the product to enter the Chinese market). Now purchase scenarios. Based on the results of this study, we
China Energy Labels cover 29 types of products, which covers most attempted to formulate a set of practical policy recommendations
of the major household appliances. In addition, there are voluntary for future policy designs and implementations.
endorsement labels, which usually have a threshold set at Tier 2.
To complement the MEPS and China Energy Labels and to facil-
itate market transformation, the Chinese government also 2. Previous studies
launched a series of incentive programs. Such programs included
the Appliances to the Rural Areas Program in 2008, the Promoting On consumers’ behavioral characteristics in purchasing efficient
Energy-Efficient Appliance for the Benefit of People Program in 2009 appliances, a study on Canadian residential consumers [6] found
and Appliances Trade-in Program in 2009 [5]. In the executive meet- that 40% of refrigerators were replaced after 20 years of use and
ing chaired by Premier Wen Jiabao on May 16, 2012, the State an additional 20% were replaced after 25 years. Considering all
Council decided to commit 26.5 billion RMB ($4.26 billion) to the appliances together, it took an average of 16–20 years for them
newest phase of the Promoting Energy-Efficient Appliance for the to be replaced. In general, major appliances such as clothes wash-
Benefit of People Program (referred as the subsidy program herein- ers, air conditioners, TVs are not bought frequently, and their
after). This subsidy program have dual aims, one is to accelerate replacement can take many years.
the market penetration of energy-efficient appliances (Tier 1 and/ From the evolvement of energy-efficient technologies, appli-
or Tier 2 appliances) in the market, the other is to stimulate appliances replacement should be made 5–6 times over a time frame of
ances consumption as a part of China’s national economic stimulus 35 years, in order for the appliance life cycle to be optimal [7]. This
package. It covered six categories of household appliances, shows a gap between what replacement frequencies ‘‘should be’’
including air conditioners, TVs, refrigerators, clothes washers, and what ‘‘it is’’. This wide gap implies a great potential of policy
water heaters and desktop computer. This program was the latest interventions for making efficient appliances more attractive to
effort by the government that aimed to promote the use of energy consumers.
efficient products and improve the energy efficiencies of end-use Some previous evidence [6] showed although people value the
electric products. It was launched on June 1st, 2012 and was cost of an appliance, they also value the long-term savings that
scheduled to end on May 31st, 2013. can be achieved due to the lower energy consumption of certain
This subsidy program was by far the largest incentive program appliances. Moreover, some people may perform a cost-benefit
launched by the government. However, despite the popularity of analysis and consider aspects such as energy price [6]. However,
purchase decisions may not always consider a cost-benefit analysis
given that people generally have a limited awareness of the energy
efficiency of appliances, of the price they pay for energy use and of
the general prices of services [8].
Some surveys show that people claim to be willing to pay more
for appliances with higher energy efficiency, but only some actu-
ally do so in practice, placing more values on other factors such
as cost, quality and brand [9]. Some studies show that consumers
regard purchase cost are less important than the appliance’s war-
ranty, the long-term energy and monetary savings, or perceived
changes in comfort and convenience [8].
From the discussion above, it can be seen that there are differ-
ent and sometimes conflicting, findings in the literature, regarding
what are the most important general factors that people consider
when selecting appliances. In addition, research that specifically
analyses what determines consideration of energy efficiency in
appliance choice is scare.
On the issue of effectiveness of subsidy programs, empirical
research in other countries has attempted to measure the propor-
tion of free riders in existing energy efficiency incentive programs
using a variety of econometric techniques. Most of these studies
have identified a high level of free ridership among participants,
usually in the range of 40–80% [10].
A US study showed that rebates on Energy Star appliances
developed as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment
Fig. 1. China energy label. Act offered rebates to any households which made the purchases.
24 L. Zeng et al. / Applied Energy 133 (2014) 22–32
But it turned out that it is unclear whether the rebates induced Table 2
marginal consumers to purchase Energy Star household appliances Surveyed cities and sample sizes.
[11]. Tier Cities 2010 Population (million) Sample size determination

A number of studies have investigated the effects of the Energy 1st Beijing 19.61 450
Star program [12] and suggested the Program has achieved sub- Shanghai 23.02 500
stantial market penetration and generated substantial energy sav- 2nd Shenyang 8.11 200
ings. However, little research has addressed how the Energy Star Chengdu 14.05 330
Program affects the Willingness-to-pay for household appliance, Xi’an 8.47 200
and what motivates consumers to consider the Program in their Changsha 7.04 180
purchase decisions [13]. 3rd Wuxi 6.37 150

From the literature review above, we can find that few studies Dongguan 8.22 200
have studied the effectiveness of subsidy programs from consum- 4th Luoyang 6.55 150
ers’ perspective. In the case of China, to our knowledge, there were Jiangmen 3.76 140
no previous studies or projects assessing the determinants of high Total 105.2 2500
efficiency appliance-buying of consumers. Furthermore, there has
no previous study assessing the effects of consumer subsidy
program in China. This study therefore is the first-of-kind study awareness of consumers of the subsidy program. The consumers
from consumer’s perspective to assess the impact of the subsidy were asked whether they had heard of the program, whether they
program. could name all six subsidized product categories, whether they
knew the size of the subsidy for the products and what their gen-
3. Methodology eral responses to the subsidy programs were. The third component
attempted to quantify the consumers’ expectations for the size of
This study was comprised of two phases. Phase I was a the subsidy under different purchase scenarios.
preliminary study that aimed to gain a basic understandings of The total number of surveyed consumers was estimated to be
consumers’ behavioral characteristics of household appliances pur- 2500, which was a statistical requirement of sample size to ensure
chases, their level of awareness of the subsidy program, their expe- a 95% confidence interval. The number of samples in each city was
riences with and feedback on the subsidy program, as well as their determined by its population, as shown in Table 2. In each city,
attitude towards the current subsidy size. The Phase I study was four locations were selected for surveys and interviews. These
used to provide input and support for the Phase II study. The Phase locations included an appliance retailer store, a high-end residen-
I study was conducted in five cities, including Beijing, Chengdu, tial community, a middle-class residential community and a
Changsha, Wuxi and Jiangmen. The selection of cities was based transportation hub. The total number of consumers interviewed
on both the cities’ socioeconomic status and location. The cities was 15,008, among which 2630 completed the survey. The actual
were classified into four tiers with the 1st tier being largest popu- sample number is larger than the required 2500 to provide statis-
lation and largest GDP cities, such as Beijing, and the 4th tier being tically significant results. Similar to the Phase I study, these con-
smaller cities, such as Jiangmen (Table 1). Two focus group meet- sumers either purchased household appliances covered by the
ings (FGMs), each with eight participants, were conducted in each subsidy program in the past six months or planned to make a pur-
city. Each FGM consisted of four male and four female participants, chase in the next three months. These consumers also had to sat-
from both high income and low income groups. Among the eight isfy the additional requirements as described in the Phase I
participants, it was ensured that six had purchased household study. These 2630 respondents will be referred to as successful
appliances that were covered by the subsidy program in the past samples in the following texts, and most of the analysis was
six months, and two of them were planning to purchase new performed based on the successful samples. The demographic
household appliances in the next three months. Additionally, the information of the successful samples can be found in Table 3.
participants had to satisfy the following requirements: (1) have The income classes were determined based on the classification
resided in their city for at least one year, (2) be able to make pur- by the National Bureau of Statistics of China.
chasing decisions, (3) have not participated in any market surveys
of the subsidy program for the past two years and (4) do not work
in advertising, media and market research or other related sectors. 4. Results and discussion
The results of the Phase I study were used to develop a detailed
survey that was distributed to consumers 10 cities in the Phase II 4.1. Behavioral characteristics of consumers
study (Table 2). The survey was composed of four major areas.
The first component examined consumers’ purchasing behaviors In order to investigate the consumers’ behavioral characteristics
– what factors the consumers considered the most when they pur- in the purchasing of energy-efficient appliance, it is important to
chase an appliance; whether they purchased energy-efficient (EE) identify consumer profiles with differentiated patterns of charac-
appliances (in China the energy-efficient appliances were defined teristic consideration in their choices, based on different interests,
as appliances with Tier 1 and Tier 2 energy efficiencies); and what needs, motivations and other important choice determinants.
were the primary reason (reasons) for consumers to choose (or not A number of important factors that could potentially influence
choose) EE appliances. The second component studied the level of the consumer’s purchasing decision of a particular type of appli-
ance were investigated. For each type of appliance, the consumers
were asked to select the factor they would consider the most when
Table 1
making a purchase.
Classification of cities.
The factors were different for each type of appliance, as shown
City tiers GDP (billion RMB) Population (million) in Fig. 2, but energy-saving was among the top three factors for all
1st >450 Urban > 7 and rural > 5 appliances, except for desktop computers. More specifically, for
2nd >100 Urban > 3 and rural > 2 TVs and desktop PCs, brand and price were the top considerations
3rd >50 Urban > 0.8 and rural > 0.5
for most consumers, whereas for the heavier energy consuming
4th >20 Urban > 0.5 and rural > 0.3
appliances, such as refrigerators and air-conditioners, larger
Table 3 76% of respondents of a survey of 437 residences in Leon County,

Demographic information of the successful samples Florida considered the amount of savings the major factor in their
(N = 2630).
decision-making on home energy efficiency improvement [17].
Age Similarly, Shen and Saijo found that energy labels indicating elec-
18–25 24.6% tricity savings had a significant effect on Shanghai consumers’ pref-
26–35 26.6%
36–45 25.7%
erence for energy-efficient air-conditioners and refrigerators [18].
46–55 23.2% The results from these studies all indicated that the consumers
Gender
were conscious about their electricity bills.
Male 50.0% For consumers made purchase decision of energy-efficient
Female 50.0% appliances, only 13% consumers made their decisions because of
Income the subsidy (Fig. 4), whereas there is a high uptake of 87% appli-
High 37.1% ance purchased in the past six months are eligible for subsidy,
Medium–low 62.9% and among which 66% received the subsidy (Fig. 3). This suggested
Household size a high number of free riders.
One person 9.0% The consumers’ propensity to purchase energy-efficient prod-
Two persons 12.8%
ucts was highly related to the retail price of electricity [19,20].
Three persons 69.9%
Four and above 8.3% China’s average electricity price increased continuously from
0.262 RMB/kW h in 1996 to 0.51 RMB/kW h in 2007 [21]. Begin-
Education
High school 36.8% ning in July 2012, the National Development and Reform Commis-
Diploma 38.2% sion (NDRC) of China implemented a three-tier electricity price
Bachelor 23.3% system, with second-tier users paying an additional 0.05 RMB/
Master 1.6% kW h and third-tier users paying an extra 0.3 RMB/kW h. The more
Doctorate 0.1%
electricity a consumer uses, the higher is the tier. [22]. Hence, the
continual increase in China’s electricity price was possibly one of
the reasons explaining why electricity savings was the primary
proportions of consumers considered energy-saving as the most reason for the majority of Chinese consumers purchasing energy-
important factor. The results of this study were similar to a sin- efficient appliances.
gle-city study conducted by Ma et al., in the sense that brand, price The lifespan of the appliances was another reason for consum-
and energy savings (consumption) were found to be the top three ers to consider electricity savings when purchasing energy-
factors consumers were concerned with when purchasing refriger- efficient appliances. Most of the appliances (e.g., refrigerators,
ators, clothes washers and air-conditioners [14]. The consider- clothes washers) covered by the subsidy program were major
ations of Chinese consumers slightly varied from European household appliances with relatively long lifespans in the range
consumers, whose top appliance purchase considerations included of 10–15 years. A previous Canadian study estimated that the aver-
quality, cost vs. quality and energy consumption [15]. age lifespans for refrigerators and clothes washers were 16 years
Of the interviewed consumers, 75% had purchased appliances in and 12 years, respectively [23]. Based on research on Chinese prod-
the past six months, whereas 25% planned to purchase a new appli- ucts, Chinese products are similar, perhaps slightly shorter than
ance in the next three months, as illustrated in Fig. 3. Among those average lifespans of Canadian products. For these appliances that
who had purchased appliances, 87% of consumers chose energy- are bought infrequently, consumers would consider not only the
efficient appliances (defined as appliances with a Tier 1 or Tier 2 cost of the appliance but also the characteristics associated with
energy efficiency grade set by the China Energy Labels). The high long-term aspects, such as the energy-saving benefits in the long
percentage of energy-efficient appliance purchases can be run (Fig. 2) [6].
explained by the small price gap between certain types of efficient Chinese consumers’ decisions on whether to purchase energy-
appliances and non-efficient appliances (appliances with Tier 3–5 efficient products were not greatly affected by the subsidy pro-
energy efficiency grades). For example, the price of flat-panel TVs gram, as only 13% of consumers were motivated by the subsidy
was related to their screen sizes more than the energy efficiency program to purchase energy-efficient products (Fig. 4). However,
tiers; for the same screen size, the differences between efficient this result should be interpreted with caution as it does not neces-
TVs and non-efficient TVs were not obvious [16]. Moreover, for sarily mean that the subsidy program was less effective. Firstly,
some appliances, the market was already saturated with efficient although the subsidy was not the primary reason for most consum-
models, leaving consumers very few choices in terms of energy ers to purchase energy-efficient appliances, it still had a significant
efficiency tiers. For instance, over 95% of the refrigerator models influence on consumers’ decisions, as indicated in Table 4. The sub-
in the Chinese market were Tier 1 and Tier 2 products [16]. This sidy could act as a catalyst in energy-efficient appliance purchases
observation also suggested that a set of new energy efficiency clas- and speed up the planned purchase. Secondly, the non-monetary
sification standards for labeling was needed, but such study was effects of the subsidy could also contribute to the consumers’
beyond the scope of this study. choice of energy-efficient appliances. A previous study demon-
66% of the sampled consumers participated in the subsidy pro- strated that the mere existence of a rebate made consumers more
gram and claimed their subsidies when purchasing energy-effi- willing to choose high efficiency measures because customers
cient appliances; however, 21% of consumers did not participate could feel more comfortable about the promised energy efficiency
in the subsidy although they purchased energy-efficient products. when a rebate was offered [24].
Not all of the energy-efficient appliances were covered by the sub- Fig. 4 also indicated that a small number of consumers (2%) chose
sidy program. energy-efficient appliances because they associated higher energy
For consumers who had purchased energy-efficient appliances efficiency with good product quality, which was a good argument
in the past six months, 53% considered electricity savings the in favor of the purchase of an energy-efficient appliance [15].
primary reason, whereas 26% of consumers purchased energy- For those who did not purchase energy-efficient appliances,
efficient appliances because they had environmental and energy high price was one of the key barriers, as indicated in Fig. 5.
conservation awareness (Fig. 4). The results were similar to previ- Thirty-nine percent of consumers also identified their concerns
ous study conducted by Zhao et al., in whose study approximately that appliances being energy-efficient would sacrifice other
Fig. 2. Factors influencing consumers’ purchasing decisions (% of consumers, N = 2630).
Fig. 3. Appliance purchase status among consumers (N = 2630).
qualities, and 26% of consumers who did not buy energy-efficient 4.2. Program recognition and awareness among consumers
appliances felt that the complexity of the subsidy claiming process
was the reason that they did not choose energy-efficient Among the 15,008 consumers interviewed, in total, 62% had
appliances. heard of the subsidy program (Fig. 6). As shown in Fig. 7, among
Fig. 4. Primary reason for consumers to choose an EE appliance (% of consumers, N = 1723).
Table 4 regional and socioeconomic status of cities could affect the con-
Influence of the subsidy on consumers’ purchasing decisions. sumer awareness. Similarly, a study found that based on the Amer-
# of appliances Influence of subsidy (1 being ican Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE) residential
purchased with subsidy lowest and 5 being highest) energy efficiency scorecards, among all 50 states and the District
TV 725 4.1 of Columbia, California, New York, and the New England regions
Refrigerator 397 3.9 show markedly higher scores than other regions and greater
Clothes washers 271 3.9 propensities to purchase Energy Star labeled appliances, suggest-
Air-conditioner 330 4.0
ing that regional norms played a significant role in purchasing
Water heater 212 3.7
Desktop PC 102 3.9 behavior [11]. In this case, it was suggested that for the Chinese
policymakers to enhance the promotion of energy efficiency pro-
grams in 4th tier cities, creating an energy conservation culture
those who completed the survey, 58% had seen the subsidy pro- that could lead to significant spillover effects in the long run would
gram label depicted in Fig. 8. However, most of the consumers be beneficial.
were lacking in-depth knowledge of the subsidy program, as only In terms of the communication channels of the program, the
10% of consumers were able to name all six types of appliances majority of consumers learned about the program from retail store
covered by the program, whereas most of the consumers only dissemination and/or referral from friends or relatives (Fig. 11).
knew the subsidy size for one type of appliance or did not know The retail store dissemination included program posters, signage,
the subsidy size at all, as shown in Figs. 9 and 10. This result indi- advertisements, pamphlets and introduction by sales staff.
cated that the subsidy program raised a considerable level of Although online shopping continued to boom over the past few
awareness among the consumers, but there was still a large num- years, consumers still chose to visit retail stores for appliance
ber of consumers not aware of the program or lacking detailed shopping. And even if consumers buy appliances online, many
knowledge of the program. The increase in awareness of the energy may still view in-store beforehand. Therefore, enhancing the
efficiency programs was a gradual process. For instance, in 2000, dissemination in retail stores could potentially lead to improved
only 40% of consumers were aware of the US Energy Star program, program effectiveness.
but the consumer awareness increased to 60% by 2005 and Sales staff was a major component in the retail store dissemina-
exceeded 80% of the population in 2011 [25–27]. Compared with tion. A previous study also reported that the sales staff was a pri-
the progress of the Energy Star program, the current consumer mary source of information in the survey (35.8% of surveyed
awareness of the Chinese subsidy program was satisfactory but consumers), and consumers held a positive attitude towards sale
still had room for improvement. staff and valued their opinions [15]. Therefore, the policymakers
Fig. 6 also illustrated that the consumer awareness in 4th tier could consider providing training and incentives to sales staff.
cities was lower compared with other cities, indicating that the The training would enable the sales staff to effectively and
Fig. 5. Reasons for consumers not to choose an EE appliance (% of consumers, N = 245).

Fig. 6. Awareness of the existence of the subsidy program (% of consumers, N = 15,008).
Fig. 7. Awareness of the subsidy program label (% of consumers, N = 2630).
accurately supply information about the subsidy program and

energy-efficient appliances to consumers, whereas the incentives
(e.g., commission) could motivate the sales staff to persuade con-
sumers to purchase energy-efficient appliances.
Referral or recommendation of the subsidy program through
personal relationships (family, friends or co-workers) was also an
important communication channel for consumers to learn about
the program, as 64% of consumers had heard of the program from
personal relationships. People valued their personal relationships
and were more likely to trust the information they learned from
family, friends or co-workers. The encouragement from personal
relationships appeared to be more effective than outside pressure
in persuading the adoption of home energy-efficient and renew-
Fig. 8. ‘‘Promoting Energy-Efficient Appliance for the Benefit of People’’ subsidy able energy products [17]. As such, it was strongly suggested that
program label. the policymakers take advantage of the booming social media
Fig. 9. Knowledge of the types of appliances covered by the subsidy program (% of consumers, N = 2630).
Fig. 10. Understanding of the size of the subsidy (% of consumers, N = 2630).
networks such as Weibo (Chinese version of Twitter) or Wechat (a (in this case, a subsidy) was to close the price gap and encourage
popular smartphone-based text and voice messaging application consumers to choose efficient appliances. Therefore, it was logical
that reportedly has over 300 million users in China) to reach out to assume that consumers would be more likely to purchase
to consumers and disseminate the program information. energy-efficient products as the size of the subsidy increased.
The size of the subsidy should be sufficient enough to drive the
4.3. Size of the subsidy and consumers’ expectations consumers to choose energy-efficient appliances, but not too large
that the cost-effectiveness of the policy is reduced. However, the
Normally, energy-efficient appliances were more expensive actual relationship between consumers’ response and the size of
than similar non-efficient appliances, and the purpose of incentives incentive was complicated because factors other than energy
Fig. 11. Communication channels of the subsidy program (% of consumers, N = 2630).

efficiency, such as brand, function, quality and appearance, may increase the size of the subsidy. More specifically, with the total
also contribute to consumers’ decision making. Some US studies program spending on incentives unchanged, instead of subsidizing
reported a direct proportionality, whereas others found the rela- both Tier 1 and Tier 2 energy efficiency appliances, which were all
tionship unclear. In another small-scale experiment US study con- deemed as energy-efficient appliances per subsidy program
ducted by the New York State Electric and Gas Corporation, rebates requirements, it would be more cost-effective to only subsidize
were offered to households to purchase fluorescent bulbs to appliances with Tier 1 or higher energy efficiency appliances and
replace existing incandescent bulbs, and the response rates were increase the size of the subsidy so that it would meet consumers’
found to steadily increase with the size of the incentive [28]. In expectations.
another study, it was reported that the relationship between the The ratio of the subsidy and the retail price was generally
size of the incentive and the participation of consumers was inclu- higher for appliances with smaller capacities (Tables 5–7). For
sive [29]. Therefore, in this study, we attempted to investigate the example, for variable speed air conditioners with cooling capacities
relationship of consumers’ response and the size of the subsidy and greater than 7100 W, the subsidy for Tier 1 was only approxi-
to find the expected size of the subsidy for the Chinese consumers mately 5% of the average retail price, and 4% for Tier 2 products.
to realize their purchase of energy-efficient appliances. Compared with its high price, the subsidy was insignificant. There-
In this study, the consumers were first asked whether they were fore, the program was recommended to stop subsidizing large
willing to pay more for energy-efficient appliances as defined as capacity appliances for two reasons: (1) large capacity appliances
Tier 1 and Tier 2 products in the current market, and were then with higher energy efficiency still consumed a large amount of
asked their expectation of the size of the subsidy. Compared with energy and their purchase should be discouraged; and (2) the cur-
non-efficient appliances, 86% of Chinese consumers claimed that rent subsidy size was insignificant compared with the high price of
they were willing to pay extra for energy-efficient appliances in large capacity appliances.
various amounts. The extra cost that most consumers were willing
to pay was below 10% more (Fig. 12). However, in actual practice,
not all consumers who claimed to be willing to pay more for 5. Conclusions and recommendations
energy-efficient appliances would actually do so [30]. It was possi-
ble that the extra cost the Chinese consumers were willing to pay This was by far the largest scale subsidy program on energy-
was even lower than they claimed. The willingness to pay for the efficient appliances implemented by the Chinese government. A
Chinese consumers was not as strong as in European countries. massive 26.5 billion RMB (4.2 billion USD) was invested in the
For example, Swedish consumers were found to be willing to pay program, but its effectiveness remained unclear. This study inves-
30% more for Class A washing machines compared with Class C tigated the effectiveness of the program from the consumers’ per-
[31]. In the most recent study conducted by CLASP, European con- spective and attempted to provide practical recommendations to
sumers were found on average to be willing to pay 44% and 50% policymakers based on the results of the study.
more for higher efficiency refrigerators and TVs, respectively The results showed that most of consumers selected energy-
(2013). Hence, it was expected that a larger incentive was needed efficient appliances because they could save on their electricity
to actually alter the Chinese consumers’ purchasing decisions. bills. The continual increase in the price of electricity and the long
When studying the expectations for the subsidy size, all sur- life-span of the appliances were two potential reasons for this
veyed consumers were given two hypothetical scenarios. The first result. Only 13% of consumers claimed the subsidy was the
scenario was inelastic demand. Under this scenario, the consumers primary reason to purchase a new appliance. As 66% bought the
must purchase new appliances, possibly because their old appli- energy-efficient appliances anyway, there is a high level of free rid-
ances broke down or because they needed new appliances for ers on this Program. This result was in line with the later findings
new home. The second scenario was elastic demand. Under this that the current size of the subsidy was not sufficient to change
scenario, the consumers had the flexibility to choose whether to consumers’ decisions in energy-efficient appliance purchases.
purchase new appliances. For example, the consumers might con- The study showed that the subsidy program raised a moderate
sider replacing a functioning old TV with a new one, or they might level of awareness, but the consumers were lacking in-depth
consider adding a secondary TV for their bedroom. knowledge about the program. As retailers are the main channel
Consumers’ likelihood to purchase energy-efficient appliances of consumers’ awareness of subsidy program, retailer awareness
was found to increase with the size of the subsidy under both sce- needs to be regarded as important as the incentive policy itself.
narios, as illustrated in Fig. 13. The consumers with elastic The budget allocation of this subsidy program was not available
demands required more incentives than those with inelastic to the public and whether the program had specific budget for
demands. On average, when the size of the subsidy reached the public awareness campaign was unknown. A sufficient budget
24.8%, consumers with inelastic demands would be very likely to for a public awareness campaign is essential for the success of an
buy energy-efficient appliances. In comparison, consumers with energy efficiency program. For example, the Energy Star program
elastic demand expected a 31.3% subsidy under the same situation. had spent over 2.5 billion cumulatively on advertising through
Regional effects were also observed – the subsidy expectations/ December 1999, reaching over 1 billion consumers [34]. Hence, it
requirement of consumers in smaller cities were much greater was recommended to the Chinese policymakers to enhance the
than those in bigger cities. marketing, advertising and outreach of the program by setting a
The average prices of refrigerators, air conditioners and TVs sufficient budget. The program should also diversify its communi-
were compared against the current subsidies in Tables 5–7. The cation channels, which could include print media, television com-
size of the subsidy ranged between 4% and 12% for these types of mercials and especially retail promotions. The effort made on the
appliances. In a study conducted in June 2012, a 20% subsidy was public campaign would not only increase the public awareness of
recommended by Top 10 China [32]. An Austrian appliance turn- the subsidy program but also bring long-term spillover effects that
in program offered both initial investment rebates and payments could contribute greatly to the eventual appliance market transfor-
for kW hs saved, and the rebate was the greater value of either mation towards higher energy efficiencies.
20% of the initial electricity bill or 20% of the cost of the new appli- The Chinese consumers’ willingness to pay for energy efficient
ance [33]. The current Chinese subsidy was rather small compared appliances was low, and their expectation for the subsidy was high.
with either the Chinese consumers’ expectation or some other Compared with their expectations, the current size of the subsidy
international practices. Hence, it was suggested that the program was rather small. Raising the threshold is important as there is a
Fig. 12. Consumers’ willingness to pay for EE appliances (N = 2630).
Fig. 13. Likelihood for consumers to buy appliances under different scenarios with various subsidy sizes (N = 2630).
Table 5
Average prices and the subsidy sizes for residential refrigerators, modified from [16].
Total storage volume (TSV) Energy efficiency requirement (g) Subsidy size (RMB) Average price (RMB) Subsidy/price ratio (%)
TSV 6 240 L g 6 32% 260 2175 12
240 L < TSV 6 300 L g 6 32% 330 4011 8
TSV > 300 L g 6 40% 400 7776 5
Table 6
Average prices and subsidy sizes for fixed speed and variable speed air conditioners, modified from [16].
Cooling capacity (W) Fixed speed air conditioner Variable speed air conditioner
Subsidy size (RMB) Average price (RMB) Subsidy/price ratio Subsidy size (RMB) Average price (RMB) Subsidy/price ratio
Tier 1 Tier 2 Tier 1 Tier 2 Tier 1 Tier 2 Tier 1 Tier 2
CC 6 4500 240 180 2551 9% 7% 300 240 3596 8% 7%
4500 < CC 6 7100 280 200 5461 5% 4% 350 280 6942 5% 4%
CC > 7100 330 250 6611 5% 4% 400 330 8878 5% 4%
Table 7
Average prices and subsidy sizes for Liquid Crystal Display TVs, modified from [16].
Screen size (in.) Subsidy size (RMB) Average price (RMB) Subsidy/price ratio
EEI P 1.7 EEI P 1.9 EEI P 1.7 EEI P 1.9
19 6 SS < 32 100 150 1549 6% 10%
32 6 SS < 42 250 300 2748 9% 11%
SS P 42 350 400 6339 5.5% 6.3%
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FS
Chapter XX
Green Labels and Standards for Appliances,
Equipment, and Lighting
OO
Lei Zeng2 , Yang Yu1 , and Jiayang Li1
1
CLASP China, Beijing, China
2 Malardalen University, Västerås, Sweden
PR
1 INTRODUCTION a portfolio of energy policies to choose, including strategic
energy pricing, financing and incentive programs, regulatory
In residential and commercial buildings, energy is consumed programs, government purchasing directives, and consumer
by appliances from air conditioners, refrigerators, water education.
heaters, and clothes-washing machines to microwave oven Improving appliance energy efficiency not only saves
GE
and televisions. In office buildings, energy is consumed by money and reduces pollution but also improves the indoor
everything from computers, copiers, fax machine, projectors, environment of homes and the productivity in commercial
and water coolers to lighting. Heating and cooling equipment buildings. Energy efficiency labels and standards for appli-
is a collection of energy-consuming equipment as well. ances, equipment, and lighting offer a huge opportunity to
Global final energy consumption for appliances, lighting, improve energy efficiency and are especially effective as an
cooking, and other equipment accounted for roughly 45% of energy policy. Government labeling and standards-setting
total final energy used in buildings in 2010 (IEA, 2013a). programs can affect most of the energy that will be used in
PA
The value of the global home appliance market is expected buildings just two decades from now, and most of the energy-
to reach US$295 billion in 2013, a 5% increase from US$281 consuming products that will account for building energy
billion in 2012 (IEA, 2013b). use 20 years from now have not yet been built (Wiel and
Appliance usages differ in various technologies; new McMahon, 2005).
household appliances are purchased every 5–20 years, while Energy-efficient appliances will generate the highest
consumables, such as mobile phones, have much shorter life energy savings and financial gains in market segments
spans (IEA, 2013a). Appliance usages also differ in various with high energy consumption, more rapid stock turnover,
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economies due to the difference in demographics, indus- and where technological change can significantly reduce
trial composition, economic growth, and energy services that energy consumption without increasing life cycle costs. For
each energy consumer chooses or desires to purchase. In the example, better refrigerator technology may reduce energy
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building sector, these differences in preferred energy services consumption by between 10% and 45% (DOE, 2012).
are affected by varying climates, construction methods, and The energy efficiency labeling and standards-setting
cultural habits. Each country can accommodate its natural programs are intended to reduce the energy consumption
growth in the demand for energy services by some combi- of all of these products without diminishing the services
nation of supplying more energy and improving the effi- they provide to consumers. In 2013, over 54 countries in the
ciency of energy consumption. However, improving energy world had standards and labeling (S&L) programs, covering
efficiency before increasing energy supply is generally the
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80% of the world population (DOE, 2012; Figure 1).

more economically efficient way to meet the national energy Well-designed mandatory energy efficiency standards
demand. To improve energy efficiency, governments have transform markets by removing inefficient products, with
Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Edited by Jinyue Yan.
the intent of increasing the overall economic welfare of
C 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-118-38858-7. most consumers without seriously limiting their choice
2 Energy Efficiencies and Emission Reduction
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Figure 1. Worldwide energy labels (DOE, 2012). PR
of products. Energy labels empower consumers to make trade but also enhance people’s lives by lowering consumers’
informed choices about the products they buy and to manage energy bills and making energy services more affordable,
their energy bills. enhancing labor markets, and improving public and environ-
mental health.
2 EFFECTIVENESS OF STANDARDS
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Perhaps the most dramatic example in the world of the effec- 3 ENERGY SAVINGS DUE TO ENERGY
tiveness of energy efficiency standards and labels is the trans- STANDARDS AND LABELS
formation of the refrigerator market in the United States
(Figure 2). The US refrigerator standards—which began in Labels and standards (S&L) are appropriate for most cultures
the mid-1980s—are expected to save consumers almost $40 and marketplaces, and therefore deserve to be the cornerstone
billion by 2015. Figure 2 shows how the 1990, 1993, and of any country’s balanced portfolio of energy policies and
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2001 US minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) programs. Often, mandatory standards and voluntary labels
shifted the market toward refrigerators that are substantially and other voluntary energy efficiency programs may achieve
more efficient (Wiel and McMahon, 2005; DOE, 2012). similar benefits. So which pinions to choose need to take
The 1993 US refrigerator standard represented a 25–30% into consideration the balance of programs that will most
increase in energy efficiency, eliminating 99% of the models effectively limit energy growth and at the same time stimulate
that were previously on the market. Then, due to the innova- economic growth. What specific tools to use will depend on
tion of new technologies in the intervening years, the 2001 individual national circumstances and other considerations?
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standard required an additional 25–30% efficiency increase Energy performance improvements in consumer products
that eliminated about 95% of the models on the market are an essential element in any government’s portfolio of
by that time. Even as energy use decreased over time, the energy efficiency and climate change mitigation programs.
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graph shows that refrigerators concurrently became larger Governments need to develop balanced programs, both
and less expensive. As a result of the continuous improve- voluntary and regulatory, that can remove cost-ineffective,
ment of the US refrigerator standard, the average new refrig- energy-wasting products from the marketplace and stim-
erator sold in the United States today uses, per year, only ulate the development of cost-effective, energy-efficient
a quarter of the electricity that would have been used by technology.
a refrigerator sold 30 years ago. The remarkable efficiency As a result of effective energy efficiency labels and
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improvements were achieved in the context of that the total standards system for appliances, equipment, and lighting
cost of ownership decreased by threefold, and the interior products, significant energy savings can be achieved. Effi-
refrigerator increased by 22%, and the new products have ciency standards currently in place in Australia, Canada,
increased features. Such improvements in energy efficiency the European Union (EU), India, Japan, Korea, Mexico,
not only improve a nation’s economic efficiency and foreign Russia, South Africa, and the United States are projected to
Green Labels and Standards for Appliances, Equipment, and Lighting 3

Energy use (kWh/year) or real price in (2009 dollars)
2000 20.0
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1978 CA standard
1500 15.0
Adjusted volume (cu ft)

Refrigerator 1980 CA standard
adjusted
volume 1987 CA standard
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1990 NAECA standard
1000 10.0
50-year 1993 DOE standard
declining
real price trend 2001 DOE standard
500 5.0
2014 consensus proposal
PRDesigns in research / demonstration in 2011

0 0.0
1945 1955 1955 1975 1985 1995 2005 2015 2025
Year shipped
Figure 2. Effectiveness of standards—The US Energy Efficiency Standards Program led to more efficient but less expensive refrigerators
(Wiel and McMahon, 2005; DOE, 2012).
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reduce annual electricity consumption by about 150 TWh The term “standards” commonly encompasses two mean-
and annual primary energy consumption by 1500 PJ by 2030 ings:
(Table 1; SEAD, 2011). These measures could save about
US$10 billion per year in net energy-related expenditure 1. well-defined protocols (or laboratory test procedures)
(i.e., reduced energy expenditure minus the additional cost by which to obtain a sufficiently accurate estimate of
of higher efficiency equipment). the energy performance of a product in the way it is
The potential for further reductions in energy demand typically used, or at least a relative ranking of its energy
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by raising the efficiency of products sold in these coun- performance compared to that of other models;
tries to world-best levels, and using other policy levers to 2. target limits on energy performance (usually maximum
sustain progress, could reduce annual demand for electricity use or minimum efficiency) based on a specified test
by 1800 TWh in 2030 (about two-thirds of 2007 electricity protocol. The term “norm” is sometimes used instead of
consumption in the EU). It would also conserve 21,000 PJ “standard” in Europe and Latin America to refer to the
per year of primary energy and lead to a net saving of target limit.
nearly US$150 billion per year on energy-related expendi-
ture. Appliance and equipment efficiency standards currently
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There are three types of energy efficiency standards.

under development by these countries cover product cate-
gories that would deliver nearly 10% of those potential elec-
4.1 Prescriptive standards
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tricity savings, and around 15% of the primary energy and

financial savings (SEAD, 2011).
Prescriptive standards require that a particular feature or
device be installed in all new products.
4 ENERGY EFFICIENCY STANDARDS

4.2 Minimum energy performance standards
(MEPS)
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Energy efficiency standards are regulations that specify the

minimum allowable energy performance for appliances,
lighting, and equipment, and usually prohibit manufac- Performance standards prescribe minimum efficiencies (or
turers from selling products that are less efficient than that maximum energy consumption) that manufacturers must
minimum level. achieve in each and every product, specifying the energy
Table 1. Estimate annual saving in 2030 in SEADa economies.

Current Finalized Best-Practice Portion of Potential
Measuresb Measuresc EE Potentiald Under Developmente
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Electricity savings (TWh/yr) 150 80 1800 170
Primary energy savings (PJ/yr) 1500 1000 21,000 3600
Net savings on energy-related US$11 US$7 US$ US$
expenditures (billion/yr)f
a
Super-efficient Equipment and Appliance Deployment (SEAD) Initiative members are Australia, Brazil, Canada, the European Commission, France,
Germany, India, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Russia, South Africa, Sweden, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
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b
Measures put into effect between January 2010 and April 2011.
c
Measures finalized between January 2010 and April 2011 but not yet put into effect.
d
Potential energy efficiency savings if all SEAD partners were to adopt the most stringent standards currently implemented around the world.
e
Portion of best-practice energy efficiency potential in SEAD member economies attributable to products with energy efficiency standards under development
as of April 2011.
f
Taking into account an estimate of the higher initial cost of more efficient products.
Source: SEAD (2011).
performance but not the technology or design details of the

product.
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efficiency, or energy cost); these labels give consumers the
In some circumstances, mandatory requirements are effec- data necessary to make informed purchases. Figure 3 shows
tive. When designed and implemented well, their advantages a few examples of energy labels in the world.
are as follows: Energy labels can stand alone or complement energy
standards. In addition to giving information that allows
1. They can produce very large energy savings. consumers to select efficient models, labels also provide a
2. They can be very cost effective and helpful at limiting common energy efficiency benchmark that makes it easier
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energy growth without limiting economic growth. for utility companies and government energy conservation
3. They require change in the behavior of a manage- agencies to offer consumers incentives to purchase energy-
able number of manufacturers rather than the entire efficient products. The effectiveness of energy labels is
consuming public. heavily dependent on how they present information to the
4. They treat all manufacturers, distributors, and retailers consumer and on how they are supported by information
equally. campaigns, financial incentives, and other related programs.
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5. The resulting energy savings are generally assured, From Figure 3, we can distinguish energy labels between
comparatively simple to quantify, and readily verified. two types.
4.3 Class-average standards 5.1 Endorsement labels
Class-average standards specify the average efficiency of a Endorsement labels are essentially “seals of approval”
manufactured product, allowing each manufacturer to select awarded to product models according to specified energy
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the level of efficiency for each model so that the overall efficiency criteria. By identifying the set of most energy-
average is achieved. efficient products for consumers, endorsement labels provide
Standards prevent inefficient products from entering the an incentive (market advantage) for manufacturers to build
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marketplace, encourage product manufacturers to increase products that meet the specified criteria. As there is no
product efficiency on a continuing basis, and raise the indication of which products among those endorsed are
average energy efficiency of products. more energy efficient, manufacturers may not need to design
products that are more efficient than their competitors’
products. Some examples of endorsement labels in the world
5 ENERGY EFFICIENCY LABELS include the US Energy Star label and European ecolabel.
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Energy efficiency labeling programs aim to shift markets 5.2 Comparative labels (categorical labels)
for energy-using products (EuP) toward improved energy
efficiency. Energy efficiency labels are informative labels Comparative labels allow consumers to compare energy
affixed to manufactured products to describe the product’s performance among models of similar products. By allowing
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Figure 3. Examples of energy labels.

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consumers to compare the energy efficiency of different energy efficiency policies and climate change mitigation
models while making a purchasing decision, comparative programs. Governments should develop balanced programs,
labels motivate manufacturers to build products that are both voluntary and regulatory, that removes cost-ineffective,
more efficient than their competitors’ products. Compara- energy-wasting products from the marketplace and stimu-
tive labels may use a continuous scale or discrete categories lates the development of cost-effective, energy-efficient tech-
of performance with minimum criteria for each level. Some nology, as shown in Figure 4.
examples of comparative labels include China’s categorical Figure 4 illustrates the process of market transformation
information label and EU’s ecodesign label. and product distribution resulting from S&L policies. The
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In addition to presenting information that allows average efficiency of appliances (without standards or labels)
consumers to select efficient appliances, energy efficiency is pushed toward the second curve (standards only) after
labels also facilitate effective procurement and incentive
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implementation of standards. Standards shift the distribution

programs. Utility companies and relevant government agen- of energy-efficient models of products sold in the market
cies use products differentiated by labels to offer consumers upward by eliminating inefficient models and establishing a
financial incentives, such as rebates, to buy energy-efficient baseline for programs that provide incentives for “beating the
products.
standard.”
Introducing the third curve (labels) can shift the distribu-
5.3 Rationale for energy efficiency labels and tion of energy-efficient models upward by providing infor-
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standards mation that allows consumers to make rational decisions

and by stimulating manufacturers to design products that
Energy performance improvements in consumer products achieve higher ratings than the minimum standard. There-
are an essential element in any government’s portfolio of fore, the product distribution is represented by the three
Benefits of standards and lables for product energy efficiency
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No standards or
lables
Standards only
Standards and
lables
Sales
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PR Efficiency
Figure 4. Benefits of standards and labels for product energy efficiency (Wiel and McMahon, 2005).
curves, which are baseline, minimum energy efficiency stan- 5. reducing GHG emissions to climate change goals,
dards, and energy labels. 6. reducing urban/regional air pollution.
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Together, these policies drive markets toward higher

efficiency products. Such market transformation can be As individual nations around the world increasingly adopt
enhanced by policies such as tax rebates to consumers for and expand standards-setting and labeling programs, the
purchasing higher efficiency products or phase-out of highly harmonization of elements of these programs often brings
inefficient products. For example, starting in 2009, China additional benefits, primarily
has highly subsidized the commercialization of efficient
lamps and issued a policy to phase out incandescent lamps
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• reducing program costs by adopting program elements

before 2016. Such combined policies of standards and from trade partners,
incentive policies would create large economies of scale for • avoiding or removing indirect barriers to trade,
energy-efficient appliances. • avoiding the dumping of inefficient products on trading
The above-mentioned benefits can easily be nullified if partners.
programs are not designed and implemented effectively.
The effect of well-designed energy efficiency labels and
standards is to reduce unnecessary electricity and fuel
6 OVERVIEW OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY
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consumption by household and office equipment, for

example, refrigerators, air conditioners, water heaters, and STANDARDS AND LABELS IN THE
electronic equipment. Reducing electricity use reduces WORLD
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fuel combustion in electric power plants. Cost-effective

reduction in overall fuel combustion has several beneficial Over the past two decades, energy efficiency S&L programs
consequences. The six most significant of these benefits are have proven to be highly effective in stimulating the develop-
ment of cost-effective, energy-efficient technologies in many
1. enhancing national economic efficiency and competi- countries. Starting from a few major economies such as the
tiveness, United States, EU, China, and Japan, S&L programs have
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2. reducing capital investment in energy supply infrastruc- increasingly become the cornerstone of most national energy
ture that brings more emissions, and climate change mitigation programs. In the fight against
3. enhancing consumer welfare, climate change, S&L for appliances offer enormous carbon
4. strengthening competitive markets for energy-efficient reduction potential and are an especially cost-effective policy
technologies, option for conserving energy—standards can save consumers
money, reduce power demand, and slash greenhouse gas labels to their appliances to give consumers important
emissions. This chapter has taken a few examples of effective information about energy use.
energy labeling systems from the United States, EU, China,
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Japan, Korea, and Australia to illustrate the wide application
of green labels for appliances.
6.1.3 ENERGY STAR labels
Energy Star (trademarked ENERGY STAR) is an inter-
6.1 United States national standard for energy-efficient consumer products
originated in the United States. It was created in 1992
In the past decades, the United States developed a compre- by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the
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hensive scheme for energy efficiency standards and labels. DOE. Both DOE and EPA jointly manage ENERGY STAR.
The US policy framework covers mandatory appliance and The ENERGY STAR label is available for use on more
equipment standards, mandatory EnergyGuide Labels, and than 60 product categories including home and office
voluntary Energy Star Labels. The extensive use of energy electronic equipment, buildings, and household appliances
labeling tools has contributed highly to the improvement of (Figure 6).
energy efficiency of equipment and appliances. Since the creation of ENERGY STAR, Australia, Canada,
PR Japan, New Zealand, Taiwan, and the EU have adopted
the program. Devices carrying the ENERGY STAR service
6.1.1 US energy efficiency standards mark, such as computer products and peripherals, kitchen
appliances, buildings, and other products, generally use
The US Department of Energy’s (DOE) Appliances and
20–30% less energy than required by federal standards
Commercial Equipment Standards Program develops test
(EPA, 2013).
procedures and minimum efficiency performance standards
(MEPS) for residential appliances and commercial equip-
ment. The first appliance standards were enacted in 1987, and 6.1.4 Basic organization of the US standards and
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since that time, a series of laws and DOE regulations have labeling system
established, and periodically updated, energy efficiency or
water use standards for over 50 categories of appliances and The responsibility for S&L in the United States is split
equipment used in the residential, commercial, and industrial among three agencies—DOE, EPA, and FTC. The break-
sectors (DOE, 2012). down of responsibilities is pictured in Figure 7.
6.1.2 EnergyGuide labels 6.2 Legislative S&L history

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The EnergyGuide provides consumers in the United States The movement for federal appliance efficiency standards
information about the energy consumption, efficiency, started in the 1970s, when several states were adopting appli-
and operating costs of appliances and consumer products. ance efficiency standards. The EPCA of 1975 established
The US Federal Trade Commission’s (FTC) Appliance a federal energy conservation program for major house-
Labeling Rule currently requires EnergyGuide labels hold appliances by calling for appliance efficiency targets
on refrigerators, freezers, dishwashers, clothes washers, and mandatory labels. However, little progress was made to
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room air conditioners, water heaters, furnaces, boilers, establish standards until the 1980s.
central air conditioners, heat pumps, pool heaters, and The FTC’s Appliance Labeling Rule went into effect in
televisions. The label must show the model number, the 1980, requiring manufacturers to attach comparative labels to
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size, key features, and display largely a graph showing the select products. By 1986, appliance manufacturers realized
estimated annual energy cost in range with similar models that uniform federal standards were preferable to a variety of
(Figure 5). state standards. The National Appliance Energy Conserva-
Appliance energy labeling was mandated by the Energy tion Act of 1987 established minimum efficiency standards
Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA) of 1975, which for many household appliances. Congress set initial federal
directed the FTC to “develop and administer a mandatory energy efficiency standards and established schedules for
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energy labeling program covering major appliances, equip- DOE to review these standards.
ment, and lighting.” The first appliance labeling rule was The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EP Act) added stan-
established in 1979 and all products were required to carry dards for some additional products and allowed for the
the label starting in 1980. Since 1980, manufacturers of future development of standards for many other products.
certain appliances have been required to attach comparison EP Act also provided for voluntary testing and consumer
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Figure 5. US EnergyGuide label.
information programs for office equipment, luminaries, and 6.3 S&L regulatory process
windows. In that same year, the EPA introduced ENERGY
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STAR as a voluntary endorsement labeling program. A federal standard for energy or water conservation prod-
The Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of ucts preempts state standards. States may petition DOE for
2007 also added standards for some additional products and an exemption from federal standards, under certain circum-
included provisions to expedite the standard-setting process. stances.
• Product performance will be maintained or enhanced.

• Purchasers of the product will recover any cost differ-
ence within a reasonable time period.
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• Specifications do not unjustly favor any one technology.
• Labeling will effectively differentiate products to
purchasers.
Additional criteria can trigger the revision of an existing

ENERGY STAR specification. Generally, if ENERGY
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STAR-qualified products in a particular category make up at
least 50% of the market, this will prompt consideration for a
specification revision. However, there are other factors that
weigh into the decision, such as,
• a change in the Federal minimum efficiency standards;

PR • technological advances in energy efficiency that allow a
revised ENERGY STAR specification to capture addi-
tional savings;
• product availability;
• significant issues with consumers realizing expected
energy savings;
Figure 6. US ENERGY STAR label. • performance or quality issues; or
• issues with test procedures.
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Figure 8 outlines the process, led by DOE, for developing

or revising standards and test procedures. Before developing or revising an ENERGY STAR
Voluntary endorsement labels follow a different process specification, Product Development teams follow an
for development and revision. EPA and DOE consider the established evaluation process (Figure 9) that draws
following criteria when determining whether to develop or upon the expertise and resources of other stakeholders,
revise ENERGY STAR product specifications: including manufacturers, utilities, environmental groups,
and other government agencies. This process leads to better
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• Significant energy savings will be realized on a national informed decisions, ensures that new product specifications
basis. are consistent with guiding principles, and ensures that
• Product energy consumption and performance can be ENERGY STAR’s actions are effectively communicated to
measured and verified with testing. stakeholders, particularly in new target markets.
Environmental Department of Federal trade

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protection agency (EPA) energy (DOE) commission (FTC)

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Manages Establishes test Regulates Lables Lables

endorsement procedures and residential commercial residential
lables enforcement appliances and equipment appliances and
measures commercial commercial
equipment equipment
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ENERGY STAR (voluntary Mandatory energy EnergyGuide (mandatory

endorsement lable) conservation standards (MFPS) comparative lable)
Figure 7. US governmental organization on energy labels (CLASP, 2013).

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Notice of
Framework Preliminary proposed
Final rule
document analysis rulemaking
(NOPR)
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Outlines rulemaking Discusses results of Provides results of Final rule is published
scope and relevant preliminary technical revised technical Standard usually goes
analyses analyses analyses into effect 3 years
Requests feedback Indicates scope and Proposes standard later
from stakeholders type of rule being level
considered Holds a hearing and
Holds a hearing and requests final
requests comments comments
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Figure 8. The US Energy Efficiency Standards Development Process (CLASP, 2013).
Test
Market, methadology
industry and development Release
Energy & design (as necessary) draft
environmental research specification
analysis
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Stakeholder
meetings
Stakeholder 4
3 5
notification Release
nal coordinatio
2
rnatio
6 subsequent drafts
with interim
te n decision memos
1
In 7 (as necessary)
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Open
specification 8
15
for revisions Post drafts
(as necessary) Inte tion and stakeholder
rnation i n a 9 comments to
Monitor
14
13
a l coord 10
website
market 11
12
penetration Officially Finalize
specification
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launch
specification Manufactures Final
with industry join program decision
and as partners Specification memorandum
and begin takes
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stakeholders
labling effect
products
Figure 9. ENERGY STAR specification development cycle (ENERGY STAR, 2013).

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6.3.1 Impact of the US ENERGY STAR labeling from manufacturers and trade associations to retailers and
program efficiency program providers to home builders and small
A broad range of 18,000 partners across every sector of businesses. ENERGY STAR has grown to represent prod-
the economy drive the ENERGY STAR program’s success ucts in more than 65 different categories, with more than 4.5
billion sold over the past 20 years (ENERGY STAR, 2013). ecodesign. The Energy Labeling Directive 2010/30/EU
More than 1.4 million new homes and more than 20,000 and the Ecodesign Directive 2009/125/EC are consid-
facilities carry EPA’s ENERGY STAR certification, use ered to be pillars of the EU’s energy efficiency policy
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dramatically less energy, and are responsible for substantially and they can also significantly contribute to other
less greenhouse gas emissions than their peers (ENERGY EU policies such as resource efficiency, water effi-
STAR, 2013). ciency, and air pollution. The Ecodesign and Energy
The program’s emphasis on testing, third-party review, Labeling Directives are complementary, as they, respec-
and compliance screening bolsters its integrity and ensures tively, push and pull the market toward more efficient
that consumers can trust ENERGY STAR-certified prod- products.
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ucts, homes, and commercial facilities to deliver the energy In addition to mandatory EU policies of ecodesign and
savings promised by the label. categorical energy labeling system, EU also developed a
EPA has evolved the ENERGY STAR program to serve voluntary endorsement label that is EU Eco-label.
as a national platform and a catalyst to deliver real energy
efficiency by addressing market barriers. To move energy 6.4.1 Ecodesign requirements
efficiency into the future, EPA continues to increase the
stringency of ENERGY STAR performance specifications The production, distribution, use, and end-of-life
across all products, homes, buildings, and plants.
By 2012, an ENERGY STAR clothes washer uses about
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70% less energy and 75% less water than a standard washer
management of products is associated with impacts on
the environment (consumption of natural resources and
energy responsible for global warming, waste and release of
used 20 years ago (ENERGY STAR, 2013). hazardous substances). More than 80% of this is determined
In 2012, EPA completed the transition to new, more at the design stage (European Commission, 2013b).
rigorous requirements for homes to earn the ENERGY STAR EU has defined products by EuP and energy-related prod-
label. Homes certified under the new requirements are at least ucts (ErP). ErP are products that use energy or that do not use
15% more efficient than those built to the 2009 International energy but have an indirect impact on energy consumption.
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Energy Conservation Code (IECC) and include additional ErP account for a large proportion of the energy consumption
energy-saving features to deliver a performance advantage of in the EU and include the following:
up to 30% compared to typical new homes (ENERGY STAR,
2013). • EuP that use, generate, transfer, or measure energy
The ENERGY STAR label has grown into an incredibly (electricity, gas, fossil fuel), such as boilers, computers,
valuable asset to the environment, to consumers, and to televisions, transformers, industrial fans, and industrial
the product manufacturers, home builders, and building furnaces.
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owners and property managers who earn it. By 2012, • Other ErP that do not use energy but have an impact
85% of Americans recognize the blue ENERGY STAR on energy and can therefore contribute to saving energy,
label. Of the households that knowingly purchased an such as windows, insulation material, shower heads, and
ENERGY STAR-certified product, about 75% credited taps. The Directive is under the responsibility of DG
the label as an important factor in their decision. The Enterprise and Industry and DG Energy.
latest Good Housekeeping internal reader audit shows
that at 92%, ENERGY STAR is now tied with Good In order to reduce the environmental burden in the product
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Housekeeping in terms of brand influence (ENERGY design phase, the European Commission proposed a frame-
STAR, 2013). work directive on setting ecodesign requirements for EuP,
Families and companies across America are improving the which was adopted in 2005. The directive allows for the defi-
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energy efficiency of their homes and businesses with help nition of ecodesign specifications on a product-specific basis.
from ENERGY STAR in ways that cost less and help the The Ecodesign Directive establishes a legal framework
environment. for the Commission to regulate the environmental charac-
teristics of ErP placed on the EU market (regardless of
their origin) through adopting implementing measures laying
6.4 European Union (EU) down ecodesign requirements.
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In 2008, the Commission proposed to extend the direc-

Energy efficiency legislation for household appliances tive to cover ErP, such as windows, doors, and insulation
in EU focused on two approaches: energy labeling materials, that do not directly consume energy but have a
and MEPS. EU began through appliance labeling and significant impact on its consumption. The recast directive
has moved on to include MEPS developed through was adopted in 2009.
The Ecodesign Directive is a framework directive. Table 2. Overview of ecodesign measure, 2011.
This means that the directive does not provide directly Product Group Ecodesign Measures
specific ecodesign requirements for specific products but
Dish washers Implemented November 2010
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gives a general framework for specific requirements. In Washing machines Implemented November 2010
the Ecodesign Directive, the conditions and criteria for Air conditioners Implemented March 2012
the ecodesign requirements through subsequent imple- Space and combination heaters Not implemented yet
mentation measures are defined. The Ecodesign Directive Water heaters Not implemented yet
Computers and servers Not implemented yet
indicates that implementing measures or self-regulating Directional lighting Not implemented yet
initiatives (voluntary agreements) should be adopted for Domestic lighting Implemented September 2009
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products with a significant European sales volume (approxi- External power supplies Implemented April 2009
mately >200,000/year), a significant environmental impact Laundry driers Implemented October 2012
Ovens, hobs, and grills Not implemented yet
(approximately >1000 PJ/year), and a significant potential Refrigerators and freezers Implemented July 2009
for improvement (approximately >20%) (Bertoldi et al., Residential ventilation Not implemented yet
2012). Simple set-top boxes Implemented February 2009
Complex set-top boxes VA implemented July 2010
Standby and off mode Implemented December 2008
6.5 Priority products under the EU Ecodesign PR Televisions Implemented July 2009
Imaging equipment VA implemented January 2011
Directive
Source: EU Energy Efficiency Status Report 2012.
The Directive is applied to the following product groups:
• heating and water heating equipment; the consumption/running cost of a product before they make
• electric motors; their purchasing decision (Figure 10).
• lighting in the residential and tertiary sectors; According to the new labeling directive, new energy effi-
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• domestic appliances; ciency classes in addition to the already existing classes

• office equipment in the residential and tertiary sectors; (A–G) on the basis of the Energy Efficiency Index (EEI) can
• consumer electronics; be added (e.g., A+, A++, and A+++) and the coverage is
• HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) also extended to nonresidential equipment. A maximum of
systems. seven energy classes must be kept.
By the end of 2011, EU has implemented mandatory
These product groups are considered to be priorities under energy labels for over 16 product categories and had 25–30
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the European program on climate change (EPCC). labels in preparation. The upgrading of energy labeling
By the end of 2012, 16 product groups were regulated requirements is estimated to be every 4–5 years (Bertoldi
and regulations for another 6 product groups are expected to et al., 2012).
be finalized before the end of 2013. Voluntary agreements ENERGY STAR Program: In addition to the EU Energy
address minimum energy efficiency requirements for two Labeling program, EU has also endorsed the US ENERGY
further product groups and there are standby energy use STAR system. In 2006, the new EU-US ENERGY STAR
requirements for a large range of appliances (Table 2). Agreement for office equipment came into force for a second
period of 5 years. The ENERGY STAR logo is regarded
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helping consumers identify office equipment products that

6.5.1 EU energy labels save energy and money effectively. Manufacturers, assem-
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A harmonized EU framework for energy labeling of house- blers, exporters, importers, and retailers willing to place the
hold appliances has been in place since 1979 and became ENERGY STAR label on products meeting or exceeding
mandatory in all EU member states from 1992. In 2010, energy efficiency guidelines can register with the European
the scope of the Energy Labeling Directive was expanded Commission.
to include ErP. The Energy Labeling Directive 2010/30/EU
establishes a legal framework for the Commission to set
6.5.2 Effectiveness of EU energy labels—The
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mandatory energy labeling requirements for ErP (except European Union’s refrigerator labeling
vehicles) placed on the EU market (regardless of their scheme
origin) through adopting delegated acts (implementing
directives under Directive 92/75/EEC). Energy labels allow EU product policy started in the 1990s and now covers a
consumers to make informed choices by being alerted on number of EuP that are sold in the EU market. Annual energy
scheme (as illustrated in Figure 11) showed dramatic effi-

ciency improvements and impacts. The average energy effi-
ciency of refrigeration appliances sold improved by 26%
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between 1992 and late 1999, with over one-third of the
impact attributable to the new labels (CLASP, 2013).
6.5.3 EU Ecolabels
The EU Ecolabel was launched in 1992 when the European
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Community decided to develop a Europe-wide voluntary
environmental scheme that consumers could trust. The func-
tioning of the EU Ecolabel is set through a Regulation of the
European Parliament and of the Council. Its daily manage-
ment is carried out by the European Commission together
with bodies from the Member States and other stakeholders
(Figure 12).
PR The EU Ecolabel is a voluntary scheme, which means
that producers, importers, and retailers can choose to apply
for the label for their products. The EU Ecolabel helps
consumers identify products and services that have a reduced
environmental impact throughout their life cycle, from the
extraction of raw material through to production, use, and
disposal. Recognized throughout Europe, EU Ecolabel is a
voluntary label promoting environmental excellence that can
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be trusted.
The EU Ecolabel scheme is a commitment to environ-
mental sustainability. The criteria have been developed and
agreed upon by scientists, NGOs, and stakeholders to create
a credible and reliable way to make environmentally respon-
sible choices.
From the raw materials to manufacturing, packaging,
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distribution, and disposal, EU Ecolabel products are evalu-

ated by independent experts to ensure they meet criteria that
reduce their environmental impact. The EU Ecolabel is an
easy way to make an informed choice about the products
consumers are buying.
The scheme is voluntary, but hundreds of companies
across Europe have joined because of EU Ecolabel’s compet-
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itive edge and commitment to the environment. Customers

can rely on the logo because every product is checked by
independent experts.
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Since 1992, the number of products and services awarded

the EU Ecolabel has increased every year. By the end of
Figure 10. EU energy information labels.
2011, more than 1300 licenses had been awarded, and today,
the EU Ecolabel can be found on more than 17,000 products.
A licence gives a company the right to use the EU Ecolabel
logo for a specific product group (European Commission,
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savings resulting from the S&L regulations are estimated to 2013a; Figure 13).
reach 90 Mtoe by 2020. The EU Ecolabel currently covers a huge range of prod-
The case of refrigerator efficiency in the EU market ucts and services, all nonfood and nonmedical. Tissue paper
demonstrates the impressive impact an energy label can and all-purpose cleaners each equate to around 10% of EU
have on appliance efficiency. The EU’s refrigerator labeling Ecolabel products, while indoor paints and varnishes make
50
Impact of EU refrigerator energy label
45
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40 2003 first 3 months
1997
35 1990–1992 (GEA)
Market share (%)
30
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25
20
15
10
0
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A+ A B C D E F G
Energy label class
Figure 11. Impact of EU refrigerator energy label (Wiel and McMahon, 2005).
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The EU Ecolabel has been awarded to the largest number

of products in Italy, France, and the United Kingdom. Italy
has issued more than 50% of the total number of Ecolabel
awards, while France and United Kingdom total 22% and
9%, respectively. These are followed by the Netherlands and
Spain. While these statistics refer to the awarding countries,
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EU Ecolabel products can be sold across the continent (Euro-

pean Commission, 2013a).
6.6 China
China is the world’s largest producer and consumer of house-

hold appliances, lighting, and other residential and commer-
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cial equipment (Figure 14).
6.6.1 China Legislative S&L history

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Implementation of China’s energy efficiency S&L is

governed by a variety of laws and regulations and carried out
by several related agencies and departments. The primary
Figure 12. EU voluntary ecolabels. law of relevance is the Standardization Law of China and
the Energy Conservation Law of China.
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The concept of appliance efficiency standard was intro-

up nearly 14%. The largest product group is hard floor cover- duced in 1988 after the Standardization Law of China
ings, which total more than 33% of EU Ecolabel products. was adopted by China’s National People’s Congress.
Meanwhile, there are hundreds of TVs, soaps, and shampoos This law sets the basis for the formulation, implemen-
to be found. tation, management, and other related responsibilities of
1600
1400
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1200
1000
800
Total number of
licences issued
600
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400
200
0
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Figure 13. Number of EU eco-labeled products per product group category (January 2012) (European Commission, 2013a).
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Small and medium three phase
asynchronous motors 36.2% Compact fluorescent lamps 4.9%
Three phase dustribution transformers 3.3%
Microwave ovens 0.2%
Double-capped
Household electromagnetic stoves 1.5% fluorescent lamps 1.5%
High intensity
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AC fans 0.1%
discharge lamps 2.6%
Automatic electric rice cookers 1.0% Others Computer monitors 0.1%
14.1%
Washing machines 0.3% Copy machines 0.1%
Unitary air conditioners 7.5%
Storage tank electric waer heaters 0.7%
Water chillers 1.5%
Variable speed air conditioners 0.8%
Multi-split air conditioners
Room air conditioners 5.3%
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(hear pump) system 0.8%

Refrigerators 1.7% Other not inculded products 29.9%
Figure 14. 2011 breakdown of electricity consumption for typical energy-using products in China (CNIS White Paper 2012).
efficiency standards and designates the State Council’s top 25% most efficient products. China National Devel-
administrative department of standardization to oversee a opment and Reform Commission (NDRC) also issued
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unified national mandatory efficiency standards program. Energy Conservation Products Certification policy in 1999
As a result, the first batch of MEPS was adopted in to establish the administrative framework for certifying
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1989 for eight major products, including refrigerators, standards and the voluntary endorsement label (CNIS,
room air conditioners, clothes washers, rice cookers, and 2012).
televisions. More recently, the mandatory categorical energy infor-
In 1995, the China National Institute of Standardization mation label known as the China Energy Label was estab-
(CNIS) was authorized to organize MEPS development lished in 2005 following legal provisions in the Energy
and revision. Subsequently, in 1999, the CNIS began Conservation Law with supporting regulation and support
the process of revising single-period mandatory energy for implementation in the Product Quality Law and Legis-
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efficiency standards and developing new standards to lation on Certification & Accreditation. The administration
follow international best practice while the China Standards of the China Energy Label program along with details on
Certification Center launched a new voluntary energy supervision and implementation, penalties, and other supple-
efficiency endorsement labeling program targeting the mentary provisions were established in the Administration
Regulation on Energy Efficiency Label (Zhou and Khanna,

2013).
In a summary, China’s energy efficiency S&L scheme
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covers MEPS, voluntary endorsement label that is similar to
the US ENERGY STAR, and a mandatory energy informa-
tion labeling system.
BCD–268
6.6.2 China minimum energy performance standards
(MEPS)
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China first adopted MEPS in 1989. By the end of 2012,
1
there were 48 MEPS standards issued covering a wide range
of domestic, commercial, and selected industrial equipment 2 2
(Zhou and Khanna, 2013; Table 3).
3
6.6.3 China mandatory information label PR 4
China’s mandatory energy information label is similar to
the EU Labeling program as they both employ a categorical 5
labeling system. This program was first implemented as a
mandatory energy information label in 2005. And since then,
China has developed labels covering 26 products by the end
of 2012 (CLASP, 2013; Figure 15, Table 4).
0.89
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6.6.4 China voluntary endorsement label 160

In 1999, China launched a voluntary endorsement label, as of
180
the end of 2011, a total of 78 energy-saving products and 20
renewable energy products had received endorsement labels
(China CNIS White Paper, 2012; Figure 16).
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Table 3. Overview of China’s energy efficiency standards.

Product Group Implementation Data for Energy
Efficiency Standards Figure 15. China mandatory energy information label.
Domestic refrigerators/freezers 2009
Fixed speed room air conditioners 2004
Variable speed air conditioners 2008
Clothes washers 2004 6.6.5 Effectiveness of China’s energy efficiency
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Electric rice cookers 2009 standards and energy labeling system

Electric fans 2009
Compact fluorescent lamps 2003 China conducted a study on effectiveness of China’s energy
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Linear fluorescent lamps 2003 efficiency standards and energy labeling system in 2012,
Televisions 2010
this study made estimations of 19 product categories
Induction cookers 2008
Copier and fax machines 2011 covering room air conditioners, household refrigerators,
Electric water storage heaters 2008 washing machines, gas water heaters, variable speed room
Gas water heaters 2006 air conditioners, electric water heaters, induction cooktops,
Solar water heaters 2012
Heat pump water heaters 2013
automatic electric rice cookers, AC electric fans, unitary
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Computer monitors 2009 air conditioners, small and medium three-phase asyn-
Set-top boxes 2011 chronous motors, water chillers, multisplit air conditioning
Air compressor 2009 systems, compressors, ventilation fans, computer monitors,
Source: China CNIS White Paper on Appliance Energy Efficiency copy machines, self-ballasted fluorescent lamps, and high
(2010–2012). pressure sodium lamps.
Table 4. Product categories under China’s energy labeling system.
Household appliances Household refrigerators, room air
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conditioners, washing machines,
household gas-fired tankless water
heaters, combined gas-fired air and
water furnace, variable speed room
air conditioners, electric storage
tank water heaters, household
induction cooktops, automatic
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electric rice cookers, AC electric
fans, flat panel televisions,
household and similar purpose
microwave ovens, digital television
receivers
Lighting equipment Self-ballasted fluorescent lamps, high
pressure sodium lamps
Office equipment Computer monitors, copy machines,
printers, fax machines PR
Commercial equipment Unitary air conditioners, water
chillers, multisplit air conditioning
(heat pump) systems, displacement
compressors
Industrial equipment Small and medium three-phase
asynchronous motors, power Figure 16. China voluntary energy efficiency endorsement label.
transformers, ventilation fans, AC
contactors
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Source: China CNIS White Paper on Appliance Energy Efficiency “top runner,” or top-performing, products in the market.
(2010–2012).
The program currently targets 23 product groups in the
residential, commercial, and transport sectors. This policy is
now considered one of the pillars of Japanese climate policy.
On the basis of the estimates made by CNIS in 2012, the
The scope of the program is based on three criteria:
accumulated energy savings of the energy efficiency stan-
dards have been implemented for some time totaling 687.8
• products involving large domestic shipments;
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billion kWh of electricity or 248 million tons of standard coal

• products that consume a substantial amount of energy in
equivalent (tce). This resulted in 640 million tons of carbon
the use phase;
dioxide emissions reduction and 2.82 million tons of sulfur
• products with considerable room to improve energy effi-
dioxide emissions reduction (CNIS White Paper, 2012).
ciency.
6.7 Japan The program started with 11 products: room air condi-
tioners, fluorescent lighting, televisions, copying machines,
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Japan consumes approximately 4% of the world’s primary computers, magnetic disk units, video cassette recorders,
energy. The 1979 Energy Conservation Law provides the refrigerators, passenger vehicles, and freight vehicles. After
foundation for Japan’s energy efficiency policy. The law was it showed impact, the METI added three more products in
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revised in 1999, and since that time, the Japanese Ministry 2005, followed by an additional seven in 2002 and two more
of Economic, Trade and Industry (METI) has administered in 2009, resulting in the present coverage of 23 items. The
the Top Runner program to drive improvements in energy product coverage is reviewed every 2–3 years.
efficiency across 23 product categories (Hamamoto, 2011). The Top Runner Program has the following characteris-
Top Runner is a “maximum standard value system” that tics:
sets efficiency targets based on the most energy-efficient
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products available on the market at the time. The METI • The Top Runner concept sets standards for both avail-
launched the Top Runner program in 1998 to improve able products and future technological developments.
the energy efficiency of end-use products. As part of the • Manufacturers accepted the standards because of their
Energy Conservation Law, the program sets mandatory flexibility and the realistic targets, which were set in
energy efficiency standards, based on the most efficient consultation with industrial groups.
• A government-induced labeling program ensures that This means that manufacturers must achieve the standards
Top Runner products are publically highlighted. on average, based on the number of products they sell. This
• Compliance with the standards increased the energy flexibility enables manufactures to provide a range of models
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efficiency of Japanese appliances. to meet the market demand (from inexpensive but energy-
inefficient models to expensive but energy-efficient models)
Performance targets for enterprises are based on the value while guiding the overall market to greater energy efficiency.
of the most energy-efficient product at a given time rather Naming and shaming noncomplying producers.
than fixed targets. In case of noncompliance, the Top Runner program takes
Targets are periodically reviewed and aligned based on the a “name-and-shame” approach. The METI first makes a
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performance of the “best in the class,” which creates a bench- recommendation to the noncomplying producer to improve
mark. Standards are essentially anchored on data relating the energy efficiency performances and then goes public
to the appliances currently sold in the market. However, with that recommendation if the producer does not comply.
projected technological improvements are also considered. If all of these attempts failed, the METI will order the
For example, the Top Runner standards for room air condi- producer to meet the recommendations. Thus far, this
tioners smaller than 4 kW for 2010 were set based on an name-and-shame approach appears to be working well;
anticipated 3–4% improvement of the Top Runner products
PR no manufacturer has been publicized as noncomplying
in 2005. This projection was assessed during a discussion to date.
within the Air Conditioner Evaluation Standard Subcom- A voluntary labeling scheme helps consumers make
mittee in 2006 (METI, 2010). informed choices.
Because detailed market and engineering information on
To popularize highly efficient machinery and equipment
targeted products is required, there is strong involvement of
that have achieved the Top Runner status by distinguishing
industry associations during the standard-setting process. It
them from conventional goods, the METI in 2000 created
usually takes about a year or two to set the standard for one
the Energy Saving Labeling Program, which is based on
product. Additionally, standards are differentiated by various
the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS). The label includes
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parameters, such as the size of a liquid crystalline display or

a symbol that shows the degree of energy-saving standards
the weight of a vehicle.
of a particular product, the energy-saving standard achieve-
An institutional framework for setting the Top Runner
ment rate, the energy consumption efficiency, and the target
standards is established.
per fiscal year. During the initial phase, the labeling program
Japan’s energy conservation policies are determined by an
targeted five product categories, including air conditioners,
Advisory Committee for Natural Resources and Energy. The
Committee is an advisory body to the METI Minister. For fluorescent lights, televisions, refrigerators, and freezers.
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the Top Runner standard values, evaluation standard subcom- Additional product items, including computers, magnetic
mittees consist of representatives of academia, industry, disk units, and transformers, followed later.
consumer groups, local governments, and the media; the Participation in the energy-saving labeling program is
members determine the standard details, including technical voluntary, based on the JIS system. Labeling can appear on
feasibility for individual machinery and equipment products. products, product catalogues, packaging, and tags.
The Energy Efficiency Standards Subcommittee approves Impact of the Top Runner System.
the draft and then submits a final version to the Advisory The Top Runner standards, combined with the labeling
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Committee for Natural Resources and Energy for endorse- program, have also had a positive impact on investment in
ment. The METI authorizes the energy efficiency standards, innovation. It is found that both programs led to a 9.5%
based on the final report of the Energy Efficiency Standards increase in R&D expenditure at 13 major Japanese appliance
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Committee. manufacturing firms (Hamamoto, 2011).

Not the absolute but the weighted average energy effi- METI assessed the investment and benefits resulting from
ciency of all products manufactured within 1 year marks Top Runner energy efficiency standards initiated between
compliance. 2003 and 2015. It is revealed that manufacturer investment
To comply with the Top Runner standards, manufacturers totaling JPY 246 billion and life cycle benefits to consumers
must ensure that the weighted average energy efficiency of totaling JPY 416 billion. For the majority of product cate-
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the products sold in the target year achieves the required gories, benefits to consumers have exceeded the costs to
standards. Weighted average energy efficiency = the sum manufacturers; in some cases, however, costs to manufac-
of {[(the number of units shipped domestically for each turers have been very high, particularly in relation to the
product name and type) × (energy consumption efficiency energy savings achieved, for example, for microwaves and
per unit)]/the total number of units shipped domestically}. personal computers.
6.8 Korea S&L programs in Australia is a cooperative process between

government and industry and makes use of technical
South Korea consumes approximately 1.9% of the world’s and economic analysis to determine appropriate energy
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primary energy. Mandatory standards and labels programs efficiency targets.
are a key feature of Korea’s energy conservation program
(SEAD Initiative, 2013). In 1992, Korea launched the Energy
Efficiency Standards and Labeling Program, which includes 7 CONCLUSIONS
MEPS. The programs cover 26 products (recently window
set, transformer, and TV are included), including refrigera- S&L are two principal energy efficiency policies that
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tors and air conditioners, and have dramatically improved the target market transformation in equipment markets.
energy efficiency of common appliances. Energy efficiency standards restrict the market to those
Both comparative and endorsement energy efficiency products that meet the prescribed MEPS. Energy labels
labels are used in Korea. High energy-consuming products supplement standards by informing consumers about the
are rated from grade 5 to grade 1. Korea’s High-efficiency energy performance of a product and the benefits of highly
Appliance Certification Program promotes products that efficient products. They can push the market to efficiency
perform better than established efficiency standards. There levels even higher than those prescribed by the minimum
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are 42 target products including motors, boilers, and lighting.
Korea’s e-standby program is the first mandatory Standby
Power Warning Label program in the world. It mandates the
standards. The successful implementation of green labels in
the wide range of countries has proved the high effectiveness
of the green labels.
reporting of standby power of target products and labeling of Mixed policy tools work better than a single policy tool.
products that fail to meet the standby standard. A successful mix of regulations and policies can play
The Ministry of Knowledge Economy (MKE) and Korea a more effective role in stimulating the energy efficiency
Energy Management Corporation (KEMCO) operate all market than a single policy tool. Measures for transforming
three energy efficiency programs. The Korean Agency for appliance market could include mandatory MEPS, voluntary
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Technology and Standards is a specialized institute to lead energy labels, mandatory energy information labels, incen-
the industrial standards and technical evaluation in Korea. tive policies, public procurement policies, energy pricing,
public awareness campaign, and both demand side and
supply side management. A custom-made policy with mixed
6.9 Australia tools has showed very positive impact on the size of national
energy efficiency markets.
Australia consumes approximately 1.0% of the world’s Stringency of requirements is the key to realize energy
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primary energy. For over 20 years, Australia has used savings.

mandatory energy labels as a means of promoting appliance Energy efficiency requirements need to be timely
and equipment energy efficiency. MEPS were introduced in upgraded to keep pace with the appliance technologies
the 1990s to improve energy efficiency across a broad range development and the evolvement of appliance markets.
of appliances and equipment. While many countries developed their energy efficiency
Australia’s appliance energy efficiency programs are S&L system, significant energy savings cannot be achieved
established and managed by the Department of Climate unless periodic policy review and market assessment
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Change and Energy Efficiency. The Energy Rating Label are conducted to ensure the robustness and stringency
was first introduced in Australia in 1986 and is now manda- of the existing standards. This is particularly true for
tory for refrigerators, freezers, clothes washers, clothes fast-changing technologies such as televisions or mobile
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dryers, dishwashers, air conditioners, and televisions. The communication devices. Various studies showed that strong
star rating provides a comparative assessment of a product’s demand is projected for information and communication
energy efficiency and provides an estimate of annual energy technologies (ICT) equipment, where the relatively short
consumption. MEPS programs are developed at the state life cycles of mobile telephones and laptops, and rapid
level and regulate appliances that are manufactured in or product development, ensure frequent replacement levels.
imported into Australia. However, significant savings can also be realized in the
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The Equipment Energy Efficiency (E3) Committee, “traditional” appliance market, traditional appliances such
consisting of officials from the Commonwealth, State, and as air conditioners and refrigerators still represent large
Territory government agencies and representatives from energy consumption, as well as saving potentials. For
New Zealand, is responsible for managing the Australian example, raising the efficiency of products sold in some of
end-use energy efficiency program. The development of the world’s major markets to global best levels, and using
other policy levers to sustain improvements, could reduce China National Institute of Standardization (CNIS) (2012) White
electricity demand by 1800 TWh in 2030 (about two-thirds Paper: Energy Efficiency Status of Energy-Using Products in
China (2012), Standards Press of China, Beijing.
of 2010 electricity consumption in the EU) (IEA, 2013a).
CLASP (2013) CLASP’s Global S&L Database 2013,
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Enforcement is the key to the success of S&L systems.
http://www.clasponline.org/en/Tools/Tools/SL_Search (accessed
In addition to broadening the scope of S&L programs to 12 June 2014).
cover more product categories, program outcomes can be
ENERGY STAR (2013) Introduction of ENERGY STAR Programs.
significantly increased at the implementation level. Estab- http://www.energystar.gov/ (accessed 12 June 2014).
lishing an effective compliance regime is one key means of European Commission (2013a) Facts and Figures on EU Ecolabel,
improving the impact of energy S&L programs. Achieving http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ecolabel/facts-and-figures.html
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high rates of compliance has overall benefits for all stake- (accessed 12 June 2014).
holders in the S&L process, as well as for the environment. European Commission (2013b) Introduction to Ecodesign,
Industry participants operate in a fair market that encourages http://ec.europa.eu/energy/efficiency/ecodesign/eco_design_en.
investment and technological innovation, consumers benefit htm (accessed 12 June 2014).
from reduced energy costs, and governments achieve key Hamamoto, M. (2011) Energy Efficiency Regulation and R&D
environmental and economic policy objectives. Activity: A Study of the Top Runner Program in Japan, Low Carbon
Economy 2011, vol. 2, Scientific Research Publishing, Irvine,
Noncompliance punishments do not necessarily have to
PR 91–98.
be of a monetary nature. Many technological standards are
International Energy Agency (2013a) IEA World Energy
enforced under penalty of financial punishment. The Top Outlook 2013, ISBN: 978-92-64-20130-9, OECD/IEA 2013,
Runner program, based solely on a “name-and-shame” chas- http://www.iea.org.
tisement, is proof that nonmonetary values can also move International Energy Agency (2013b) Energy Efficiency Market
industries to achieve environmental goals. Report 2013: Market Trends and Medium-term Prospects, ISBN:
International harmonization of green labels can 978-92-64-19122-8, OECD/IEA 2013, http://www.iea.org.
contribute to lower the trade barriers and transform the Ministry of Economic, Trade and Industry (METI), Japan (2010)
best practice policies. Top Runner Program: Developing the World’s Best Energy-
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Efficient Appliances, http://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/policy/

Efficiency S&L schemes are currently in place in coun-
saveenergy/toprunner2011.03en-1103.pdf (accessed 12 June
tries that account for about 80% of the world’s population 2014).
and a higher share of its GDP, energy use, and CO2 emis- SEAD Initiative (2013) Introduction of SEAD Countries,
sions. Policy makers in the major economies are increasingly http://www.superefficient.org/ (accessed 12 June 2014).
paying attention to developments in the other economies and SEAD Initiative (Super-efficient Equipment and Appliance Deploy-
this raises the prospect for increased international coopera- ment) (2011) The Energy Savings Potential of Appliance and
tion and enhanced alignment of policy settings. The differ- Equipment Efficiency, Collaborative Labeling and Appliance Stan-
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ences created by country-specific labeling requirements also dards Program (CLASP), Washington DC.
imposed barriers for international trade. It is, therefore, worth U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) (2012) Energy conservation stan-
noting that a close internal alignment of equipment energy dards activities. Report to Congress, February 2012, Washington
DC.
using test procedures and energy performance metrics is
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2013) 2011–2012
important for facilitating trade, conformity assessment, and
Federal Tax Credits for Consumer Energy Efficiency,
comparison of policy settings across the major economies. It http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=tax_credits.tx_index
will also be useful for countries to collaborate in exploring (accessed 12 June 2014).
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what additional savings could be realized if economies can Wiel, S. and McMahon, J. (2005) Energy-Efficiency Labels and Stan-
extend the coverage and stringency of their programs to align dards: A Guidebook for Appliances, Equipment, and Lighting,
with international best practice. 2ndedn edn, Washington D.C, Collaborative Labeling and Appli-
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ance Standards Program (CLASP).

Zhou, N. and Khanna, N. (2013) Development and implementation
of energy efficiency standards and labeling programs in China:
Progress and challenges, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory,
REFERENCES Berkeley, CA.
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Bertoldi, P., Hirl, B., Labanca, N. et al. (2012) Energy Efficiency

Status Report 2012, Electricity Consumption and Efficiency Trends
in the EU 27, JRC Scientific and Policy Reports. European
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Paper 4
The European Council for an Energy Efficient Economy(ECEEE)
2011 Summer Study, 6-11 June 2011, France
7 579 Lei Zeng
Evaluation of the Comparative Information Label in China: an Analysis

of Impact of Energy Labeling on Consumer Awareness
Lei Zeng1,2, Jiayang Li1, Anita Eide1

1
Collaborative Labeling and Appliance Standards Program (CLASP)
2
School of Business, Society and Engineering, Mälardalen University
Corresponding Author: Lei Zeng; szeng@clasponline.org
Abstract
China launched its first mandatory energy information label in 2005. Today, China’s labelling programme covers 23
products including all major residential appliances. In this paper we present the results of a market survey on
consumer awareness and knowledge of energy labels in China aimed at assessing the impact that energy labelling
has had in China so far. The survey provides findings on the percentage of Chinese who are aware of the label and
are influenced by it in their purchasing decisions. Furthermore, to verify that those using the label are in fact getting
the right message, the survey collected data to shed light on the extent and nature of consumer understanding of the
label. Based on the survey results, the paper puts forward recommendations for improvement of the promotional and
educational activities that could be implemented to spur higher levels of energy savings through the label by
improving the guidance on the energy performance of products to consumers. It further recommends a replicable
model for label evaluation that can be used in the future.
Introduction
China launched its national Energy Labelling System (CELS) to promote energy efficient appliances in 2005. Since
then the development of energy information labels have been rapid; in 2005, China enforced 7 batches of mandatory
energy information labels (also referred to as the “Energy Label”), covering 23 products (see Table 1).
Table 1. Products covered by the Chinese Energy Labelling System
Batch No Product Type Levels Effective Date
1 1. Household refrigerator 1-5 March 1, 2005
2. Room air conditioner 1-5
2 3. Electric clothes washer 1-5 March 1, 2007
4. Unitary air conditioner 1-5
3 5. Compact fluorescent lamp 1-3 June 1, 2008
6. High-pressure sodium lamp 1-5
7. Medium and small sized three-phase induction 1-3
motors
8. Chiller 1-3
9. Residential instantaneous gas water heater and gas
heater
4 10. Variable speed room air conditioner 1-5 March 1, 2009
11. Multi-connected VRF (heat pump) air conditioner 1-5
12. Storage-type electric water heater 1-5
13. Household Induction cooker 1-5
14. Computer monitor 1-3
15. Photocopier 1-3
1
5 16. Automatic rice cooker 1-5 March 1, 2010

17. AC contactor 1-3
18. Volume air compressor 1-3
19. Electric fan 1-3
6 20. Power transformer 1-3 Nov. 1, 2010
21. Industry blower/fan 1-3
7 22. Flat panel TV 1-3 March 1, 2011
23. Household microwave oven 1-5
The Chinese Energy Label is a colourful one with information provided on a blue-and-white background. The body
includes the following elements: manufacturer’s name, product model, efficiency grade, energy consumption or an
energy efficiency index, other indexes relevant to energy efficiency, and the adopted energy efficiency code. The
label separates relevant products into three or five efficiency levels: level 1 is the most efficient, which is the goal
for manufactures to strive for; level 2 (or 3 and 4) represent an average energy efficiency level; and level 3 (or 5)
corresponds to the minimum requirement of the mandatory minimum energy efficiency standards.
In order to stimulate residential consumer demand while improving the efficiency of end-use products, the Chinese
government formally launched the “Energy-efficient Product Subsidy Program” in May 2009. Under this
programme, financial subsidies were given to ten product categories, such as air conditioners, refrigerators, flat
panel TVs, washing machines and motors with Energy Label grades 1 or 2 to promote the purchase of the high
efficiency products. The subsidy was given to manufacturers of high efficiency products to lower the price of these
products, with the ultimate beneficiaries being the consumers. An example is the subsidy promoting high efficiency
air conditioners. The air conditioner programme was initiated on June 1, 2009. Based on a specific rated cooling
capacity, air conditioners with energy efficiency grade 2 received a subsidy of 300-650 Yuan (EUR 33-71)/unit
while air conditioners with grade 1 received a subsidy of 500-850 Yuan (EUR 55-92)/unit. The subsidy is normally
equal to 10-20% of the total cost of an air conditioner. The market share of high efficiency air conditioners was only
5% before the introduction of the subsidy programme and increased to more than 50% of new sales as a result of the
programme.
In 2010, a market survey initiated by the Collaborative Labeling and Appliance Standards Program (CLASP) was
carried out by All China Market Research (ACMR) to understand the influence and impacts of the Chinese Energy
Label system on consumers and consumer purchases. The aim of this nationwide research project was to shed light
on consumer and retail staff awareness and understanding of the energy label, as well as identify the effect of the
energy label system in China. The research team hopes to use the research findings to support the relevant Chinese
government agencies in formulating policies and decision making for further improvement of China’s energy
2
labelling system. In addition, the research team hopes to establish a workable and replicable method of analysing the
energy label’s influence in China.
Research methodology
This research selected nine of the 23 labelled energy-consuming products from three of the seven categories above.
The nine products are household refrigerators, room air conditioners, electric washing machines, residential gas
water heaters (instantaneous water heaters, gas fired heaters and hot water comb boilers), variable speed room air
conditioners (inverter air conditioner), electric water heaters, induction cookers, CFLs, and computer monitors.
These nine products were selected due to their large ownership rate among consumers, and their accessibility
through retail outlets, and the fact that their labelling requirements have been effective in the market for over one
year (so that consumer awareness will not be affected by a short presence in the market). Furthermore, a balanced
coverage of energy efficiency grades ranging from 1 to 3 grades or 1 to 5 grades was sought. The 1 to 3 grade
products selected in this survey are gas water heaters, CFLs, and computer monitors, and the selected 1 to 5 grade
products cover household refrigerators, room air conditioners, electric washing machines, variable speed room air
conditioners, electric water heaters, and induction cookers.
The consumer study was done by using central intercept tests (CIT) and focus group discussions (FGD) (Table 2).
The survey was designed to probe consumers’ awareness on energy saving, their knowledge of and trust in energy
labels, their experience of using the energy labels, as well as collect consumers’ views and recommendations for the
promotion of energy labels in China. The study combined both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Table 2. Survey methods and objectives
Phase Method Purpose/objective
I Qualitative research, including six FGD in To understand impressions and key consumer interests
Beijing, Shanghai and Xi’an and concerns regarding energy labels; Consumer
feedback in this phase was used to inform the design of
a questionnaire for follow-up quantitative research in
Phase II.
II Quantitative research, intercept interviews To confirm the results of the qualitative FGD research
of 5,687 consumers in 15 cities/counties in Phase I; To provide data for statistical analysis on
nationwide; consumer awareness on energy saving, their knowledge
3,500 questionnaires completed (2,700 in of and trust in energy labels, their experience of using
urban areas, and 800 in rural areas) energy labels, and their recommendations on how to
promote energy labels.
III Qualitative research, including six FGD in To verify data obtained from CIT of Phase II; To
Qingdao, Guangzhou and Nanjing provide analysis based on the qualitative and
quantitative data collected throughout Phase I and II;
To draw conclusions.
This study selected 15 sample cities and counties in 10 provinces and municipalities. The sampling considered the
even allocation of cities based on their population size, economic development level, consumer income,
consumption habits and purchasing behaviour, to ensure they represent the general Chinese consumers. The selected
cities include Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Xi’an, Qiandao, Suzhou, Foshan, Xianyang, Linyi, Jinzhou, Daye,
Pengzhou, Huludao (Jinzhou), Jiangxia (Wuhan), and Kunshan (Suzhou). The total sample size for urban areas is
2,700 and 800 for rural areas. The total sample size of 3,500 considered a 95% confidence interval and an error rate
of 5%. The survey also had set criteria for the selection of respondents for the central intercept tests (CIT). It
required the respondents to be either the decision maker or key member involved in decision making of appliance
purchases in the family, and they had to be between 18 and 55 years of age, and represent the low, medium and high
income segments in each city. In addition, the respondents needed to have purchased one or more home appliances
or lighting products in the past six months, or be planning to purchase home appliances or lighting products in the
next six months. The CIT were carried out using central location street interviews.
Survey findings
The market survey was initiated in early 2010 and completed in July 2010. Some of the key findings of this study
are reported below.
3
Consumer awareness of Chinese energy labels

Overall, 3,500 of the 5,687 consumers who responded to the questionnaire (61.5%) have seen energy labels, and
have some knowledge of them. The survey revealed that consumer awareness of the energy label on products in
different categories varies. Overall, urban consumer awareness and knowledge of energy labels is much higher than
that of rural consumers; and in the large cities such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou, consumer awareness and
knowledge of energy labels is much higher than in other cities and regions, and consumers aged under 45 and with
higher education know more about the energy label than all the other groups.
Figure 1 shows that among consumers who had seen the energy label, 96.5% had seen the label on refrigerators.
Only 19.5% of the respondents had seen it on energy saving lamps, and only 7.9% on PC monitors. Therefore, we
concluded:
 Consumer awareness of the energy label on home appliances is much higher than on lighting products and
office products;
 Due to the long-time existence in the market of the energy label and the continuous government promotional
activities, consumer awareness of the energy labels implemented before 2008 is much higher than for the labels
implemented after 2008:
 Consumer awareness of 1-5 grade energy labels on household refrigerators, room air conditioners, electric
washing machines, variable speed room air conditioners, electric water heaters, and electromagnetic cookers is
much higher than for 1-3 grade energy labels on gas water heaters, CFLs, and computer monitors.
Further investigation indicated that consumer awareness on energy labels is very low for CFLs and PC monitors, the
reasons being that these energy labels are attached on the exterior packaging of the product, and consumers
therefore cannot see the label once the product is in use.
Refrigerators 96.5%
Washing Machines 62.1%
Ordinary Air-conditioners 53.5%
Conversional Air-conditioners 40.8%
Electrical Water Heaters 28.6%
Electromagnetic Cookers 26.0%
Gas Water Heaters 20.8%
Energy conservation lamp 19.5%
Computer Monitors 7.9%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Figure 1. Percentage of consumers who have seen energy labels on different type of products
Figure 2 below shows that the major channels for consumers to become aware of energy labels are label information
on home appliances, or label information from home appliance retail outlets (74.8% and 72.5% respectively), this
indicates that promotional activities at home appliance malls have had an impact on consumers.
Only 21.0% and 9.9% of respondents had seen energy labels on TV or in newspapers. Given TV viewing rates and
newspaper readership, this indicates that promotion of energy labels through such mass media channels should be
explored to promote energy labels in China.
4
Home appliance 74.8%
Home appliance malls 72.5%
TV 21.0%
Product brochure 16.6%
Newspapers 9.9%
Others 0.6%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Figure 2. Communication channels of the energy labels

Figure 3 below shows that among the 3,500 CIT respondents, 67.3% have an average or above level of
understanding of the energy label; 25.9% of respondents had seen the energy label, but had only a partial
understanding of it; while 6.8% of respondents do not understand the energy label.
6.8%
4.1%
High level of understanding
25.7% Above average level of understanding
25.9%
Average level of understanding
Understand somewhat
37.5% Not understanding
Figure 3. Consumer knowledge on energy labels

Figure 4 below shows that consumers mainly distinguish energy labels’ energy efficiency grades through numbers
and colours. Among the 3,500 CIT respondents, 52.0% and 47.5% distinguish the grades by number and colours
respectively. Other tools used are the length of the colour bar, the user manual of products and the sales staff
introduction, etc. This research also reveals that 22.2% of consumers do not know how to distinguish the product’s
energy efficiency grades.
By numbers 52.0%
By colors 47.5%
Official standard 20.9%
Specification and index 13.7%
Others 0.3%
Have no idea 22.2%
-10% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
Figure 4. Consumer’s ability to distinguish the energy efficiency grades

As Figure 5 below shows, the study revealed that overall about 90% of the respondents have an average or above
average level of trust in the energy label information. Of the 90%, 30.2% have a high level of trust, and 8.7% trust
somewhat in the energy label. We found that only about 1.1% of the respondents do not trust the energy label at all.
5
1.1%
8.7%
High level of trust
30.2%
Above average level of trust
32.7% Average level of trust

Trust somewhat
27.3% Not trust
Figure 5. Consumers’ rate of trust in the energy label

Among the 2,445 respondents who indicated they did not have a “High level of trust” in the label, 66.2% (Figure 6)
did not know whether energy labels are mandatory, voluntary or an invention by the manufacturers. 53.0% of
respondents are of the opinion that energy labels lack government supervision and do not trust that compliance of
the energy efficiency grade claimed by the manufacturer is verified; 18.0% are of the opinion that some labels are
counterfeit, and that the appliances with such labels may not be efficient.
A key finding of this survey is that government supervision and enforcement of energy label use needs to be
strengthened, the fake labels in the market need to be eliminated, and the ones providing false label information
need to be punished in order to provide a level playing field for all manufactures and restore the faith of the
consumers in the energy labelling scheme. Strengthening the enforcement and compliance of energy labels will not
only provide a sound basis for promotion of the labels, but also help build consumer confidence in the Chinese
energy labelling scheme.
3.9% of respondents who indicated that they did not have a “High level of trust” in the label provided the following
reasons: 1) They regard the brand name of the product as more trustworthy than the energy label, therefore, they
only trust the labels on well-know and time-honoured brands, not the labels on unknown brands; 2) if all the
products some consumers used already have energy labels, it is difficult for them to compare the energy saving
effects between the products with and without the energy labels.
66%
70.00%
60.00% 53%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
18%
20.00%
10.00% 3.9%
0.00%
Not heard Energy labels Appliance with others
energy labels are lack of energy labels
compulsory government may not real
requirement supervision efficient
Figure 6. Reasons of not selecting the “High level of trust” choice

Figure 7 below shows that 69.9% of respondents believe that a complete understanding of energy labels is a pre-
condition for them to build trust in the energy label system. Therefore, it would be useful if more promotional and
educational activities could be implemented to enhance consumer awareness and understanding of energy labels.
63.5% of respondents suggested more government supervision would be helpful to guarantee its trustworthiness.
36.8% of the respondents suggested setting up special websites for consumers to identify the effect indicated by a
label, and 29.8% suggested establishing websites so that they could verify the validity of the label.
Some 0.8% of respondents offered other suggestions, such as displaying the energy label on the most eye-catching
spot on the appliance and that label information should be simple and easy to understand; some consumers
suggested adding a security code on the energy label so that consumers can verify its validity by sending text
messages or making telephone calls.
6
80.00%
69.90%
70.00% 63.50%
60.00%
50.00%
36.80%
40.00%
29.80%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00% 0.80%
0.00%
Figure 7. Consumers’ suggestions on how to enhance consumers’ trust in the energy label
More Stronger Internet portal Internet portal Others
Consumer experience of energy government
promotional labels for consumers for consumers
Consumer experience of the energy label includes their experiences in purchasing and using of the energy labelled
activities supervision to learn label to verify the
products. When consumers make purchase decisions, a few factors influence and determine their decisions. Figure 8
below shows that when buying refrigerators, washing machines information
and PC monitors, brandvalidity
name isofthe first factor
considered by consumers. When buying high energy-consuming products, such as air conditioners,
labels inverter air
conditioners, electric water heaters, induction cookers and CFLs, we found that consumers attribute high importance
to energy efficiency. For products such as gas water heaters, the safety issue is so important that consumers make it
their first consideration. Figure 8 below provide an overview and summary of consumers’ key considerations when
making purchase decisions.
Refrigerators Washing Machines Ordinary Air-conditioners

Brand 32.3% Brand 23.7% Energy saving 36.8%
Energy saving 29.8% Energy saving 22.2% Brand 21.9%
Price 11.8% Capacity 15.1% Quality 11.5%
Quality 9.3% Price 12.8% Price 10.3%
Capacity 7.5% Quality 11.2% Noises 8.5%
Safety 2.9% Noises 6.3% Safety 4.6%
Appearance 2.7% Safety 4.0% Appearance 2.3%
Noises 2.3% Appearance 2.8% Capacity 2.0%
Size 1.1% Size 1.4% Size 1.4%
Others 0.3% Others 0.5% Others 0.6%
7
Conversional Air- Gas Water Heaters Electrical Water Heaters

conditioners
Safety 30.4% Energy saving 27.3%
Energy saving 38.2%
Energy saving 21.9% Safety 25.6%
Brand 22.2%
Brand 17.8% Brand 16.7%
Quality 10.7%
Quality 11.7% Quality 12.2%
Price 10.4%
Noises Price 8.5% Price 8.0%
6.7%
Safety 5.0% Capacity 4.5% Capacity 5.8%
Appearance 2.4% Noises 1.8% Noises 1.5%
Capacity 2.3% Appearance 1.3% Appearance 1.4%
Size 1.3% Size 1.2% Size 0.9%
Electromagnetic Cookers Energy conservation lamp Computer Monitors

Energy saving 27.3% Energy saving 28.6% Brand 24.4%
Safety 21.0% Brightness 26.5% Energy saving 15.8%
Brand 20.8% Brand 14.6% Resolution 14.8%
Quality 14.4% Quality 10.1% Quality 12.1%
Price 8.7% Price 7.7% Price 9.0%
Appearance 2.4% Safety 6.3% Size 7.8%
Capacity 2.1% Appearance 2.3% Appearance 5.9%
Noises 1.3% Size 1.5% Safety 4.8%
Size 1.1% Resolution 0.9% Brightness 2.8%
Figure 8. Factors affecting consumer purchasing

Further analysis (see Table 3) revealed that consumers who did not rate the energy saving among the first three
decision factors indicated that “it consumes little energy and therefore there is no need to consider this factor”, in
particular when buying CFLs and PC monitors. Statistical analysis showed that 74.4% and 75.0% of respondents
believe CFLs and the PC monitors “consumes small amounts of electricity, so there is no need to factor in electricity
consumption in the purchase decision”.
Table 3. Why energy saving was not among the top three factors in making a purchase decision
It consumes a small It is not cost-effective,
The product may not
amount of power, because the additional
Product category save the energy it Other
no need to factor in cost is higher than the
claims
energy costs estimated saved power
Refrigerators 40.6% 29.2% 31.2% 4.7%
Washing machines 50.7% 24.1% 25.7% 3.8%
Air conditioners 30.0% 31.4% 38.2% 5.3%
Inverter air conditioners 33.6% 32.8% 31.3% 7.6%
Gas water heaters 51.0% 24.2% 27.3% 3.1%
8
Electric water heaters 36.2% 30.4% 35.0% 5.0%
Electromagnetic cookers 43.2% 27.8% 28.4% 5.3%
Energy saving lamps(CFLs) 74.4% 15.5% 11.9% 2.4%
PC monitors 75.0% 14.0% 13.7% 2.3%
Note: The red triangles indicate that the majority of the respondents gave this reply.
Figure 9 shows that among labelled products, refrigerators are the most widely used/owned, the next is washing
machines. PC monitors is at the bottom of the list. Among the 3,500 respondents, 74.4% and 41.5% own and are
using labelled refrigerators and washing machines; only 5.3% are using labelled PC monitors. For all the other
investigated products, their label usage rate is less than 30%.
Figure 9. Usage rate of energy labeled products among interview respondents

Figure 10 below shows that respondents in general agree that choosing a labelled product does save energy. Less
than 10% of respondents feel the labelled products, such as refrigerators and washing machine, have no power
saving effect.
Room AC
Washing machine
Gas water heater
Electric water heater Significant
PC monitor Ordinary
Refrigerator
Minimum
Electomagnetic cooker
Variable speed room AC No effect
CFLs
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Figure 10. Energy saving effect of energy labelled products sold in 2010 (according to the label information)
Figure 11 below shows that respondents are sensitive to the price of products. 54.5% of consumers are willing to
pay 5% extra for energy labelled products, indicating that price, to some degree, affects the popularity of the energy
labelled products.
9
6.7%2.1%
1.2% 5% additional than ordinary
products
8.2%
5%-10% additional than ordinary
products
54.5% 10%-20% additional than
27.3% ordinary products
more than 20% than ordinary
products
Figure 11. Additional willingness to pay for energy labelled products.

As shown in Figure 12 below, regarding the promotion of the energy label, among the 3,500 successfully
interviewed respondents, only 36.5% have tracked energy label-related information from various sources. Their
main channels for tracking energy label developments are TV (27.5%) and newspapers (17.4%).
Only 3.0% of the consumers intentionally keep track of energy label-related information by reading user manuals,
consulting sales personnel, reading leaflets in shops, or checking the electric meter and comparing the consumption
figure against the information in the energy labels.
TV 27.5%
Newspaper 17.4%
36.5% Internet 11.0%

63.5%
Friends’ recommend 9.9%
Others 3.0%
Yes No 0% 10% 20% 30%
Figure 12. How consumers keep track on the development of Chinese energy label system?
Figure 13 and 14 below show that both consumers and sales staff list the same two main reasons for consumers
giving up buying energy efficient products; namely a higher price and that they question the energy saving claim.
Other reasons provided by the respondents include 1) the reliability of the label is questionable; 2) insufficient
financial subsidy; and 3) there are not many types or models to choose from within the labelled product categories.
Figure 13. Analysis of why consumers according to sales staff give up buying energy efficient products
10
Limited choices of labelled products 8.40%
others 8.80%
Quality varies 11.10%
reliablity of label is questionable 12.80%
Efficiency of power saving is… 23.00%
High price 52.20%
Efficiency of power saving is… 52.70%
0.00% 10.00%20.00%30.00%40.00%50.00%60.00%
Figure 14. Analysis of why consumers according to themselves give up buying energy efficient products
Conclusions and recommendations

Improve consumer awareness and knowledge in energy labels
Based on the survey results we concluded that, thanks to the Chinese government’s great efforts in the past years in
promoting energy labels, most Chinese consumers now recognize the energy label and have some knowledge about
it. However, consumer awareness and knowledge of the energy label differ significantly across consumer groups:
 Much fewer consumers have correct knowledge of energy labels than the consumers who are aware of it;
 Urban consumer awareness and knowledge of energy labels is much higher than that of rural consumers;
 In the large cities such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou, consumer awareness and knowledge of energy
labels is much higher than in other cities and regions;
 Consumers who purchased home appliances after the implementation of promotional activities on energy labels
have much higher awareness and knowledge than do other consumers;
 Overall, consumers aged under 45 and with higher education know more about the energy label than all the
other groups.
Based on these conclusions, we recommend that the relevant government agencies in China make further efforts to
promote energy labels. As sales personnel in the home appliance shops play a pivotal role in raising consumer
awareness and improving knowledge on energy labels, it will be essential to train this group. They act as the
primary contact point for consumers. When trained, they may successfully introduce the energy label to consumers,
and help build consumer trust in and understanding of the energy labels.
The current label promotion activities have focused on manufacturers and retail shops, and consumers have had
limited general exposure to the information of energy labels. This survey discovered that TV, newspapers and the
internet are three major channels for consumers to receive energy label information. It is recommended that the
governments at various levels launch more energy label-related advertisements on state and local TV. In addition,
internet and newspaper are two highly recommended media options to increase consumer awareness and knowledge
of energy labels.
Enhance consumers’ trust in energy labels
This survey showed that the majority of consumers trust the energy label; however, 9.8% of consumers do not quite
trust the label or do not trust the label at all, because 1) they do not know whether the energy label is mandatory,
voluntary or invented by manufacturers; or 2) some consumers are of the opinion that the energy label lacks
government supervision and that some labels are fake.
In order to enhance consumer’s confidence in energy labels, it is essential to:
 Provide a clear message to the consumers on the credibility of the energy label, the government’s promotional
activities need to highlight the label administration system, and the government’s strong commitment to
ensuring compliance. Only by doing so, can China gradually establish consumers’ trust in energy label;
 The Chinese government needs to strengthen the market surveillance on the energy labelling system, the first
and most important step is for the government to eliminate fake energy labels from the market; meanwhile, the
11
government needs to enhance its surveillance on labelled products in order to ensure that the label information
accurately match the actual efficiency performance of the products. Through such efforts, consumer confidence
in the energy label can be established. Consumers can confidently consult the label information when searching
for and buying products and as such the energy label acts as a trusted guide to consumers wanting to purchase
high efficiency products.
Make energy labels attractive to consumers
The first hand consumer experience with the energy label starts with the purchase and use a labelled product. This
survey uncovered that consumers feel that the following issues need to be addressed to improve the accessibility of
the information provided on the energy labels:
 Many consumers feel the information on energy labels is too technical, and difficult for them to understand;
 Consumers are often confused by what each grade means, by simply reading the grades, they are not able to tell
how much energy can be saved between the most efficient grade 1 and the least efficient grade 5. If consumers
cannot understand or distinguish the energy savings offered by the different grades, it is very difficult for
consumers to be confident that their estimation of the energy saving potential is correct and provide for an
informed purchase decision.
 Some consumers do not regard the cost of using the appliance as an issue so they tend to ignore the energy cost
and disregarding the potential energy savings in their purchase decision.
In order to improve the consumers’ experience of using energy labels, we recommend that information on the
energy labels should be simple and easy to understand. Once consumers can easily understand the information
provided by the labels, they will be able to estimate the energy savings that can be gained from the energy efficient
products. If more easily understood, the energy labels can guide consumers in their decision and promote the choice
of suitable labelled products. The labels could contain information on the rating (on the 1-2-3 or 1-2-3-4-5 scale),
expected annual consumption for an average consumer, and expected annual energy expenditure.
The role of sales staff at retail shops is certainly also important. Sales personnel, when trained, can provide correct
information about energy labels helping guide consumer purchase decisions and helping consumers understand the
energy saving implications of the energy label. With knowledgeable and motivated sales staff, consumers will be in
a better position to make informed purchase decision. In addition, if manufacturers were required to clearly define
and show the energy consumption range of each energy efficiency grade on the energy label or in their product
manuals, consumers would be provided with a clearer message on the product’s efficiency level. Based on this
information, they would be able to compare the products’ based on their energy efficiency grades and identify the
potential savings in a more convenient way.
In summary, from the view of both consumers and sales personnel, it is clear that the Chinese energy labels need to
continue to improve their image and credibility. To realise such improvements, the Chinese government at various
levels needs to enhance their market surveillance and strengthen compliance check of labelled products. The
offenders, who put false information on their energy labels, need to be carefully monitored and asked to remove
their non-compliant products from the market. In doing so, we ensure that the label information provides a level
playing field for the manufactures that are in compliance with the energy label regulation enabling them to sell their
products in the market competing on efficiency grades.
Secondly, the Chinese government needs to enhance its promotion of energy labels through training of sales staff
and education of consumers. Such promotional activities can help consumers gain a better understanding of the
energy label information, contributing to building stronger consumer confidence in the label and the saving claims
of labelled products.
For some consumers, the higher purchasing price of energy labelled products act as a barrier and prevent them from
purchasing the most efficient products. The Chinese government may consider incentivizing manufacturers to
investment more in the research and development of efficient products, in order to bring down the product price and
make the most efficient products accessible to a larger share of consumers.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank All China Market Research for conducting the survey, and would also like to
acknowledge the technical support and guidance provided by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL)
and the Energy Foundation’s China Sustainable Energy Program (CSEP).
References
12
All China Market Research (ACMR) (2010) China energy label survey-research report
Bradford Mills, Joachim Schleich (2010) What’s driving energy efficiency appliance label awareness and purchase
propensity? Energy Policy 38 814-825
CNIS (2010) White paper for the energy efficiency status of China’s energy-use products, ISBN 978-7-5066-5862-1
Jinlong Ouyang and Kazunori Hokao (2009) Energy-saving potential by improving occupants’ behaviour in urban
residential sector in Hangzhou City, China, Energy and Buildings, 41, 711-720.
Tracey Crosbie (2008) Household energy consumption and consumer electronics: the case of television, Energy
Policy, 36, 2191-2199.
Nan Zhou (2008)Status of China’s energy efficiency standards and labels for appliances and international
collaboration, LBNL Report.
13
Paper 5
Applied Energy 130 (2014) 814–823
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy
The role of regulatory reforms, market changes, and technology

development to make demand response a viable resource in
meeting energy challenges
Bo Shen a,⇑, Girish Ghatikar a, Zeng Lei b, Jinkai Li a, Greg Wikler c, Phil Martin c
a
Environmental Energy Technologies Divisions, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, One Cyclotron Road, MS 90R2002, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States
b
Malardalen University, Västerås, Sweden and CLASP China, 6-1206 Wanda Plaza, Chaoyang, Beijing 100022, China
c
EnerNOC, Inc., One Marina Park Drive, Boston, MA 02210, United States
h i g h l i g h t s
Demand response is becoming cost-effective demand-side resource to balance the power systems.
We examine policy and market changes that drive the demand response development.
Smart-grid technology and open communication standards facilitate demand response deployment.
We recommend actions needed to capture untapped demand response potentials.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: In recent years, demand response and load control automation has gained increased attention from reg-
Received 7 October 2013 ulators, system operators, utilities, market aggregators, and product vendors. It has become a cost-effec-
Received in revised form 28 December 2013 tive demand-side alternative to traditional supply-side generation technologies to balance the power
Accepted 30 December 2013
grid, enable grid integration of renewable energy, and meet growing demands for electricity. There are
Available online 17 January 2014
several factors that have played a role in the development of demand response programs. Existing
research are however limited on reviewing in a systematic approach how these factors work together
Keywords:
to drive this development. This paper makes an attempt to fill this gap. It provides a comprehensive over-
Electricity load management
Demand response
view on how policy and regulations, electricity market reform, and technological advancement in the US
Demand-side resources and other countries have worked for demand response to become a viable demand-side resource to address
Grid integration the energy and environmental challenges. The paper also offers specific recommendations on actions
Smart grid needed to capture untapped demand response potentials in countries that have developed active demand
response programs as well as countries that plan to pursue demand response.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction and address variable generation characteristics of renewable

resources [1,2]. According to the US Department of Energy,
In recent years, demand response and load control automation demand response reflects ‘‘changes in electric usage by end-use
has gained increased attention from regulators, system operators, customers from their normal consumption patterns in response
utilities, market aggregators, and product vendors. It has become to changes in the price of electricity over time, or to incentivize
a cost-effective demand-side alternative to traditional supply-side payments designed to induce lower electricity use at times of high
generation technologies to balance the power grid, enable grid wholesale market prices or when system reliability is jeopardized
integration of renewable energy, and meet growing demands for [3].’’ The California Energy Commission defines DR as ‘‘a reduction
electricity. The electric grid systems operators are increasingly in customers’ electricity consumption over a given time interval
supporting DR not only as an effective load management tool to relative to what would otherwise occur in response to a price
ensure reliable operations of power systems during times of peak signal, other financial incentives, or a reliability signal [4].’’
load but also cost-effective options in providing high-value ser- DR increasingly plays an important role in addressing the
vices to facilitate interoperable and distributed grid integration demand, especially at the peak. A 2009 report issued by the Federal
Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) estimated that up to 20% of
US peak demand can be potentially reduced through DR programs
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 510 495 2991; fax: +1 510 486 6996.
[5]. According to FERC, the DR resource contribution from all US
E-mail address: boshen@lbl.gov (B. Shen).
0306-2619/$ - see front matter 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.12.069
B. Shen et al. / Applied Energy 130 (2014) 814–823 815
Nomenclature
FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

Abbreviation HAN Home Area Network
AMI Advanced Metering Infrastructure ISO Independent System Operator
Auto-DR Automated Demand Response LSE Load Service Entity
CSP Curtailment Service Provider RTO Regional Transmission Organization
DR Demand Response TOU Time of Use
programs was about 72,000 megawatts in 2011, about 9.2% of the The use of DR for non-peak-shaving purposes such as for ancil-
nation’s total peak demand. This was an increase of about 13,000 lary services to balance supply and demand also comes with signif-
megawatts from the 2010 survey results [6]. A study of the DR icant environmental benefits, despite the very short dispatch
potentials in European Union (EU) estimates that EU-wide deploy- duration requirements of such resources. In many power systems,
ment of DR by 2020 would create 100 TWh of annual energy sav- the plants in running operating mode primarily provide ancillary
ings, resulting in an annual reduction of 30 million tons of CO2 [7]. services (also known as spinning reserves), as there may be an
Deployment of DR brings significant benefits. From an economic insufficient number of quick-start generating units able to start,
perspective, the infrequent spikes in electricity demand have a sig- synchronize, and export power to the grid in the requisite period
nificant economic impact: in many power systems, 10 percent (or of time. When being in running operating mode, these plants tend
more) of costs are incurred to meet peak demands that occur less to be fueled by diesel or oil, which add to air pollution. Increased
than 1 percent of the time in the year [8,9]. In many places, a cer- use of fast-response DR can reduce the need for power plants to
tain percentage of reserve (10–15 percent in the US for example) is run in operating mode, as well as potentially lead to a more
required on top of the forecasted peak demand, making expensive efficient overall use of resources within the power system. Further,
peaking capacity remain idle most of the time. Reducing the peak the ability of DR to provide fast and prompt response by either
demand as well as idled capacity through DR programs means that ramping up or reducing the load helps balance the supply and
the capacity requirements, which drive investments in generation, demand on the power systems. This can facilitate grid connection
transmission, and distribution assets can be proportionally of intermittent renewable generation. The promotion of greater
reduced. Research conducted in the US found that a 5 percent use of renewable resources adds more environmental benefits.
reduction in peak demand would have resulted in avoided costs In addition to these economic and environmental benefits, there
of $2.7 billion for generation, transmission, and distribution capac- are other types of benefit. Because the wholesale power markets
ity per year [9]. are traditionally dominated by generation resources, increased
The use of DR can result in significant savings in terms of the participation of demand resources such as DR programs in these
cost of procuring power during the peak load. In deregulated markets can diversify market participants, which in turn helps
wholesale markets, spot energy prices can skyrocket during the minimize the potential of market participants abusing their market
peak due to high demand. Similarly, energy prices in vertically power in the spot market [11].
integrated, non-wholesale market systems can increase during Regulatory changes, power market reform, and technology
the peak periods, as less efficient generation units have to be uti- advancements have all played a role to make DR a viable resource
lized in order to meet the rising demand. As retail electricity rates in addressing peak demand, enhancing power system reliability,
tend to not reflect the true cost of energy during peak periods, the and facilitating the grid integration of renewable resources. In
expensive utilization of generation during these times is however the following sections, this paper discusses separately the experi-
socialized among all customers. By reducing the need for purchas- ences in select countries in developing enabling policy that gives
ing high-priced power, all customers in a system are positively DR an equal opportunity with supply options, creating new mar-
affected. kets to allow DR to be procured as a resource, and adopting tech-
From the environmental perspective, DR reduces or avoids the nologies that enable DR applications. Although the discussion
utilization of peak units and their associated emissions through includes activities in several countries, it focuses primarily on the
reducing peak electric demand to ensure the sufficiency of existing US experiences because the market for DR in the US is more active
supply, rather than increasing supply to meet rising demand at the and thus relevant information is richer compared with other part
peak. Moreover, because DR capacity is a distributed resource and of the world. The paper also presents concrete recommendations
located at the point of use, there are added environmental benefits on actions needed for increasing DR potentials in countries that
as a result of the avoided electricity losses in the transmission and have developed active DR programs as well as countries that start
distribution lines typically associated with centrally-generated pursuing DR.
power plants. This benefit is even greater during the peak demand
periods as the line loss is larger at the peak when transmission lines
are heavily loaded. Because DR avoids line losses, a DR resource of 2. Analytical framework
5 MW is comparable to a 5.5 MW of reserve capacity provided by a
centralized generation asset when average line losses on the grid There are existing researches on evaluation of demand response
during a DR event reach 10 percent [10]. programs in various countries. Our literature reviews found that
In addition, because DR is often procured on a forward basis, it most of these studies focus on a wide range of issues related to
may not only offset the operation of power plants but also their DR, including (1) the empirical evidence of DR activities in terms
very construction. In this manner, the environmental benefits of of enrollment, performance, and contribution from the third party
DR extend to the avoided emissions associated with the production providers [7,8,12], (2) barriers to market penetration of DR [7], (3)
of the materials for the power plant itself (i.e. cement, steel, etc.), assessment of economic and technical potential for DR [5,7], (4)
as well as the potential environmental impact that may have evolution of policies on DR [7], (5) emerging technologies in DR
resulted should the unit have been built. applications [13], or (6) specific applications of DR in providing
816 B. Shen et al. / Applied Energy 130 (2014) 814–823
Fig. 1. Enabling framework for demand response development.
ancillary services or facilitating grid integration of renewable [1,2]. regulated, vertically-integrated utilities, the advent of integrated
From the literature review, however, we found that existing re- resource planning in the late 1970s and 1980s made utilities
search are limited on providing a comprehensive framework in increasingly aware of the system cost impacts of meeting peak
understanding how different factors work together to drive DR loads, and load management began to be viewed as a reliability
development. This paper makes an attempt to fill this gap. Through resource. The results of this perspective were first evident in the
examining the impacts of regulatory changes, electricity market re- rise of Direct Load Control (DLC) programs that cycled residential
form, and technological advancement on DR adoption, the paper air conditioning units during peak periods. Even more significant,
provides a comprehensive review of the evolution of DR and ana- in the mid-1990s, electricity restructuring helped create competi-
lyzes the factors that drive and enable the DR development. An tive regional wholesale power markets. It is clear that government
analytical framework – as shown in Fig. 1 – is created to identify policy in facilitating the development of these markets has been an
the links between each driving factor. The scope of our paper is essential driver to the growth of DR activities.
not an in-depth analysis of each driving factor; rather it is an over- In the US, the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct 1992) began the
view of various factors and a discussion about how these factors process of deregulating electric industry and opened up the oppor-
are interrelated and work together to enable DR development. tunity for independent power generators to participate in whole-
Our analysis is based on a review and synthesis of DR-related sale markets. The Order 888 by the US Federal Energy Regulatory
research literatures, program updates, and news reports, comple- Commission (FERC) requires fair access and market treatment to
mented by interviews. transmission systems, which led to the creation of Independent
System Operators (ISOs) that are responsible for operating regional
3. Regulatory and policy frameworks that promote demand wholesale markets. While the aforementioned legislation and
response Order were primarily focused on increasing competition among
generators, the concepts laid the groundwork for demand response
DR, at least in a basic form, has been around for decades. In the to enter wholesale markets when such resources could meet the
US, load management and interruptible/curtailable tariffs were same technical requirements as their supply-side counterparts.
first introduced in the early 1970s. The primary interest in load The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct 2005) further codified that
management was partially a result of the increasing penetration a key objective of US national energy policy was to eliminate
of air conditioning, which resulted in needle peaks and reduced unnecessary barriers to participation of DR resource in energy,
load factor [12]. These programs were effectively limited to the capacity, and ancillary services markets by customers and load
largest industrial customers, and in many cases never used. De- aggregators,1 at either the retail or wholesale level. The FERC Order
ployed before the advent of the Internet or the load aggregator 719 was eliminating barriers to the participation of demand re-
business model, these programs were very manual and typically sponse in wholesale markets. The Order permitted load aggregators
featured slow response times. With such limited capabilities, inter- to bid demand response on behalf of retail customers directly into
ruptible programs served less as an alternative to generation organized markets, unless the relevant laws of the local electric retail
investments, and more as a load management tool used as a last regulatory authority prohibit such activity.
resort during system emergencies – in reality though, they were
more often than not a customer retention tool allowing utilities
to offer discounted service rates to customers large enough to fund 1
Load aggregation is the process by which individual energy users band together in
the installation of their own backup generation assets [14]. an alliance to secure more competitive prices than they might otherwise receive
In the US, development of demand response was then further working independently. Oftentimes, load aggregator companies are formed to
spurred by two important developments: within traditionally- represent the interests of these groups of customers.
The integration of DR into the US wholesale power markets was tion within the EU that DR could play an active role in
further bolstered with the issuance of FERC Order 745 in 2011, facilitating penetration of renewable energy, and thus become an
which established a uniform nationwide approach to compensat- integral part in climate actions [7].
ing DR participating in wholesale markets, requiring that DR In the UK, the national regulator Ofgem instituted the so-called
resources be paid the Locational Marginal Price (LMP), or the ‘‘Equalisation Incentive’’ which establishes parity in the treatment
wholesale market price for energy. By codifying the ability for DR of capital and operating expenditures by utilities. The aim of the
to be compensated in the same fashion as generation resources policy is to address a policy challenge in traditional regulatory
for services provided to the energy markets, Order 745 advanced frameworks, which incentivizes utilities to make capital expendi-
the cause of equal treatment between generation and demand-side tures investing in generation, transmission and distribution expan-
resources. sion versus in demand-side strategies that are less capital intensive
In addition to the favorable policy towards DR at the federal for utilities to meet resource needs. The equalization strategies
level, States in the US have adopted other policies that also drive motivate utilities to pursue the most cost-effective way to meet
deployment of DR. These policies include: network needs and reliability requirements, whether that is
through traditional investments in infrastructure or through
Cost recovery. Under a cost-recovery mechanism, a utility can demand-side resources like DR [16].
recover prudently incurred costs of DR and energy efficiency
investments on a dollar-for-dollar basis, typically through a rider
4. Changes in power market structure
or customer surcharge. In some jurisdictions, utilities are autho-
rized to recover additional costs associated with the lost revenue
Regulatory and policy changes in promoting demand response
due to the DSM measures through a lost revenue adjustment
has resulted in changes in power market structure that include
mechanism (LRAM).
adoption of time-based pricing mechanisms and reliability-based
Rate of return. Under this mechanism, utilities are allowed to
incentive offerings, expansion of organized wholesale power mar-
accumulate costs associated with their DR investments as pru-
kets, and entrance of new power market participants. These
dent regulatory assets and later include the costs in their next
changes create a favorable market environment for demand re-
rate case and thus earn a profit on the DR investment, typically
sponse development. Pricing mechanisms and incentive programs
at levels that are equivalent to allowable returns on power gen-
incite customers’ participation in DR activities. Expansion of the
eration assets.
wholesale markets from energy market to capacity and ancillary
Loading orders and similar regulations. Loading orders are gov-
services markets open more market opportunities for DR to com-
ernmental proclamations that define the priority order in which
pete with traditional supply options. Entrance of new power mar-
energy resources are to be developed. In California, for example,
ket participants has given rise to load service aggregators.
to underscore the importance of energy efficiency and DR in the
State’s future energy picture, the state government developed
the Energy Action Plan that established a loading order of pre- 4.1. Pricing and incentives
ferred resources, placing energy efficiency and demand
response as the state’s highest-priority procurement resource, Internationally, regulators and utilities have been designing
and set aggressive long-term goals for energy efficiency and effective pricing mechanisms and creating incentive programs to
DR resources. increase customer participation in DR. In the US, for example, DR
Peak demand mandates and energy efficiency portfolio stan- programs are classified into two categories: price-based DR and
dards. Peak demand mandates and energy efficiency portfolio incentive-based DR.
standards have recently emerged as another mechanism to Price-based DR refers to customers adjusting their electricity
encourage DR adoption outside of market-based opportunities. usage in response to changes in the time-based retail rates includ-
Perhaps most well known is a mandate in the State of ing time-of-use rates, day-ahead pricing, critical-peak pricing, and
Pennsylvania, the so-called Act 129 legislation, signed into real-time pricing. Price-based DR, often occurring at the retail level,
law in October 2008, which sets ambitious energy savings goals reflects customer behavior within a pricing environment that does
for the state’s large electric utilities, including a 4.5 percent not have any specific rules, penalties, or programmatic structure.
peak demand reduction goal (relative to 2007–8 levels) along Price-based DR reduces the system inefficiency created by
with a 3 percent energy savings goal (relative to forecasted time-invariant pricing. If the price differentials between different
load) by 2013 [15]. Other states with peak demand mandates time periods are significant, customers would most likely respond
that are similar to Pennsylvania include New York, Colorado, to the price signals with significant changes in energy use, reduc-
Michigan, and Ohio. ing their electricity bills if they adjust the timing of their electricity
usage to take advantage of lower-priced periods and/or avoid
In the European Union (EU), restructuring and privatization of reducing load when prices are higher. Customers’ load modifica-
energy markets since the late 1980s has allowed demand-side tions are entirely voluntary. Programs with time-based retail dates
options of reducing consumption to compete with generation, thus will see further expansion as utilities are speeding up the roll-out
placing demand-side solution on a level playing field. The Directive of smart meters and other enabling equipment that enable the use
on Energy End-Use Efficiency and Energy Services requires of time-varying rates and dynamic rate design.
Member States have a clearly defined policy to ensure a good Incentive-based DR is also called reliability-based DR and
equilibrium between power supply and demand. However, these adopted at both retail and wholesale levels. It refers to programs
policies are more focused on energy efficiency and Demand-Side created by utilities, load-serving entities, or regional grid operators
Management, rather than DR. This is largely due to the fact that to trigger load-reduction by offering customers monetary incen-
energy efficiency and renewable energy have been pursued tives that are separate from, or additional to, their retail electricity
vigorously since the oil crisis of the 1970s and in recent years as rates. The load reductions are needed either when the grid opera-
part of the climate change actions within the EU. DR which is only tor thinks reliability conditions are compromised or when market
seen as a market instrument in reducing the costs of load peaks has prices are too high. Most DR programs specify a method for deter-
yet been promoted as a key solution for meeting the environmen- mining the customers’ baseline energy consumption level, so
tal and climate challenges. There is, however, a growing recogni- observers can measure and verify the magnitude of customer load
response. Some DR programs penalize participating customers market that is created to support the reliable operation of the elec-
through imposing penalties for their failing to respond or fulfill tricity grid. The changing market structure affords participants
their contractual commitments when load reduction events are enhanced opportunity to tap into additional payment streams for
declared. providing a wide variety of services.
Table 1 is a summary of both time-based and incentive-based Due to the regulatory change in the US, DR programs are now
mechanisms. One study of evaluating DR programs offered by var- allowed to participate in all these markets where they act as a re-
ious US Independent System Operators shows that incentive-based source that responds just as quickly and effectively as generation
programs accounted for over 90 percent of DR-induced load reduc- units in providing needed capacity and system balancing. DR in
tions while pricing programs contributed to less than 10 percent these markets is procured in a competitive process that places
[12]. It is worth noting the difference of these two types of program demand side resources on equal footing with generation, creating
in the interaction between system operators/load service entities an opportunity for cost-effective DR to enter various types of
(LSEs) and customers. Seamless coordination between system market as long as technical requirements can be met.
operators and customers is essential for effective power system Demand response resources also enjoy wholesale market access
dispatch. As such, the load callability has important implication in the United Kingdom (UK), albeit in a much more limited context.
for increasing integration of DR into wholesale power market. Market-based opportunities for demand-side resources in the UK
Unlike incentive-based DR that is callable by system operators/ are currently restricted to the ancillary service markets. However,
LSEs, however, price-based mechanism is generally not callable the UK government is pushing forward legislation to launch capac-
because it relies largely on time-varying tariff which are set ahead ity markets in the coming years, which will also allow for partici-
of time that LSEs have no way to control [8]. For pricing programs pation of demand responses [14]. Australia’s Wholesale
to become significant source of customer response, providing Electricity Market (WEM) is a capacity market similar in many
customers promptly with real-time electricity usage information ways to those in the US, and with a significant penetration of DR.
and price signals upon which to base their actions can be crucial. In the recent Reserve Capacity Cycle in WEM, more than 8% of
the capacity procured came from demand-side resources. Under
4.2. Creation of separate capacity and ancillary markets a new initiative of reforming the nation’s energy market,
Australian regulator is considering of creating a separate ancillary
Over the decade, many deregulated wholesale markets have services market that is unbundled from either the consumption or
undergone fundamental changes. In some countries, the structure supply of electricity [17].
of a regional wholesale market has been changed from an en- It is important to point out that when DR can participate in both
ergy-only market to include some new types of markets such as capacity and ancillary services markets, its load control strategies
the capacity market designed to ensure the reliability of the grid are quite different. Participants in ancillary services must be
with adequate availability of resources and the ancillary service prepared to respond to a dispatch more frequently and accurately,
Table 1
Time-based and incentive-based mechanisms for demand response. Source: [3,8].
Time-Based Incentive-Based
Time-of-use (TOU): a rate with different unit price for usage during different Direct load control: a program by which the utility remotely turns off or cycles
blocks of time, usually defined for a 24 h day. TOU rates reflect the average cost a customer’s electrical equipment (e.g. air conditioner, water heater) on short
of generating and delivering power during those time periods notice. This type of program is primary offered to residential or small commer-
Real-time pricing (RTP): also called dynamic pricing, is a rate under which the cial customers
retail price for electricity typically fluctuates hourly reflecting varying whole- Interruptible/curtailable service: curtailment options integrated into retail tar-
sale price of electricity. Customers are typically notified of RTP on a day-ahead iffs that provide customers with a rate discount or bill credit for their agreeing
or hour-ahead basis. Use of RTP will create significant challenge as it increases to low their demand to a pre-specified level (curtailable rate) or reduce the
transaction costs for customers who have to constantly track prices and load to zero (interruptible rate) during system contingencies. Penalties maybe
respond accordingly assessed for failure to curtail. Interruptible/curtailable programs have tradi-
Critical Peak Pricing (CPP): a hybrid of the TOU and RTP design. It limits the tionally been offered only to the largest industrial or commercial customers
retail rates reflecting wholesale marginal energy and capacity costs to a certain Demand Bidding/Buyback Program: a flexible, low-risk program offering busi-
critical days of the year and to have regular TOU rates during all other times. In ness customers credits for voluntarily submitting load reduction bids and
another word, CPP can be layered on top of TOU rates, replacing the normal reducing load when notified of a DR event by the utility on a day-ahead or
TOU peak price with a much higher CPP event price triggered only under spec- day-of basis. No penalties for customer submitting a bid and forgoing reducing
ified conditions (e.g., when system reliability is compromised or supply prices the load. However, they will not receive credit as a result
are very high). Traditional TOU rates without a CPP-type dynamic rate design Emergency DR Programs: programs that provide incentive payments to cus-
are less efficient as customers face the same rates regardless whether it is on a tomers for load reductions during system emergencies. (e.g. ERCOT EILS, PJM
very hot summer day or a mild summer day Emergency Load Response Program)
Economic DR Programs: programs that offer load reduction whenever spot
energy prices become high. Such programs exist in both energy market and
capacity market where customers offer load curtailments as system capacity
to replace conventional generation resources. Participants receive incentives
usually consisting of up-front reservation payments and face penalties for fail-
ure to curtail when called upon to do so. (e.g. ISO-NE FCM, PJM Economic Load
Response Program)
Ancillary Services DR Program: programs offering load curtailments or faster
ramping resources in wholesale markets as operating reserves or frequency
regulation. For operating reserve services, participants are paid for committing
to be on standby. If their load curtailments are called and curtailed, their cur-
tailment receives further compensation normally at the level of the spot mar-
ket energy price. For frequency regulation, participants offer fast response
resources to rapidly correct frequency deviations that destabilize the power
system. They are compensated with capacity payment reflecting the market
price for each offered resource as well as a performance payment reflecting
the amount of work performed and accuracy in following the system opera-
tor’s dispatch signal. (e.g. PJM SRM, UK STOR)
requiring the employment of different load control strategies than sector. Today, for example, in the PJM markets, more than 60 enti-
those that are found in capacity programs designed to shave load ties actively serve as load aggregators. In New York ISO, CSPs in-
only during infrequent, peak periods. creased their share of subscribed DR load from 44% to 77% from
2003 to 2008. Across the six New England states, CSPs were
4.3. Expansion of market participants: market aggregator responsible for attracting over 60% of the total demand-side capac-
ity and 70% of the new demand-side resources in the ISO New Eng-
Service and product innovation resulting from strong policy sup- land’s first Forward Capacity Auction in 2008 [13].
port as well as the evolution of the competitive wholesale markets
created opportunities for new entrants, leading to the emergence of
5. Role of technology and technology standard
market aggregators, also called curtailment service providers (CSPs)
who bundle individual customers’ load reduction opportunities and
The market changes have increased opportunities for DR. Tap-
develop customized service packages as a paid resource.
ping these opportunities has created the demand for new technol-
CSPs perform a wide range of DR-related activities including
ogies. The rapid development and deployment of Smart Grid
customer acquisition and retention, marketing and sales, customer
technologies including advanced information and communication
contracting, technology installation and deployment, emergency
technologies has brought significant technological progress that
event scheduling and notification, curtailment dispatch and man-
enables DR applications. At the same time, technology standards
agement, measurement and verification, settlement and payments,
are being developed to facilitate the construction of the technical
customer service and support, and so on [18]. At least in the US and
infrastructure that supports DR.
Canada, CSPs can conduct business in all markets where DR is of-
fered, including regional wholesale markets and bilateral markets
where utilities have relationships with the CSPs. Curtailment ser- 5.1. Advanced metering, networking, and automation technology
vice providers generally have to register with the ISOs and attend
their training. In some markets, CSPs must post collateral for the Smart metering, communication networks, and automated con-
capacity they commit to serve [19]. trol technologies work to form fully functioning systems that facil-
In the US, driven by the need for meeting demand reduction itate reliable and cost-effective DR operations. Open
goals set by state regulators, some utilities have moved towards communication standards are also being developed to ease cus-
outsourcing provision of DR services by issuing requests for pro- tomer participation in DR programs and to ensure interoperability
posals for ‘‘negawatts’’ to be provided by CSPs on a pay-for-perfor- of the Smart Grid systems in the retail and wholesale markets.
mance basis [12]. These are bilateral DR programs that are used
outside of wholesale market and tend to look similar in structure 5.1.1. Advanced metering infrastructure
to a power purchase agreement (PPA) that a utility might sign with The Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) refers to a complex
an independent power producer. metering system that includes smart meters, communication net-
Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E), a large utility company in North- works, and data management systems. AMI deployment has expe-
ern California, for example implements the Aggregator Managed rienced a significant growth. In the US, for example, advanced
Portfolio (AMP) program, which is a non-tariff program that con- metering penetration rate reached 23 percent in 2012, compared
sists of bilateral contracts with CSPs to provide PG&E with aggrega- to merely 8.7 percent in 2010. Florida, Texas and the West show
tor managed DR services. The program can be called at PG&E’s metering penetration of more than 30% [6]. These advanced meter-
discretion. Each aggregator is responsible for designing and imple- ing systems, which include basic hourly interval meters, meters
menting its own demand response program. To participate, cus- equipped with one-way communication, and real-time meters
tomers must enroll through a load aggregator and authorizes the with built-in two-way communication capable of recording and
aggregator to act on their behalf with respect to all aspects of transmitting instantaneous and granular energy usage data, are in-
AMP. Normally in an aggregator managed DR program, the aggrega- stalled at the customer sites by utilities. These meters are used to
tors are responsible for all roles from the program design to cus- track customer electricity consumption in intervals of an hour or
tomer acquisition, marketing, sales, retention, technical support, shorter and transmit that information regularly over communica-
event notification, and incentive payment. The aggregators face tion networks to utilities for monitoring, billing, and other pur-
penalties if they are short in delivery of committed load reductions. poses. In some States (e.g., California), the development of AMI
The penalties are based on the delivery shortfall, with larger penal- technologies and system-wide AMI deployment by the utilities
ties for larger shortfalls. Compensation and/or penalties for partic- have provided opportunity for wide range of system operations
ipating customers are determined by the aggregators [20]. and customer management applications, including delivery of
Unlike utilities which can recover DR program costs directly DR-related information through the AMI communication channels.
through retail rates, CSPs require a stable source of revenue to cov- The AMI communication is, however, not open and accessible out-
er their costs and make their operations profitable. The capacity side the utility proprietary network.
markets existent in some countries offer up-front and ongoing Considering that the current AMI infrastructure is a resource
capacity payment for committed load reduction. This provides constrained network, it lacks the signaling infrastructure and
CSPs with a great opportunity to share this payment with their cus- bandwidth capability needed for meeting advanced DR require-
tomers by aggregating customer’s willingness to curtail into a load ments in wholesale markets, where customer responses are re-
curtailment resource [21]. quired in periods as short as a few seconds. Most smart meters
Similar to the US, the Australian national regulator is also creat- and their supporting infrastructure are designed primarily with
ing, as part of its energy market reform, a new category of market automated meter reading, and not DR in mind. As such, it is com-
participant to allow specialist third parties to trade in the market mon for these ‘‘smart’’ meters to read data in relative longer inter-
on behalf of consumers with demand response capabilities and vals (often every hour), and then backhaul the consumption data to
coordinate ancillary services independent of retailers and the sup- utilities. Participating in wholesale markets needs additional func-
pliers of electricity [17]. tionalities to ensure fast and prompt response and requires the
Government enablement of independent third parties to capabilities for dynamic interaction between supply and demand.
become an active player in DR has helped private new entrants In this manner, the installation of additional open networks sup-
to obtain a significant foothold and thus expand the load service ported by the Internet or specialized metering equipment is likely
required even where AMI is present. With the increased reliance on The advanced metering/gateway devices installed are often the
open systems outside the utility networks, however, the issue of foundation for initiating load control as they feature two-way com-
cyber-security needs to be addressed. munication. Such devices may toggle relays attached to specific
circuits, send scripts to Building Energy Management Systems
(BEMS) to begin pre-defined curtailment actions, or connect
5.1.2. Networking technologies
directly to the industrial control systems pre-configured with load
The development of Smart Grid application has extended the
reduction strategies.
Home-Area Networks (HANs) from merely connecting information
Automation and communication infrastructures at the grid
technology equipment and entertainment devices to connecting
level also play an important role in support effective participation
other home devices such as thermostats, air conditioning systems,
of DR in the wholesale markets. Grid-level communication and
heaters, major appliances, lighting, various types of meters, other
automation consists of an integrated set of technologies and
home systems, and even electricity vehicles for a more effective
applications that collect and communicate data across distribution
management of a homeowner’s energy usage. By employing
networks in real time and send pricing and reliability signaling
networking technologies such as ZigBee and Wi-Fi that wirelessly
from system operators to market participants and end-use custom-
transmit data or wired Ethernet and HomePlug that use electric
ers. Ultimately, appropriate communication infrastructures will be
wiring for data transmission, HANs allow utilities or third-party
needed to seamlessly connect all critical nodes across distribution
CSPs to connect and manage homeowners’ networked smart
networks in relaying information if DR is to play a bigger role in
devices through gateways linked to the utility AMI network or
enhancing power system balancing and integrating renewable
the Internet.
energy into the grid. Development of such a communication
Despite the potentials of HANs, their adoption for DR has been
infrastructure at the grid level, however, needs open communica-
slow. Several factors have contributed to this including consumer
tion standards for interoperability.
indifference, the cost of HAN-enabled equipment, the security of
transmitting data, and the lack of relevant technology standards.
5.2. Open communication and DR standardization
Utilities themselves have been slow in the installation of HAN sys-
tems, as they have concentrated initial efforts on the deployment
Adopting open communication standards is essential to enable
of smart meters. As utilities are moving beyond the roll-out of
large-scale automated demand response. In the US, groups such as
smart meters, however, they start to build communications inter-
US Department of Energy Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
face between utility’s AMI system and consumers’ home area net-
and the OpenADR Alliance have been leading the effort to develop
works to create a critical link for the provision of home energy
a non-proprietary open communication standard called OpenADR
services. In Europe, installation of HANs for home energy manage-
to facilitate the scale-up of automated demand response. OpenADR
ment has also been slow in this early phase as well, with the excep-
is a new mode of promoting open and interoperable information
tion of the UK where regulatory mandates require basic HAN gear
exchange. ‘‘OpenADR standardizes the message format used for
to be part of new smart meter deployment [22].
Auto-DR so that dynamic price and reliability signals can be deliv-
ered in a uniform and interoperable fashion among utilities, ISOs,
5.1.3. Automation technologies and energy management and control systems. While previously
Automation is another essential component of modern-day, deployed Auto-DR systems are automated, they are not standard-
technology-enabled DR deployments. Real-time control and com- ized or interoperable’’ [25]. Without such standards, automated
munications infrastructure is often required to support an Auto- DR systems would be difficult to communicate and integrate across
mated Demand Response (AutoDR) system. An international networks and costs of system development, integration, and instal-
study on the real-time feedback pilot programs in the US, UK and lation with different technical configurations could become high,
Ireland reveals that simply giving customers feedback about their making DR automation less cost-effective to customers.
energy usage is not enough to realize detectable energy savings In the US, vendors are now developing cloud platforms to
[23]. This underscores the need for development of set-and-forget support third-party devices running applications built by various
types of automated control application to allow pre-programmed companies and taking OpenADR signals and delivering them via
devices (rather than the users of the devices) to respond to event next-generation gateway to in-home devices, creating alternative
signal or pricing information according to the customer’s prefer- solutions to utility smart meters for connecting electricity-
ence. This helps reduce the need for resources and effort required consuming devices to utilities [26]. A number of technology provid-
to achieve expected results from DR programs. Approaches of auto- ers have released OpenADR-certified devices and many more ven-
mating the load curtailment can differ based on customer capabil- dors are interested in getting their products certified with
ities and needs. Many industrial loads require some manual OpenADR standard. Internationally, OpenADR has become the basis
intervention as load is not capable of AutoDR or customer is hesi- for the international Energy Interoperation standard and the use of
tant due to the concern of interference with production. Under this OpenADR outside of the US is beginning to gain inroads in Canada,
situation, however, notification, confirmation, and monitoring can the UK, Ireland, South Korea, China, Australia, India, and Japan
all be automated, even if the control needs to be manually executed. where countries are exploring potential OpenADR applications [27].
In other situations, it is the DR program requirements that require There is, however, still a lot of work to be done before OpenADR
frequent and prompt control in order to comply with the response could play a bigger role to facilitate widespread adoption of auto-
time. Ancillary service programs, and some bilateral utility pro- mated DR. Currently, merely 250 MW of capacity are communicat-
grams, can have response times of ten minutes, or less. In fact, fre- ing using OpenADR in California, a tiny fraction of the demand
quency responsive DR programs often require a response in real- response capacity estimated by FERC [27]. The slow adoption of
time. For example, the National Grid Sort-Term Operating Reserves OpenADR is due partially to a lack of market drivers as well as
Program (STOR) in UK. requires a response time of less than 20 min the complexity of existing demand response activities, which have
while the Synchronized Reserves Program and Regulation Program so far relied upon proprietary communications protocols to sup-
in PJM require a 10-min and a 4-s response, respectively [18]. The port more advanced functionality [28].
Alberta Energy System Operator (AESO) in Canada just launched a Beyond home devices, there is also an effort supported by auto-
DR program with a 200 ms response time [24]. With such stringent makers both in Germany and the US to develop networking commu-
requirements, automated load control is an absolute necessity. nication protocols for electric vehicle charging communication [26].
Making customer energy usage data available and accessible in

real-time is also essential for DR. This allows customers to better
manage their energy use, enables businesses to build new applica-
tions and offer better products and services, and benefits utilities
who could perform data analytics for better managing their pro-
grams, performing more accurate load forecast, improving opera-
tions, offer more value-added services, and so on. In the US,
stakeholders are supporting the Green Button initiative, a nation-
wide utilities effort in response to the White House call-to-action
to provide utility customers and the third-party service providers
with secure access to standardized customer energy usage informa-
tion. Development of a consensus industry standard called the En-
ergy Service Provider Interface (ESPI) is the key component of this
initiative. ESPI consists of a common XML format for energy usage
information and a data exchange protocol which allows for the
automatic transfer of data from a utility to a third party with cus- Fig. 2. Illustration of OpenADR.
tomer authorization [29]. Currently, customers who enroll the
Green Button service are allowed to view a summary of their lagged
electricity usage over previous 13 months. challenge as the distributed nature of these applications creates
Despite a good first step, programs like Green Button will see unpredictability and variability to the power system. The poten-
limited results without providing real-time electricity usage infor- tial of these distributed resources can be capitalized by a wide
mation of the customers. Without knowing how much it is costing adoption of DR-enabled communication and interoperability
them or whether they have opportunities to save on a real-time technologies.
basis, customers will miss the opportunity to take prompt and Transactive energy markets: While this is an evolving concept,
proper actions in changing their energy consumption. The lack of the underlying theme to allow closer integration of supply-side
access to customer real-time usage information also locks opportu- with customer systems will enable energy use decisions to align
nities for technology and business innovation. with changing electricity market conditions.
Standardization of DR-enabled technologies is equally impor-
tant. The Priority Action Plan 09 (PAP09), a joint standards devel- For a reliable and cost-efficient integration of variable genera-
opment effort with the coordination of the US National Institute tion output, adequate resources are needed to respond in real-time
of Standards and Technology (NIST), is developing interoperability to any imbalances on the grid. DR is such a resource. Increased
specification for standardized signals related to the application of availability of dispatchable DR, especially the one with fast
DR and distributed energy resources to allow further automation response capability, can help address the challenge of regulating
and improve DR capabilities across the grid [30]. The architecture the power grid by smoothing out the peaks and valleys associated
for OpenADR standard, as shown in Fig. 2, is a key outcome from with the grid variability. Unlike traditional supply options on the
the PAP09 and other related PAP activities. grid, DR is predictable, controllable, and readily available and has
Widespread adoption of such communication protocols and a faster response time than that of a generation unit. If used
technical standards will accelerate the successful implementation successfully, DR can help facilitate a greater integration of new
of DR programs, thereby providing the major benefits for all stake- energy resources by ‘‘allowing grid operators to quickly respond
holders including uniform configurations, lower costs, enhanced to changes in variable generation output without placing undue
interoperability, greater flexibility, and product innovation. Cur- strain on the power system’’ [32].
rent work in developing communications protocols and technical
standards in the US can lay the foundation for development of rel-
6. Recommendations for wide adoption of demand response
evant international standards and common technologies related to
DR, which will dramatically expand the global market for DR.
International experiences have shown some great results of DR
reducing peak demand and providing value-added ancillary ser-
5.3. Grid integration
vices. To unlock greater DR potentials, however, more efforts need
to be taken. Different countries are in different stages of DR devel-
Expansion of dynamic wholesale markets, integration of large-
opment with some countries having developed active DR programs
scale renewable energy, connections of residential PV systems,
while others just starting pursuing DR. The section below offers
vehicle-to-grid (V2G) applications, and other distributed resources
some key recommendations on specific steps that countries may
bring frequent and wide variations on the grid, posing significant
consider of taking based on their distinctive conditions.
challenges to grid operations [31]. Success of grid integration of
any new resource has many requirements such as:
6.1. Recommendations for countries of actively pursuing DR
Dynamic wholesale markets: The notification, response, and
reliability of response are all key requirements for respond Despite a successful adoption of DR programs in a small number
promptly to rapid changes in power flows at different locations of countries, these countries are still facing great challenges to
on the network. widespread DR deployment. To address these challenges, more
Generation intermittence: As renewable energy (primarily wind aggressive actions are needed. First, in some countries (e.g.,
and solar) is added to the grid, it creates unpredictable variabil- Germany), DR access to markets is permitted on a basis compara-
ity, making the maintaining of instantaneous balance of supply ble to generation. ‘‘Comparable’’ however does not mean ‘‘identi-
and demand a big challenge. Demand strategies to balance the cal’’ [18]. For DR to gain momentum, enabling policy is needed to
grid system help address the intermittency issue. place DR on an equal footing with supply-side resources. There is
Distributed energy resources: The widespread use of distrib- also a need to remove regulatory barriers created by local authority
uted generation and power storage may well present a similar who is concerned that the increasing aggregation of retail load by
the third-party CSPs would circumvent local authority’s oversight existence. In the near-term, these countries could consider of taking
over the retail market [31]. the following measures in the absence of a competitive wholesale
Second, obligation schemes such as the energy efficiency port- market or before a radical change of power system occurs.
folio standards need to be extended to DR to drive utilities to invest Integration of DR in DSM and smart grid programs. DR programs
in DR technologies and services or to outsource DR services by need to be integrated into these countries’ overall Demand-Side
partnering with third-party aggregators. Management (DSM) programs as well as their Smart-Grid initia-
Third, greater use of dynamic pricing is important to provide tives. This helps DR receive necessary policy and resource support.
correct price signals for changing customer energy use. However, Cost recovery and funding mechanisms. Proper mechanisms need
regulators’ reluctance to expose customers to volatile prices and to be established to allow utilities to recover their investment cost
lack of proper metering and communication systems especially in DR. Proper funding mechanisms also need to be created to
among small customers has hampered the growth of dynamic pric- incentivize the participation in DR and to support the installation
ing [8]. In addition, all but the largest customers pay fixed prices of enabling technologies, such as smart meters, communication
that do not change to reflect variations in the wholesale market networks, load control devises, and automation systems. Given
price of electricity [31]. These barriers must be removed if pric- that DR will bring significant economic and environmental benefits
ing-based DR would be further expanded. to the society, the establishment of government-funded DSM funds
Fourth, the wider use of dynamic rate design and more active or creation of utility public benefit wire charge could be the fund-
participation in wholesale markets need enhanced DR functional- ing sources for DR development.
ities to ensure real-time fast response and facilitate dynamic inter- Incentives to compensate DR. Participants should be properly
actions between customers and utilities or CSPs. There is also a compensated for being ready and able to reduce loads when called
need to deploy specialized metering and gateway devices beyond upon to do so. Such payments create a visible revenue stream
the utility AMI systems, open networks supported by the non-pro- allowing customers to better assess the costs and benefits of their
prietary systems such as the Internet, and advanced automation participations and motivating DR services providers to invest in the
and communication infrastructures at both end-use level and requisite technology to ensure reliable performance.
power system level. While most of the DR technologies in develop- Improving flexibility in electricity pricing. Countries with less flex-
ment currently can communicate and interact with customers, ible price adjustment mechanisms need to create better pricing sig-
such technologies need to be enhanced in order for customers, util- nal to induce DR. They can adopt the time-based rate design such as
ities, and CSPs to participate in more activities that require fast re- time-of-use rate structure and set the prices at the critical peak hours
sponse and support the integration of renewable energy and other higher enough to prompt customer active response to DR events.
distributed resources in a broader scale. As countries are progres- Deploying smart technologies. It is important for countries that
sive in deployment of more DR enabled technologies, they need start pursuing DR to develop and deploy DR-enabled metering,
to assess the feasibility of such technologies in meeting the needs networking, and control technologies and build necessary commu-
of the markets and understand issues such as cost-effectiveness, nication and automation infrastructures to support the use of these
interoperability, and information security. technologies.
Fifth, as more players are entering the DR market, there is a Developing open communication protocols and creating tech-
need to move technologies to codes and standards for broader nology standards It is important for countries that start developing
adoption. This requires development of robust communication DR programs to adopt open communication systems like OpenADR
and technical standards related to DR applications at not only to facilitate the wide use of automated-DR and enhance system
the national scale but also the international level. There is also a interoperability for delivering pricing and reliability signals across
need to properly evaluate DR performance by developing proper service territories, networks, and control systems. It is also impor-
performance metrics for assessing DR activities in the markets tant for these countries to feed customers with energy usage and
and a common protocol to collect DR event and market participa- pricing information to prompt their response to the time-varying
tion data to facilitate the market performance evaluation [12]. value of electricity costs. To this end, governments should encour-
Finally, studies have shown both increased awareness of DR age the establishment of standardized customer energy data shar-
management techniques through customer education and achieved ing platform like the Green Button initiative in the US. In addition,
load reduction through in-home display [23,31]. Despite encourag- countries need to create technical standards to ensure the compat-
ing results in some pilots on the customer response to in-home dis- ibility of DR technologies and devices.
play information, this might be the effect of earlier adopter. More Encourage aggregation to scale up DR and minimize risks. Load
consumer education is needed. However, to successfully obtain aggregation will not only scale up DR activities but also mitigate
wide participation from a broader cross-section of customers with the risks on possible non-performance from individual customers.
different attitudes towards energy consumption and varying condi- Countries that start pursing DR programs can remove the regula-
tions related to their use of energy, any education program needs to tory and market barriers to the use of aggregation and adopt poli-
be properly designed and marketed in order to accomplish its cies that encourage third-party services providers to bundle
objectives. It is also important to communicate with customers customer loads.
about real-time electricity usage and pricing information upon Enhancing customer education and building capacity for DR. To in-
which they can act to unlock their latent elasticities. crease customer participation in DR, it is important to raise the
public awareness through customer education and information
6.2. Recommendations for countries of planning to pursue DR sharing about the value of DR and the policies and programs that
are put in place to enable DR development. It is also important
For countries that plan to start developing DR programs, more to build necessary capacity through trainings to identify DR oppor-
steps are needed. Some steps could be taken immediately while tunities and adopt DR-enabled strategies and technologies.
other steps will take longer time, requiring a change of current mar-
ket structure or broader power sector reform. The DR development 7. Conclusion
in the US and some other countries have benefited from the dereg-
ulated wholesale markets which allow demand-side resources to This paper shows that new electricity policy reforms, power
compete with supply resources on an equal footing. In other coun- market changes, and smart-grid technology advancement has dra-
tries, however, a competitive wholesale power market is not in matically changed DR’s role from merely an emergency load
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Paper 6
Advanced Review
China’s approaches to financing

sustainable development: policies,
practices, and issues
Bo Shen,1 ∗ Jian Wang,2 Michelle Li,3 Jinkai Li,1 Lynn Price1
and Lei Zeng4
To curb the country’s energy use and decarbonize its energy supply, China in-
vested heavily in energy efficiency and clean energy in the past 5 years. China’s
investment in clean energy surpassed the amount invested during any previ-
ous Five-Year Plan period and made China the global leader in clean energy
investment. The investment potential in clean energy is, however, far from being
achieved in China. There are several barriers that are hindering China’s ability
to meet the demands for financing clean energy development. This paper re-
views China’s recent efforts in financing clean energy. It first reviews policies
for facilitating green investments. It then describes the types and areas of green
investments and activities carried out to date in China with regard to clean energy
financing. A discussion follows examining key barriers to achieving investment
potentials in China. The paper concludes with some recommendations for China
to scale-up investments in sustainable development. � C 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
How to cite this article:

WIREs Energy Environ 2013. doi: 10.1002/wene.66
INTRODUCTION age of 5%.3 Those gains, however, were eroded be-

tween 2002 and 2005 by a dramatic surge in energy
C hina has achieved remarkable economic growth
over the last decade. To maintain the pace
of rapid industrialization and urbanization, how-
consumption with an average 2% annual increase in
energy intensity because of the fast expansion of the
country’s heavy industry.4 As a result, China expe-
ever, China’s energy consumption also grew rapidly.
rienced worsening environmental conditions during
China’s share of worldwide energy consumption in-
this period, with 27.8% increase in SO2 emissions
creased from 11.2% in 2000 to 17.8% in 2008.1 Coal
from the 2000 level in the 10th Five-Year Plan (FYP)
is the dominant source of energy in China, account-
period (2001–2005) while the target was a reduction
ing for over 70% of the country’s total energy use.2
of 10%.5 In response, in 2005, the Chinese govern-
As China becomes the world’s fastest growing con-
ment set ambitious goals of reducing energy intensity
sumer of energy, it is also becoming world’s largest
by 20% and total discharge of major pollutants by
carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emitter due largely to its coal-
10% by 2010 from the 2005 level as part of its 11th
dominated energy system.
FYP (2006–2010).
For over a decade prior to 2002, China reduced
To curb the country’s energy use and decar-
its energy intensity [energy consumption per unit of
bonize its energy supply, China invested heavily in
gross domestic product (GDP)] by an annual aver-
energy efficiency and renewable energy during the
11th FYP. In the past 5 years, China’s investments
*Correspondence to: boshen@lbl.gov in clean energy surpassed the amount invested during
1 Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA any previous FYP period and made China the global
2 Beijing ZFK Holding, Beijing, China leader in clean energy investments. Between 2006 and
3 London School of Economics, London, United Kingdom 2010, China invested a total of 2.59 trillion Yuan
4 CLASP, Beijing, China (US$411 billion) in clean energy.6 As a result of all
DOI: 10.1002/wene.66 the measures taken and investments made in China,
Volume 00, January/February 2013 �

C 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1
Advanced Review wires.wiley.com/wene
the country managed to cut its energy intensity by activities carried out to date in China with regard to
19.06%, saving 634 million tons of coal equivalent clean energy financing. A discussion follows examin-
(tce) of energy, reducing SO2 emissions by over 14%, ing key barriers to achieving investment potentials in
and cutting the increase of greenhouse gas emissions China. The paper concludes with recommendations
by 1460 million tons of CO2 equivalent against a for China to scale-up green investments.
2005 baseline during the 11th FYP period.7, 8
While the trend of reducing its energy intensity
will continue in the 12th FYP (2011–2015), China POLICIES FOR FACILITAING CLEAN
is stepping up its efforts to transition to a clean en- ENERGY INVESTMENTS IN CHINA
ergy economy, for a number of reasons. First, there To help achieve its energy and environmental goals
is a growing recognition in China that a high carbon- and promote green investment, China has promul-
and energy-intensive development path is neither sus- gated laws and regulations and put forward a series of
tainable nor consistent with the country’s long-term policies facilitating green development and attracting
economic, energy, and environmental interests. Next, and steering investments towards clean development.
China’s rapid industrialization and urbanization will
continue to drive the demand for more energy, which
has generated a need for China to develop alternative Legislation and Policy Roadmap for
energy sources including renewables to boost its en- Driving Sustainable Development
ergy supplies from traditional sources. Third, as the Confronting the challenges of energy security; ris-
world’s largest carbon emitter and energy user with ing concerns related to the domestic and global en-
its emissions and energy consumption continuing to vironment; and economic, environmental, and social
rise, China needs to transform its economy to effec- costs of unchecked development, the Chinese leader-
tively address concerns ranging from environmental ship has increasingly made energy and environmental
pollution of burning fossil fuels, to steeply rising oil sustainability a national development priority. This
imports, and to combating global climate change. Fi- profound shift in priorities has elevated energy and
nally, Chinese policymakers see the development of environmental sustainability to the top of the national
the clean energy sector as not only a means to fuel policy agenda. To advance this agenda, China passed
its next phase of growth but more importantly as a new laws and strengthened existing laws in the 11th
critical strategic opportunity to become a leader in vi- FYP period.
tal emerging market sector where developed countries Effective January 1, 2009, China’s newly en-
are not yet dominant.9–11 acted Circular Economy Promotion Law promotes
China is now leading the world in clean energy the efficient use of resources by requiring reducing,
investment and will continue the trend.12–14 The in- reusing, and recycling activities to be conducted in
vestment potential in clean energy is, however, far the process of production, circulation, and consump-
from being achieved in China. The China Greentech tion. The law mandates that circular economy devel-
Initiative estimated that the country’s greentech mar- opment be encouraged propelled by the government,
ket could reach US$500 billion to US$1 trillion by led by the market, effected by enterprises, and par-
2013.15 A recent Tsinghua University report estimates ticipated in by the public. If effectively implemented,
that China’s new plan for new energy development the law will shape China’s economic development in
would attract five trillion Yuan (US$800 billion) of ways that conserve energy, water, and materials.
investments during next 10 years.6 To date, China In addition, China amended its Renewable En-
has been relying primarily on traditional approaches ergy Law on December 26, 2009 to require the gov-
through government funding and bank loans to fi- ernment to set a specific target for the share of the
nance green development. To support its low-carbon electricity generated from renewable energy sources
development in the long run, China needs to establish in the total electricity generation during the planned
more diversified financing channels and employ more period, to establish specific regulations regarding the
innovative financing approaches. China also needs to power dispatching priority to favor renewable energy,
address many other issues that hinder green invest- and to purchase all the electricity generated from re-
ments. newable energy sources by the grid companies, in ac-
This paper reviews China’s recent efforts in fi- cordance with national programs for the development
nancing clean energy development. It first reviews and utilization of renewable energy. The amended law
the policies put forth by the Chinese central gov- also requires the electricity distribution companies to
ernment in facilitating green investments. It then de- develop and apply smart grid and energy storage tech-
scribes the types and areas of green investments and nologies to enable the integration of renewable energy
2
C 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Volume 00, January/February 2013
WIREs Energy and Environment China’s approaches to financing sustainable development
in the electricity grids and sets up penalties if utilities emission reduction; and (4) strengthen financial insti-
fail to purchase and accommodate renewable energy. tutions’ financing support in energy conservation and
The law authorizes financial institutions to offer con- emission reduction.
cessional loans with subsidized interest rates to re-
newable energy projects.
China also amended its Energy Conservation Policy Promoting Strategic Emerging
Law, which took effect on April 1, 2008. The amend- Industries
ment has remarkable changes on two fronts. First, the China’s State Council issued a directive in Octo-
amended law, which almost doubles the articles of the ber 2010 to vigorously promote the development of
original law, extends from industrial conservation to emerging strategic sectors.16 Energy efficiency, en-
other sectors and provides specific requirements for vironmental protection, and new energy are among
energy conservation work in industrial facilities, com- the emerging areas that the Chinese government is
mercial and residential buildings, the transportation promoting. This policy document has not only out-
sector, and public institutions. The second aspect is lined the development goals and specific tasks for
that the amendment mandates the implementation of these emerging areas but has also provided guidance
a system of accountability for energy conservation on expanding investment channels and innovating fi-
targets and a system for energy evaluation whereby nancing and other mechanisms to facilitate the rapid
the work carried out by local government officials development of these emerging industries. To fos-
in energy conservation must be integrated into the ter the growth of the energy conservation service in-
assessment of their job performance. The amendment dustry and accelerate the implementation of energy-
also established requirements for financial institutions efficiency measures, the State Council issued policy
to provide support for energy conservation. opinions in April 2010.17 The opinions not only set
China has also put forward a series of road maps forth the goal for the development of the industry
directing the country’s efforts in green development. but also outline supporting measures including in-
The Comprehensive Working Plan for Energy Con- vestment support, tax incentives, improved account-
servation and Emission Reduction in the 11th FYP Pe- ing procedures, and enhanced financing services.
riod, released in 2007, stated the goals, key program
areas, and policy measures regarding energy conserva-
tion and emission reduction, and played a significant Policy Encouraging Private Investments in
role in steering China’s effort in meeting its energy and Green Development
environmental targets in the period 2006–2010. The To facilitate large-scale investments from the private
Outline of the 12th Five-Year Plan (2011–2015) for sector in emerging areas including clean technology,
National Economic and Social Development released the State Council issued important opinions on en-
in 2011 established the policy orientation of promot- couraging and guiding the expansion of private in-
ing green and low-carbon development, and expressly vestments on May 5, 2010.18 The opinions clearly
articulated the goals and tasks for the next 5 years, define the scope of government investments, which
which include a new carbon intensity (a reduction in are mainly used for sectors that matter to national
carbon emissions per unit of GDP from 2010 level) security and where the market is unable to effectively
target of 17%, an energy-efficiency improvement tar- allocate resources. The opinions require governments
get of 16%, and a nonfossil fuels in total energy mix at all levels to create a level playing field for the pri-
target of 11.4% by 2015. In September 2011, China vate sector to compete fairly in the market that is not
promulgated The Comprehensive Working Plan for prohibited by law. Private investments are encour-
Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction in the aged to participate in areas that are primarily state
12th FYP Period, which particularly establishes a set controlled such as infrastructure, energy production,
of measures to promote energy-efficiency financing: public services, and financial services. Private compa-
(1) accelerate the pricing reform for resource products nies are allowed to participate in the reform of state
(e.g., coal, electricity, petroleum, gas, water and min- firms by purchasing a stake in them; invest in the eq-
erals, etc.) and the reform on environmental protec- uity of commercial banks; and create private financial
tion charge; (2) improve the fiscal incentive policies, entities such as community banks, local credit unions,
including the increase of both central government’s lending companies, loan guarantee companies, and fi-
budget and government special funds for incentiviz- nancial intermediaries. The opinions require govern-
ing energy-saving and emission-reduction projects; (3) ments to create a favorable environment for private
improve tax policies, especially tax exemption or re- investments by providing private companies with ade-
duction policies to support energy conservation and quate administrative, financial and regulatory support
Volume 00, January/February 2013

while enhancing government guidance, oversight, and based green policies play an important role in helping
services related to private investments. China curb financial resources for polluting compa-
One clear indication of the government’s inten- nies and redirect investments into clean and green
tion to leverage more private investments is the most development.
recent new interim measures jointly announced by Another powerful policy tool that China has
China’s Ministry of Finance and the National De- applied in redirecting the country’s investments to-
velopment and Reform Commission on August 17, ward green development is the requirement for rel-
2011.19 The interim measures call for the creation of evant government entities to conduct both an envi-
a fund of funds that invests the public fund to form ronmental impact assessment and an energy-efficiency
new venture capital funds or increase the equity of assessment for fixed-asset investments. China’s Envi-
existing venture capital funds to target start-up com- ronmental Impact Assessment Law, which took effect
panies who pursue innovation in emerging strategic on September 1, 2003, requires that the planning and
industries and high-tech sector of transforming tradi- construction of all projects affecting the environment
tional industries. be subject to a mandatory environmental impact as-
sessment. The amended Energy Conservation Law,
which took effect on April 1, 2008, requires all new
Policy Steering Investments Toward Energy fixed asset investment projects must undergo indepen-
Conservation and Pollution Reduction dent assessments and government reviews on whether
During the 11th FYP period, China adopted a se- the project is energy efficient or not as a prerequisite
ries of policies that have become a powerful force for government approval. This policy tool could be
of influencing and spurring green financing in China. forceful in curbing inefficient energy use, minimizing
These policies mark an entirely new way of address- environmental damage, and guiding investments to-
ing energy and environmental problems in China, in ward clean and green development.
which environmental enforcement has been shifted
from regulatory measures to using market influence
by enlisting the power of the financial sector to force TYPES, AREAS, AND ACTIVITIES OF
companies to meet energy and environmental stan- GREEN INVESTMENTS IN CHINA
dards and comply with relevant laws and regulations. During the 11th FYP period, China invested a total
These green policies include a ‘Green Credit’ policy, a of 2.59 trillion Yuan (US$411 billion) in clean en-
‘Green Security’ policy, and a ‘Green Insurance’ pol- ergy, comprising 859.2 billion Yuan (US$136 billion)
icy, implemented by the Ministry of Environmental in energy-efficiency improvements and 1.73 trillion
Protection (MEP) in partnership with various finan- Yuan (US$275 billion) in new energy and renewable
cial regulatory commissions in China.20–22 energy.6 Figure 1 is an illustration of the composition
The ‘Green Credit’ policy—issued in July of China’s green energy investment portfolio.
2007—requires banks to cease lending to compa- China’s investments in clean energy have come
nies who are listed in the MEP blacklist for envi- from several sources, including direct government
ronmental violations and to projects that are out investments and incentives, internal capital of busi-
of compliance with relevant regulations. The ‘Green nesses, bank loans, public equity markets, venture
Security’ policy—adopted in February 2008—calls capital, private equity, and carbon financing. Figure 2
for strengthening the implementation of environmen- provides a schematic description of primary financing
tal performance verification for public-listed compa- mechanisms for green energy development in China.
nies in polluting industries. It also requires the se-
curity regulatory agency to reject or suspend Ini-
tial Public Offering (IPO) or refinancing requests Direct Government Support
from companies that failed to pass a government During the past 5 years, Chinese governments—at
environmental evaluation. In addition, the policy both central and provincial level—have undertaken
mandates listed companies to disclose their envi- significant efforts to support and incentivize clean
ronmental information to shareholders so that in- energy development and energy-efficiency improve-
vestors can avoid potential financial loss resulting ment. A significant amount of public funding has been
from possible violations. The “Green Insurance” utilized to support a series of implementation and
policy—also issued in February 2008—calls for the demonstration programs such as the Ten Key Projects
use of environmental liability insurance as an ef- for the use of more energy efficient technologies, the
fective leverage to prompt enterprises to take mea- Top-1000 Program targeting the largest industrial
sures to minimize environmental risks. These market- energy users, the phase-out of outdated industrial
4
F I G U R E 1 Composition of China’s green energy investment portfolio. Created using data from Tsinghua University Climate Policy Institute.
capacity, various environmental protection measures, efficiency improvements. The Shanghai Municipal
the Golden Sun Photovoltaic Demonstration Project, Government, for example, awards 300 Yuan per tce
the Green Energy County Demonstration Project, as (US$1.6 per GJ) of saved energy to enterprises that
well as low-carbon city and small town demonstra- have achieved measured savings of 5000–10,000 tce
tion programs. (147–293 TJ). The Shanghai government is currently
considering raising the level of the award to 500 Yuan
Government Support to Industrial Facilities, per tce (US$2.7 per GJ).25
Energy Service Companies, and Projects To accelerate the implementation of energy-
To support industrial customers in retrofitting their efficiency measures, the Chinese central government
facilities, China’s central government offered finan- announced a new incentive program in June 2010 that
cial incentives during the 11th FYP to qualified offers a combination of a cash reward and favorable
industrial facilities that achieved verified savings of tax treatment to qualified energy service companies
over 10,000 tce (293 TJ). The awards were 200 Yuan (ESCOs). This program targets smaller projects with
per tce (US$1 per GJ) for facilities in the East region energy savings anywhere between 500 and 10,000 tce
of China and 250 Yuan per tce (US$1.3 per GJ) for (15–293 TJ) for industrial projects and between 100
facilities in less developed Middle and West regions.23 and 10,000 tce (2.9–293 TJ) for projects in other
The incentives to the country’s industrial facilities are sectors.
continued in the current FYP period (2011–2015); Central government’s funding for ESCOs is
but the amount has been increased to 240 Yuan per matched by incentives from local governments. For
tce (US$1.3 per GJ) for facilities in the East region every tce of verified energy savings, provincial gov-
and 300 Yuan per tce (US$1.6 per GJ) for facilities ernments are required to provide a minimum of 60
in Middle and West regions. The new incentive has Yuan (US$9.52) to match the national incentive of
also expanded its coverage to include smaller facil- 240 Yuan (US$38), making the combined award no
ities, making achieving verified savings of 5000 tce less than 300 Yuan per tce (US$1.6 per GJ).26 The ac-
(147 TJ) eligible for the award.24 tual level of the local matching fund varies depending
Provincial and local governments have also on the local situation. Shanghai, for example, has an-
awarded energy-consuming enterprises for energy- nounced that it will match 360 Yuan per tce (US$1.9

F I G U R E 2 Key financing mechanisms for green energy development in China.
per GJ), making the combined incentive to ESCOs contract terms used by an ESCO need to be in compli-
600 Yuan for every tce (US$3.2 per GJ) of energy ance with the requirements specified in the national
saved.27 Beijing announced that the city will match standard entitled General Technical Rules for Energy
260 Yuan for each tce (US$1.4 per GJ) of energy Performance Contracting (GB/T24915–2010). In ad-
saved to supplement the national award. For ESCOs dition, the policy notice stipulated that income tax of
that cannot meet the requirements for the national ESCOs can be exempted in the first 3 years of earn-
incentive, the municipal government in Beijing will ing income and reduced half from the fourth year to
either offer an award of 450 Yuan per tce (US$2.4 the sixth year. To qualify for the income tax treat-
per GJ) or provide an incentive that is equivalent to ment, ESCOs are required to have registered capi-
15–20% of the project cost.28 tal of at least one million Yuan (US$160,000) and
In addition to direct financial support, the Chi- can perform independent work on design, financ-
nese central government has developed a favorable ing, installation, management, and training related
taxation policy and streamlined accounting rules to to energy service projects. It is also required that the
strengthen the support for the ESCO industry. A pol- share of investment by an ESCO in any EPC project
icy notice that was issued jointly by China’s Ministry need be at least 70% in the total project investment
of Finance (MOF) and the State Administration of and that energy-savings measures adopted and perfor-
Taxation in December 2010 and became effective on mance contract terms used by an ESCO need to be in
January 1, 2011 stipulated that ESCOs can be ex- compliance with the requirements of the GB/T24915–
empted from business tax and value-added tax for 2010.29
taxable revenues generated from carrying out shared- As a result of strong government support, by
saving type of energy performance contract (EPC) the end of 11th FYP period, the number of ESCO
projects. To qualify for this tax treatment, however, companies increased from 80 to over 800, the num-
energy-savings measures adopted and performance ber of employees in this sector increased from 16,000
6
to 180,000, the ESCO market size was enlarged from tion of PV as well as PV-related technologies, capacity
4.7 billion Yuan-worth (US$746 million) to 84 billion building, and PV system standardization are all eligi-
Yuan-worth (US$13 billion), and the annual energy- ble for government incentives, which account for half
saving capacity rose from 600,000 to more than 13 of the total project investment (70% for projects in
million tce during the 11th FYP.30 Entering into the unelectrified areas).36
12th FYP period, China’s ESCO industry has seen a The Government of China is also investing 4.6
further growth. According to the ESCO Committee billion Yuan (US$730 million) to create a Green En-
of China Energy Conservation Association (EMCA), ergy County Demonstration Program in 108 rural
by the end of 2011, the number of ESCOs has grown counties to encourage green energy technologies and
to nearly 4000 and employees in this sector have in- application in rural China. The types of qualified
creased to 37,8000.31 projects under this program range from centralized
To support the rapid development and deploy- methane gas supply to biomass gasification, biofuel,
ment of renewable energy technologies, the Govern- rural renewable energy applications, and the develop-
ment of China has created a renewable energy de- ment of rural energy service infrastructures.37
velopment fund, which includes both direct subsidies In addition, the central government is providing
and interest payment support. The subsidies include up to 80 million Yuan (US$13 million) to each partic-
1350 Yuan (US$214) for producing each ton of fuel ipating city that is selected as a pilot for the national
ethanol, 20 Yuan (US$3.17) per watt for building in- demonstration program of renewable energy applica-
tegrated photovoltaic (PV) systems, and a fund cover- tion in buildings. Cities that have taken early actions
ing a maximum of 70% of the construction cost of an to adopt supporting policies in promotion of renew-
independent PV system.32 As of September 2011, the able energy applications in buildings will be given
Chinese central government has provided a total sub- preferential treatment. In order to receive funding,
sidy of 10.2 billion Yuan (US$1.6 billion) supporting large cities are required to cover at least three mil-
PV applications.33 In addition, the fund also provides lion square meters (32 million square feet) of build-
interest payment support that discounts the interest ing area by renewable energy, whereas smaller cities
rate for renewable energy projects by up to 3% for need to cover a minimum of two million square me-
1–3 years.34 ters (21 million square feet). To augment the impacts
For many years, China lacked incentives to fos- of the government funding, pilot cities are encour-
ter domestic solar energy use. As a result, merely 10% aged to utilize the incentive to leverage private invest-
of solar panels produced by Chinese PV manufactur- ment through credit enhancement and other market
ers were installed in China in 2010. However, China’s approaches.38
first nationwide feed-in tariff scheme, announced in Furthermore, the Government of China is pro-
August 2011, could fuel the rapid growth of the do- viding an unspecified amount of funding to support
mestic solar market. The newly issued feed-in tariff comprehensive measures targeting all sectors with
will allow project developers to sell solar generated integrated solutions from policies, planning, struc-
electricity to utilities at a price of about US$0.15 per tural changes, to technology applications and the use
kWh, which could guarantee a payback in 7 years and of market-based approaches. The Green and Low-
cash yields for nearly another two decades. In just Carbon Small Town Demonstration Project and the
several months, the new feed-in tariff has increased Demonstration Project of Utilizing Comprehensive
estimated solar panel installation to 2000 megawatts Fiscal Policies to Promote Energy Conservation and
in 2011 in China, twice the country’s total installed Pollution Reduction are two major national initiatives
capacity to date.35 launched by the Chinese Government for identifying
integrated solutions. To date, seven small towns and
Government Support for Demonstration eight cities have been selected as the first round of
Programs pilot sites under the two demonstration projects.39, 40
The Chinese central government is increasingly giving
attention to funding demonstration programs to build Government Support for Promoting the Use
experience and create best practices in developing and of Energy-Efficient Products
deploying clean energy. The Golden Sun Photovoltaic As part of the government’s nationwide campaign for
Demonstration Program is one of several national ini- energy conservation and emission reductions, the Chi-
tiatives underway. Under this program, qualified PV nese government has provided significant incentives to
projects including distributed PV applications, large promote the use of energy-efficient products. In 2008,
PV facilities, stand-alone PV and PV hybrid applica- for example, China launched a nationwide compact
tions in remote or unelectrified areas, commercializa- florescent lighting (CFL) promotion program aimed

at greatly increasing the use of energy-efficient light ing industries include energy efficiency, information
bulbs. Under this program, the government offered technology, biotechnology, high-end equipment man-
a 30% subsidy on wholesale purchases and a 50% ufacturing, new energy, advanced materials, and new-
subsidy on retail sales of energy-saving light bulbs.41 energy vehicles. The Chinese government has cre-
A total of 360 million subsidized CFLs were sold to ated a special fund and allocated four billion Yuan
consumers between 2008 and 2010. This helped the (US$634 million) supporting the development of these
market share of high-efficiency illumination products emerging sectors in 2011.33 The Government’s al-
to reach 67% in China during the 11th FYP period.30 location can be used as venture capital investment,
In May 2009, the Chinese government launched subsidies for accelerating commercialization, and in-
a nationwide program promoting energy-efficient ap- centives for spurring consumption in these strategic
pliances and equipments. The Energy-Efficient Prod- emerging sectors.
ucts for the Benefit of the People program promoted
the widespread use of energy-efficient appliances and
equipments including air conditioners (ACs), refrig- Investment by State-Owned Enterprises
erators, washers, TV, computer displays, and electric The role of China’s state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in
motors. For example, the central government offers clean energy investments should be highlighted. For
subsidies of 500–850 Yuan (US$79–135) per unit for example, from 2007 to 2008, China’s largest indus-
grade 1 AC products and 300–650 Yuan (US$47– trial enterprises participating in the country’s Top-
103) per unit for grade 2 AC products. Local govern- 1000 Program—many of them are SOEs—invested a
ments provided an additional subsidy of 150 Yuan combined 140 billion Yuan (US$22 billion) in inno-
(US$24) for grade 1 AC units and 100 Yuan (US$16) vation and retrofit projects that resulted in a total of
for grade 2 units.42 These subsidies have helped pro- energy savings of 50 million tce (1469 PJ).44, 45 SOEs
mote 30 million high-efficiency ACs.30 Within just 2 have also dominated China’s solar power project mar-
years, the market share of high-efficiency AC units in ket by underbidding private developers. In the sec-
China increased 13-fold to 70% from 5%.33 ond round of solar concession that occurred in the
In June 2010, the Chinese government launched summer of 2010, for example, SOEs won all 13 of
a pilot program in six Chinese cities to provide direct the projects with winning tariffs between 0.70 and
subsidies to buyers of electric and hybrid cars. The 1.09 Yuan (US$0.11–0.17) per kWh. Even though
pilot provided a discount of 60,000 Yuan (US$8800) the price was too low to keep the return on invest-
for purchasing electric vehicles and 50,000 Yuan ment at 10%, SOEs are capable of taking on these
(US$7320) for plug-in hybrids. In addition, the Chi- projects with their sizeable balance sheets and ability
nese government offered a nationwide subsidy of to give up short-term profits for long-term gains.15
3000 Yuan (US$476) on purchases of cars with 1.6-L
engines or smaller and that consume 20% less fuel
than the current fuel economy standards.43 So far, The Role of China’s Banks
the central government has allocated 4.3 billion Yuan In addition to the direct incentives, the Chinese Gov-
(US$683 million) to support the energy-efficient au- ernment also offers low-interest loans and large credit
tomobile program.33 lines through its policy bank, the China Develop-
In addition, Chinese governments at all lev- ment Bank (CDB), to finance the country’s clean en-
els have invested directly in energy-efficient products ergy development. The CDB is primarily responsible
through the green procurement program. Accord- for raising funds for large infrastructure projects and
ing to data released by the Ministry of Finance, in serves as the engine that powers the national gov-
2010 alone, governments at different levels in China ernment’s economic development policies. In 2011,
spent a combined 72.1 billion Yuan (US$11.4 billion) the CDB lent a total of 658 billion Yuan (US$104
in procuring energy-efficient supplies, accounting for billion) in financing for energy-saving and pollution-
77.3% of the total supplies of the same types.41 control projects.46 It also provided China’s major so-
lar panel manufacturers with a combined total of
Government Support for Developing Strategic 203 billion Yuan (US$32.2 billion) in loans to as-
Emerging Industries sist them in increasing production capacity and ex-
To enable the country become a leader in vital emerg- panding overseas operations. This expansion could
ing market sectors, China has made the development double global solar cell production capacity and en-
of seven key strategic emerging industries the coun- able these Chinese companies to gain larger shares
try’s strategic focus of economic development in the in important markets.15 Governments’ financial sup-
12th FYP period and beyond. The strategic emerg- port to foster the growth of domestic clean energy
8
business is common outside China. The U.S. De- Yuan (US$1.6 billion) for the next 5 years.50 A spe-
partment of Energy (DOE), for example, created a cial loan program has recently been launched in some
loan guarantee program as part of the Energy Pol- banks, through which industrial facility owners or
icy Act of 2005 to support clean energy develop- ESCOs that have limited equity/asset can pledge their
ment. The program leverages federal dollars by al- entitled shared-savings as collateral. As of February
lowing the DOE to guarantee the debt of clean energy 2011, for example, the Pudong Development Bank
developers and manufacturing companies. To date, has issued 47.4 million Yuan (US$7.5 million) of this
the DOE has finalized or issued conditional com- type of loans.51
mitments for nearly US$36 billion in loan guaran-
tees and has supported a diverse portfolio of over 40
projects.47
Despite strong financial support from China’s Other Types of Financing
governments at both the central and local levels, the Compared with traditional funding sources, new
majority of the green investments in China during the types of investment through public equity markets,
11th FYP period have come from domestic financial venture capital, and private equity were relatively in-
institutions. In the area of energy-efficiency invest- significant in China. Combined funding from these
ment, for example, public funding accounted only for sources accounted for only 14.28% of China’s total
14.7%, whereas the majority (85%) came from the clean energy investment of $51.1 billion in 2010, a
commercial sector.6 Loans made by China’s commer- year in which the country has set the record with so
cial banks have played an essential role in meeting far the largest investment figure in any year and for
the financial needs of the clean energy development any country.13, 52 Figure 3 shows the total amount
in China and at the same time have helped phase out and number of cases related to public offerings and
the inefficient operations. private investments in the forms of venture capital
Actions taken by domestic financial institutions and private equity during the 11th FYP period.
in restricting the expansion of highly polluting and
highly inefficient (liang gao) industries and promot-
ing green development have been largely driven by Financing Through Public Equity Markets
the adoption of a ‘Green Credit’ Policy that man- The total amount of clean energy financing through
dates lenders to link banks’ lending decisions with China’s public equity markets between 2006 and
borrowers’ energy and environmental performance. 2010 was around 62 billion Yuan (US$9.9 billion).
The ‘Green Credit’ policy had helped to move loans China set a record in 2010 in raising funds to finance
away from the liang gao sectors. According to the clean energy development through its stock markets
China Banking Association, the share of commer- with the number of IPOs reaching 32. Investment
cial loans issued to major energy-consuming and through the country’s stock markets in 2010 was 1.67
environmental-polluting industries such as iron and times the amount raised in the 4 years combined from
steel, cement, glass, coal chemical, calcium carbide, 2006 to 2009. China’s public equity market invest-
and shipbuilding in China’s total commercial lend- ments accounted for 35% of world’s combined clean
ing was only 3.57% in 2010.48 In 2009 alone, energy stocks in 2010.52, 53 This share, however, does
the total loan amount supporting energy conser- not included the funds that Chinese clean technol-
vation and pollution reduction reached 856 billion ogy companies raised from public offerings outside
Yuan (US$135 billion). The loan volume of China’s of China.
commercial banks in financing energy-efficiency and Even though funding through the stock mar-
environmental-protection projects has quadrupled in ket has been relatively small in China’s total share
2010 from the 2006 level.49 of green investments, the public equity market has
To meet the growing demands for financing and played an important role in helping curb the country’s
to address the barriers to accessing financing (dis- growing environmental problems. The most notable
cussed in a following section), some Chinese banks example is the China’s ‘Green Security’ policy that has
have taken innovative approaches. The Bank of Bei- made it harder for liang gao industries to raise capital
jing, for example, announced in April 2011 that from the public equity market. Since the implemen-
it signed a strategic collaboration agreement with tation of the policy in February 2008, 20 out of 38
the nation’s ESCO industry trade group, the ESCO companies who did not pass the government’s review
Committee of China Energy Conservation Associa- of energy and environmental compliances had their
tion (EMCA), to provide EMCA’s member companies IPOs rejected or delayed subject to further review by
with a special line of credit worth a total of 10 billion China’s environmental regulators.54

F I G U R E 3 China’s IPO and VC/PE Investment in the 11th FYP Period. Created using data from www.ChinaVenture.com.
Venture Capital and Private Equity development is an indication of this. Despite ques-
Investments tions about the additionality of a number of renew-
Venture capital and private equity have played a able energy projects, CDM has in fact become a tool
smaller role in financing clean energy development for fulfilling the country’s policy, particularly in the
in China. The total amount of investments under this wind sector, where the capacity of all CDM projects
category was merely 33 billion Yuan (US$5.3 billion) in the pipeline was twice the 5 GW target.55
during the 11th FYP period.52 Investment through China has become the world’s largest and most
venture capital and private equity accounted only active market for CDM. By the end of 2010, a to-
for 2.2% of China’s total clean energy investment of tal of 1560 Chinese projects were successfully reg-
$51.1 billion in 2010.13, 52 Despite the small share of istered with the United Nations Clean Development
venture capital and private equity investments in the Mechanism Executive Board, accounting for 46% of
total green energy investments in China, investments all combined registered programs in the world, and
through this private source made up about 13% of their estimated certified emission reduction reached
the world’s total venture capital and private equity an annual issuance volume of 328 million tons of CO2
investments in clean energy in 2010.52, 53 equivalent, comprising about 64% of the world’s to-
The top three areas that attracted the most ven- tal. With regard to the types of China’s CDM projects,
ture capital and private equity investments in China in hydropower projects are ranked the first followed by
2010 were wind energy (with a share of 25.12% in to- wind projects and energy-efficiency projects. Other
tal), battery and energy storage technology (20.02%), types of CDM projects being developed in China in-
and environmental protection and energy conserva- clude coal bed methane, landfill gas, biomass energy,
tion (19.57%). In 2011, however, the share of private industrial gas capture projects, fossil fuel switching,
investments in wind energy shrunk to 3.93%, whereas biogas, reforestation, and solar energy.30, 55, 56
pollution monitoring and control (35.94%), solar
energy (29.23%), and battery and energy storage
Lease Financing
(16.80%) became the top three areas that attracted
Lease financing is an arrangement under which the
most venture capital and private equity investments.52
lessor purchases an asset from a supplier at the de-
Carbon Financing termination of the lessee and provides the use of this
Carbon financing such as the Clean Development asset to the lessee against payment of a leasing fee.57
Mechanism (CDM) has played a positive role in di- Although China’s leasing market is currently under-
recting China’s investment to green development. The developed, it has entered into a stage of rapid develop-
interaction between the CDM and renewable energy ment, with a business value reaching 650 billion Yuan
10
(US$103 billion) in 2010, an eightfold jump between Efficiency Financing Project (CHEEF) with multi-
2006 and 2010.58 Lease financing has increasingly ple goals. The first goal was to provide energy-
become an important vehicle for marketing energy- conservation investment lending to industrial enter-
efficient technology with a viable financing solution. prises or ESCOs through carefully selected domestic
There is a good fit between lease-financing option and financial intermediaries (DFIs) who in turn will on-
energy-efficiency projects. The costs for the lease are lend the World Bank/GEF funds along with equal
typically lower than the saved energy costs, so the amount of loans committed from their own resources.
financing pays for itself and brings additional cost The second goal is to demonstrate to China’s do-
savings, producing a win–win for customers, equip- mestic banks effective business models and institu-
ment manufacturers/vendors, leasing companies, and tional arrangements for the preparation and financing
the environment. of energy conservation projects, focusing primarily
on preinvestment activities such as feasibility studies,
due diligence, development of new financing mecha-
Information Disclosure to Facilitate Green nisms, and institutional arrangements. Other goals of
Financing and Investment CHEEF include strengthening the government’s ca-
In 2006, China’s central bank, the People’s Bank of pacity in implementing national energy-conservation
China, created a nationwide credit database, which policies and programs and supporting program mon-
today consists of credit information as well as infor- itoring and reporting.62
mation on administrative penalties for 600 million The Export-Import Bank of China (EXIM), one
individuals and 16 million businesses across China.59 of China’s policy banks that normally serves large cus-
The database allows various government agencies to tomers, and the Huaxia Bank, a joint stock bank that
share information and it is accessible to all banks and traditionally serves smaller customers, were selected
financial institutions that rely upon the information to as the two DFIs participating in the CHEEF project.
make their investment decisions. Most significant in- As of March 31, 2011, CHEEF phase I has disbursed
formation in the database is related to environmental US$95 million and leveraged investments of US$177
compliance of businesses. At the end of 2010, 40,000 million from EXIM and Huaxia and US$216 mil-
entries on environmental violation information and lion from industrial facilities, which is estimated to
3000 environmental assessment results were entered result in 1.5 million tce of energy savings and four
into the database by the MEP. To a significant extent, million tons of CO2 emissions reductions every year
the information sharing and disclosure has helped once these projects are in operation. The World Bank
Chinese financial institutions to make informed de- has approved loans of US$100 million for each of
cisions regarding their investments and direct their fi- two following phases of CHEEF and selected EXIM
nancing toward environmentally sound projects.59, 60 and the private Min Sheng Bank, separately, as the
implementing DFIs.63, 64
The French Development Agency (FDA) signed
Support From International Donor Agencies a collaboration agreement with MOF in 2007 to
International donors have also played an important jointly launch a green loan project under which the
role in facilitating green financing and building ca- FDA provided 60 million Euro (US$78 million) to
pacity for domestic financial institutions in provid- the MOF for carrying out a financial intermediary
ing green financing in China. As early as 1998, the lending operation for energy-efficiency retrofit and
China Energy Conservation Project was launched renewable-energy development projects. Three Chi-
with a grant from the European Commission and the nese joint stock banks—Huaxia, China Merchants
Global Environment Facility (GEF) and a loan from Bank, and Pudong Development Bank—were selected
the World Bank. This project provided lines of credit as the three DFIs to provide the FDA loan to qual-
to three Chinese ESCOs and helped them adapt en- ified projects at below-market rates. The goals of
ergy performance contracting to China’s market. It the FDA loan are not only to finance green energy
also created a loan guarantee program to help build a but also to enhance the capacity of China’s banks
three-party investment mechanism involving project in assessing energy-efficiency and renewable-energy
hosts, banks, and ESCOs. In addition, it supported potentials and improving their lending practices in
the creation of China’s ESCO association, EMCA, to green energy. The development and dissemination
build the institutional support for ESCOs and make it of a guidebook on energy-efficiency and renewable-
a representative of this emerging industry in China.61 energy project financing was an important output
During the 11th FYP period, the World Bank from this collaboration. Because of the initial suc-
and the GEF launched a 5-year China Energy cess in implementing this project, the FDA and MOF

decided in 2010 to extend the operation to the second As an important part of CHUEE program, IFC
phase and increase the FDA loan to 120 million Euro cooperates with Chinese commercial banks, offer-
(US$156 million).65 ing them a risk-sharing facility under which IFC
In addition to providing loans to support bears a certain portion of the loss for all loans
China’s green development, international donors made by Chinese banks within the energy-efficiency
have also provided China with other support. In financing portfolio. Since the launch of the pro-
March 2011, the World Bank launched the Provin- gram, three Chinese banks have participated in the
cial Energy Efficiency Scale-Up Program in China, CHUEE program—the Industrial Bank, the Bank
assisting three Chinese provinces to meet their energy- of Beijing, and the Shanghai Pudong Development
efficiency goals by strengthening their institutional Bank. With the support of CHUEE, participating
systems, improving local implementation capacity, banks jointly provided loans totaling 3.5 billion Yuan
and deploying more market-based incentive mecha- (US$555 million) as of June 2009, which financed
nisms for energy-efficiency investments. One of the 98 energy-efficiency projects such as heat and gas
three provinces, Shandong, was offered a loan of recovery power generation and the introduction of
US$150 million to improve its energy efficiency, par- energy-efficient production systems. Although the
ticularly through lease financing.66 steel, chemical, and cement industries have benefited
International donors have also provided China the most from these targeted investments, China’s fi-
with significant support in mitigating the financial nancial institutions have learned a great deal in risk-
risks associated with green lending. As part of its based lending. In addition, an independent evalua-
China’s Energy Conservation Project, the World tion of CHUEE’s program found that members in
Bank/GEF launched a major loan guarantee program the CHUEE-supported ESCO network enhanced their
in China in late 2003 with a total of US$26 million chances of obtaining bank financing by 31% and tech-
in GEF grant financing. Unlike traditional guaran- nical assistance to ESCOs independent of membership
tee programs that support broader energy-efficiency increased the probability of projects obtaining financ-
investments, this guarantee program was designed ing by 27%.70
solely to support the development of the local Chi-
nese ESCO industry. The program was operated by
China’s largest guarantee company, the China Na- BARRIES TO ACHIEVEING CHINA’S
tional Investment & Guaranty Co. (I&G), using GEF FINANCING POTENTIALS
resources held by the Government of China as reserve
resources to back the loan guarantees issued.67 As of Despite the efforts to date, there remains a large po-
the end of 2009, I&G had worked with 12 banks tential for green energy investments in China. How-
and six provincial guaranty companies to provide a ever, the country is facing several key barriers that
total of 516 million Yuan (US$82 million) guarantees have impeded the development of a sizeable market
to 148 energy-efficiency projects carried out by 42 suitable for addressing China’s needs for green invest-
ESCOs.68 ments. These barriers are particularly evident in the
The International Finance Corporation (IFC), a area of energy-efficiency improvement, as renewable
member of the World Bank Group, launched the 6- energy financing has faced fewer hurdles given the
year China Utility-Based Energy Efficiency Finance revenue certainty brought by the country’s advan-
Program (CHUEE) in 2006. The CHUEE program tageous feed-in-tariff policy. The section below dis-
was jointly funded by the IFC, the GEF, the Min- cusses specific barriers to scaling up energy-efficiency
istry of Employment and Economy of Finland, and investments in China.
the Norwegian Agency for Development Coopera-
tion. The primary goals of this program are to re-
duce greenhouse gases emissions by financing energy- Lack of Long-Term Policy Mechanisms
efficiency projects in China and to create an effective and Effective Policy Design
financial system for Chinese enterprises and project Despite strong political and financial commitments
developers to invest in energy-efficiency projects. Un- to energy-efficiency improvement by the government,
der this program, the IFC would provide a combined several issues are present in China indicating that the
package of risk-sharing facility, technical assistance, country needs to develop more effective policy mech-
and advisory services to multiple players including anisms and sufficient institutional capacity necessary
commercial banks, ESCOs, energy-efficiency equip- to create long-lasting impacts on energy-efficiency in-
ment suppliers, and utilities.69 vestments.
12
For example, there is ineffectiveness in the pol- reserve requirements set for the country’s banks were
icy design. Taking China’s green policies (i.e., green adjusted 12 times, increasing from 16% to 21.5%
credit, green security, and green insurance) as an within 17 months,73 forcing banks to reduce lend-
example, these policies focus on restrictive rather ing. At the same time, interest rates were adjusted
than stimulating measures, which have led to some upward, making the rate for a 3-year term loan stand
counterproductive results. The lack of supporting between 8% and 12%. The small- and medium-
guidelines for the implementation of green financing sized enterprises (SMEs) were hit the hardest. Facing
policies is also indicative of a less effective policy de- growing difficulties obtaining most needed financing,
sign. Although the government issued policies to link many SMEs scrambled for funds from private lenders
financing with enterprises’ energy and environmental who charged up to 18 times the benchmark loan
performance, it failed to put out evaluation criteria rate (up to 120% in contrast to the 6.65% bench-
to guide financial institutions in making effective de- mark rate).74 Persistent high loan rates could have
cisions. The lack of proper evaluation guidelines has serious consequences for SMEs including ESCOs, in-
created a situation in which those affected by the pol- creasing their borrowing costs, eroding their profits,
icy merely understand why but do not know how to and even driving them out of business. To make it
implement the green financing policy. In addition, the worse for energy-efficiency investments, higher rates
lack of a system capable of monitoring and overseeing have allured more institutions into the private lend-
policy compliance also indicates a problem in the pol- ing business, including investment consulting firms,
icy system. To a certain extent, policy is compulsory credit guarantee firms, pawn shops, and unlicensed
by design. However, it acts in a more voluntary way microcredit organizations because the business offers
when being implemented, due to the lack of effective a higher return between 40% and 50%.74 This fur-
monitoring and control mechanisms. This shortcom- ther reduces the funds available for energy-efficiency
ing of no distinction between good and bad perform- investments.
ers dampens the enthusiasm of financial institutions China’s control of the expansion of heavy indus-
that proactively implement the policy and discourages tries as well as the restraint on foreign exchange also
them from undertaking greater efforts and building a brings unintended consequences for energy-efficiency
system of facilitating the economic transition towards investments. The green loan and green security poli-
sustainability.60 cies are aimed at slowing the fast expansion of heavy
Despite China’s enormous foreign currency re- industry, but the policy puts an inadvertent ban on
serves and Chinese currency deposited in Chinese financing energy efficiency in this sector, effectively
banks (US$3.2 trillion and US$12.6 trillion, respec- blocking a vital pathway for the energy-intensive sec-
tively, at the end of September 2011),71, 72 financ- tors to be more efficient. The control on foreign ex-
ing for energy efficiency is still difficult to obtain in change was intended to control a sharp rise in the
China. Restrictions in China’s legislations and reg- inflow of speculative ‘hot money’, or foreign cap-
ulations have somehow caused this difficulty. First, ital entering the country to seek quick profits. It
the promotion of diversified financing vehicles such could, however, have an unintended effect on energy-
as bond and leasing financing has not been reflected efficiency investments because it adds another layer
in China’s laws. For example, China’s local govern- of risk and uncertainty to foreign investors, driving
ments are barred by law from issuing debt by them- them away from investing in China.75
selves due to the central government’s intention of
making the country’s debt size controllable. Second,
energy-efficiency obligations on utilities are an effec- Insufficient Capacity and Inadequate
tive policy instrument to support energy-efficiency in- Institutional Support
vestments because the utilities often have the strongest In addition to the issues associated with regula-
technical and institutional capacity and ability to tory policies, the lack of sufficient institutional ca-
carry out the energy-efficiency investments. However, pacity further aggravates the problem of scale-up.
in China, both legislative efforts and regulatory mech- In China, energy-efficiency projects are often car-
anisms are not in existence to spur utilities’ interests ried out separately by individual project developers
in investing in energy-efficiency implementation. or ESCOs. This common practice makes it hard,
If not designed coherently, policies could bring if not impossible, to aggregate and develop large
unintended consequences for energy-efficiency invest- clusters of viable projects. Outside China, there
ments. For example, to curb inflation, China has tight- are different types of institutions such as utilities,
ened its control on lending since 2010. The statutory NGOs, or government entities playing a market

aggregator role in administering and implementing generation. The unfamiliarity of the benefits of pur-
large-scale energy-efficiency programs. One good ex- suing energy efficiency and perceived risks of energy
ample is the Sustainable Energy Utility model pio- efficiency lending have created a compounding effect,
neered in Delaware in the United States that serves leading to a lack of institutional focus on promoting
as a one-stop shop for energy-efficiency and renew- energy efficiency lending activities by Chinese lenders
able energy solutions from bundling projects, bringing especially commercial banks.67 As a result, lending
cluster of projects to the financial market, and admin- for energy efficiency and environmental protection ac-
istering the project implementation.76 Aggregation is counts only for a tiny fraction—less than 3%—in the
attractive to financiers, allowing them to finance a country’s total commercial loan portfolio.
portfolio of energy-efficiency projects rather than in- There is a disconnect between current lending
dividual projects, thus significantly lowering transac- practices of local financial institutions (LFIs) and the
tion costs; aggregation can also create economies-of- needs of energy-efficiency projects, which has cre-
scale and attract large suppliers and service providers. ated significant difficulties in granting the access to
Bulk purchases, bulk discounts, and other aggrega- available funds at LFIs. This is caused by several fac-
tion strategies will bring down incremental costs of tors. First, commonly accepted asset-based lending
energy-efficiency measures, helping overcome the first requires significant asset value, which cannot be cre-
cost barrier and creating a larger, more sustained mar- ated through energy-efficiency projects which create
ket demand. energy reduction rather than asset value. Second, sav-
Lack of sufficient institutional support from the ings are not acknowledged as a way to increasing
governments further aggravates the problem for im- credit capacity of the host companies. The lack of
plementation. Under the green financing programs, fi- understanding about the complexity of energy-saving
nancial institutions make financing decisions based on projects and the scarcity of experience to properly
firms’ environmental performance information pro- evaluate their risks and benefits raise the hurdle of ac-
vided by the MEP and its local environmental processing financing. Finally, LFIs are unwilling to invest
tection bureaus. However, insufficient institutional in building proper capacity because of the insignifi-
capacity, especially at the central level, has posed cant share of energy-efficiency financing in their lend-
significant constrains for green financing policies to ing portfolio78
be fully effective. A comparison of the Environment
Protection Agency of the United States (with approx-
imately 18,000 staff members) to China’s MEP (cur- Lack of Motivation for Energy Efficiency
rently 311 employees at the central government, ap- in China’s Enterprises
proximately 2800 staff in total including all employ- In spite of the fact that energy efficiency is a na-
ees at subnational governments and public institutional priority in China, many enterprises are reluc-
tions) would illustrate the seriousness of this issue.77 tant to take aggressive actions to materialize enor-
mous energy-saving opportunities, especially those
beyond low-hanging options. Several factors are con-
Lack of Focus on Green Development sidered to be the cause for this reluctance. First,
in China’s Lending Practices constraints of internal capital have made investing
With the adoption of the Green Credit policy, Chi- in energy efficiency less likely when competing with
nese banks view energy and environmental issues as investing in production expansion. A lack of inter-
a matter of policy compliance. Even though China’s nal funding for energy efficiency is the top barrier in
banks are increasingly promoting sustainable devel- China. The 2011 Johnson Controls Energy Efficiency
opment as a matter of corporate social responsibility Indicator Survey found that 40% of 450 Chinese re-
(actions taken beyond what is mandated), many Chi- spondents indicated that they had insufficient internal
nese banks still portray sustainability as charity work capital for energy-efficiency projects.79
rather than a core business strategy.54 It is also the case that energy-efficiency projects,
In addition, green lending, especially lending for especially those carried out by external developers,
energy conservation and environmental protection, are not welcomed by many enterprises in China,
is a new business line for Chinese lenders. It is also particularly industrial facilities, because of the fear
perceived to be a riskier business by the risk-averse about the loss of trade secrets and possible business
lenders compared with their traditional lending ac- interruptions. As a result, many industrial energy-
tivities, as energy-efficiency improvement is often re- efficiency projects focus primarily on replacing equip-
garded as an activity that does not contribute directly ment rather than on materializing larger saving op-
to the business’ production expansion and revenue portunities in the industrial processes. In addition,
14
in SOEs in China, job performance of executives is Lack of Diversified Sources of Financing

evaluated according to the achievements during their Despite the existence of diversified financing alterna-
tenure, but energy-efficiency improvements can have tives to bank loans, sizes and available funding from
payback periods beyond their tenures. Projects are these diversified sources have been small and limited,
less welcomed if the energy savings would only add making them very hard to fill the financing gap for
value to their successors. energy conservation investments.
Venture capital and private equity investments
could play an important role in financing green devel-
Formidable Hurdles for Small- and opment. However, in China, these investments often
Medium-Sized ESCOs favor late-stage projects wherein the risk is small and
China’s SMEs, long the most dynamic and vital part earnings are fast, whereas many green energy projects
of the Chinese economy, continue to face significant need the most support at the early stage.83 China’s
hurdles in accessing commercially viable capital. The bond market remains small in size. This market was
SOEs that produce merely a quarter of China’s GDP valued at 20.4 trillion Yuan (US$3.2 trillion) at the
have access to a large share of the country’s credit, end of 2010, merely one-tenth of the size of the U.S.
whereas SMEs that combine to produce 60% of the bond market.84 The scale of China’s public equity
country’s GDP and absorb 80% of employment only market is also limited. At the end of 2010, compa-
gain about one-quarter of new investments chan- nies listed on China’s stock exchanges issued over
neled through China’s financial system, indicating 3.31 trillion shares with a total market valuation of
a declining productivity of investment.80, 81 Among 26.54 trillion Yuan (US$4.21 trillion).85 By compari-
400,000 SMEs in Shanghai, for example, there are son, the market capitalization of all companies listed
merely 37,000 that have a credit relationship with lo- on the New York Stock Exchange alone was around
cal banks, making the vast majority the city’s SMEs US$13.39 trillion in December 2010.86
out of banks’ service coverage.82 Despite the fact that China is by far the largest
Except for a very few large peers, the major- beneficiary of carbon financing through CDM, less
ity of China’s ESCOs are SMEs, with characteris- than 8% of China’s approved CDM credits in 2010
tics that prevent them from accessing much needed were for energy-efficiency projects.73 This is due to
capital. Generally, there are several key factors con- the typical problems that energy-efficiency projects
tributing to the difficulties China’s ESCOs are facing. face—such as measurement and verification of energy
First, the bank-dominated financing structure offers savings—which are further exacerbated by complex
very limited financing options for ESCOs. Next, the and demanding CDM rules and procedures. In addi-
ESCO business is service oriented and relies primar- tion, foreign investments in clean energy development
ily on shared energy savings as the revenue source are severely confined by China’s stringent policy gov-
and thus lacks collateral and predicable cash inflows, erning foreign investors.
which are basic requirements under the traditional
lending. Furthermore, ESCOs’ lack of credit history
because of being in the start-up stage hurt their cred- Lack of Technical Capacity in Clean Energy
itworthiness, which is critical for securing financing. Investment
Fourth, most ESCOs in China focus on niche markets There is a large gap between the capacity of and
with unproven and limited technology solutions. The the needs for scaling up green energy financing, es-
lack of diversified technology offerings from ESCOs pecially energy-efficiency investments, in China. For
coupled with the unfamiliarity of banks with energy- China’s financiers, energy efficiency is a completely
efficiency measures have raised financiers’ concerns new area; there is a general lack of familiarity with en-
on the successful rate of their investments and in- ergy conservation technologies and practices, leading
creased the perceived risks that result in less capital to a weak capability on the part of financiers to prop-
availability or place more stringent requirements on erly assess the risks and potentials of energy-efficiency
obtaining capital. Finally, under the current energy investments. The lack of such an important capacity
performance contracting model, ESCOs are respon- would not only impede financiers’ ability to effectively
sible for seeking financing and bearing the financial perform credit evaluation and risk management for
risks but they get paid only after savings are realized, energy-efficiency projects but also prolongs the pro-
which takes time. This to a large extent limits ESCOs’ cess and increases the transaction costs of developing
ability to take on multiple projects. All these factors those projects. To make things worse, financiers are
have worked together to hamper the larger growth of unwilling to develop internal capacity for energy effi-
the energy service market. ciency because it is not their core business focus.

The capacity of other participants in energy effi- CHEEF supported by the World Bank and GEF, for
ciency is also weak in China. There is not only a lack example, for 2 years, only half of the allocated loan
of sufficient technical, market, financial, and business of US$200 million from the World Bank was lent out
development skills but also a scarcity of experience by Chinese DFIs who merely provided US$100 mil-
in dealing with financiers and customers on the part lion of matching loan in energy-efficiency projects. In
of project developers and energy service providers. stark contrast to this, Min Sheng Bank, one of the
Customers, facility owners, managers, engineers, or DFIs participating in CHEEF project, issued a total
architects lack information about energy-efficiency of 900 billion Yuan (US$143 billion) in commercial
project characteristics and potentials; technical mer- loans in 2009.64
its of energy-efficiency products, equipments, and ser- Several reasons have contributed to the less than
vices; economic and financial costs and benefits asso- satisfactory outcomes. First, the local market may not
ciated with energy-efficiency activities; and possible have been sufficiently developed with strong institu-
impacts of these activities on operations and produc- tional capability of bundling and delivering high qual-
tions. The lack of skills and information may increase ity projects for financing. In addition, donor programs
perceived uncertainties and impede decisions. were not well designed to be properly adapted to meet
local financing needs. In addition, some donor pro-
grams were not developed to meet the local financial
Lack of Effective Measurement and partners’ core business objectives and thus failed to
Verification Protocol and Implementation obtain their full and sustained participation. Finally,
for Documenting Energy Savings donor programs were not intensively and continually
The success of the EPC model very much relies upon marketed.88
reliable and transparent measurement and verification
(M&V) of cost savings, the absence of which could
lead to contract disputes between the project hosts
CONCLUSIONS
and project developers/service providers and thus hin-
der the scale-up of energy-efficiency investments. China has made sustainable development the coun-
There is no legally enforceable national stan- try’s top policy priority and has invested heavily in
dard governing the evaluation of the savings of energy efficiency, clean energy, and environmental
energy-efficiency projects in China. Despite the ex- protection during the 11th FYP period. Despite these
istence of a national standard providing a general efforts, however, the size of China’s green energy mar-
guidance on calculating energy savings, the protocol ket could continue to be limited because of impedi-
is relatively old (issued in 1997), has limited scope ments to green investments, especially the financing
(merely covering industrial facilities), and has been of energy efficiency.
too simple to satisfy the contractual requirements China could consider of taking a series of ac-
of an EPC. Because of the lack of a well-designed tions to remove the barriers that prevent it from
M&V protocol, clients and contractors could not scaling up green energy investments. It is important
smoothly reach an agreement on the savings. The for China to strengthen policy and regulatory sup-
lack of reliable measurement equipment and base- port, enhance monitoring and supervision of policy
line data add another layer of difficulty to the prob- compliance, motivate financial institutions to focus
lem of building an effective M&V system.87 In ad- more on energy efficiency, and create effective in-
dition, China’s implementation of M&V work is stitutional framework and enabling environment to
further hindered by a lack of a third-party M&V convert energy-efficiency opportunities into real in-
scheme that could provide independent and impartial vestments and large-scale implementation. It is also
services of verifying energy savings, which is essen- imperative for China to diversify its financing re-
tial for the development of a robust energy service sources and investment options; reduce the perceived
market. risks and bring down transaction costs of energy-
efficiency projects and incremental costs of energy-
efficiency measures; pursue proactive resolutions of
Issues Related to International Donor legal, financial, tax, accounting, and other issues rela-
Agencies tive to the performance contracting; develop and im-
Investment support from international donor agen- plement an effective energy-saving measurement and
cies has had mixed results. Although some donor verification system, and build strong capacity and dis-
programs were successful in facilitating lending from seminate best practices in scaling up energy-efficiency
LFIs, more have experienced low deal flow. Under the financing.
16
In addition to these general ideas of ac- not provided independently on contracted

tions China could take to scale-up its green energy projects between ESCOs and hosts that nor-
investments; four specific recommendations are of- mally require more detailed work. To de-
fered below to enhance the credit of energy project velop a robust M&V system, governments
developers and service providers and reduce the risks in China should encourage more third-party
associated with energy-efficiency investments. M&V service providers. Governments could
accelerate the growth of an M&V service
1. Credit information verification for SMEs:
market by allowing independent third-party
The government in China could help cre-
M&V service providers to compete with
ate credit information and scoring system
government-designated verifying entities for
that tracks and documents credit history of
M&V work.
all businesses including SMEs and converts
the information into credit scores that could 4. Building risk-sharing mechanism: The
assist financial institutions effectively deter- government could take the advantage
mine the level of individual business’ credit- of the experiences from international
worthiness. SMEs should be allowed to re- donor-supported risk-sharing programs to
ceive a credit certification from the system create mechanisms such as a risk-sharing fa-
for use in the application of loan or loan cility, performance guarantee insurance, and
guarantees. Bank should be encouraged to re-guarantee program that provides a guar-
issue loans based on businesses’ credit scores antee to the guarantee companies. Commer-
documented in the government-sponsored cial banks who have participated in the in-
credit information system. ternational donor-sponsored program such
as CHUEE have now gained experiences
2. Provision of performance guarantee of
and confidence in sharing risks with a credi-
energy-efficiency projects: The government
ble third party in financing energy-efficiency
could facilitate the development of such a
projects. If governments in China utilize pub-
mechanism that energy-efficiency projects
lic funds to create a risk-sharing mecha-
could receive performance guarantees from
nism, banks would become more risk tol-
energy-efficiency service providers just like
erant in lending to SMEs for financing their
products receiving a termed guarantee after
energy-efficiency projects. However, govern-
being purchased. Such a mechanism would
ment involvement in providing risk-sharing
assure that if service providers failed to de-
facility should not intervene in banks’ busi-
liver the promised savings, they are required
nesses. Like the case of CHUEE program,
to either make effort to correct the prob-
bank should be allowed to handle loan is-
lem(s) or to refund the shared cost savings.
suance and postloan management based on
In the beginning when there are fewer finan-
their normal procedures and processes un-
cially credible ESCOs, lenders should be en-
der any government-funded loan guarantee
couraged to use ESCOs’ performance guar-
program.
antee as alternative collaterals for ESCOs to
secure financing. To achieve its energy and carbon reduction tar-
3. Building reliable and reputable third- gets set up for the 12th FYP period, China will no
party M&V system: reliable M&V ser- doubt significantly increase its investments in low-
vices provided by competent third party are carbon, sustainable development. However, the chal-
important to improve the accuracy of lenges may be even more daunting in the new FYP
energy-saving measurement and thus reduce period as many low-hanging opportunities have al-
potential disputes between ESCOs and hosts. ready been seized during the 11th FYP period. The
A couple of dozens of institutions—most of work would be harder if the country is to improve
them are affiliated with governments—have its energy efficiency by 16% by 2015 from the 2010
been designated by the Chinese government level, which indicates that removing the barriers to
as a third party in verifying energy-saving re- green energy investments is even more pressing and
sults from energy retrofit projects. But, their necessary than before. By scaling up its investments
services have been performed in response in energy efficiency, renewable energy and clean tech-
only to government request for verifying en- nologies, China will make significant contributions
ergy savings from energy-efficiency projects to fight against local and regional pollution as well as
that apply for government incentives and are global climate change.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the China Sustainable Energy Program of the Energy Foundation
and Dow Chemical Company (through a charitable contribution) through the U.S. DOE under
contract number DE-AC02–05CH11231.
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Paper 7
X. Ren et al. / Climate Policy 5 (2005) 183–196 183
Climate Policy 5 (2005) 183–196
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Sustainable energy development and climate change in China

Xin Ren1*, Lei Zeng2, Dadi Zhou3
1
UNFCCC Secretariat, PO Box 260124, Bonn 53153, Germany
2
Energy Engineering, Department of Applied Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Lulea University of Technology,
SE-971 87 Lulea, Sweden
3
Energy Research Institute, 100038 Beijing, P.R. China
Received 15 July 2004; received in revised form 10 March 2005; accepted 22 April 2005
Abstract
This article analyses the national circumstances and major factors underpinning China’s energy demand and
supply, energy-related emissions, and consequently China’s sustainable development. These factors include the
huge, still growing, and aging population, rapid economic growth, ongoing industrialization and urbanization,
environmental and health concerns at local, regional and global level. Against such background analysis, the
article explores the potential and constraints of non-fossil fuel, fuel-switching to natural gas, economy restructuring
and clean coal technology in mitigating emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) and ensuring energy supply in
China. The authors reiterate the importance of improving energy efficiency in China and discuss how to integrate
renewable energy into rural development. The article concludes with an in-depth discussion about redefining
development goals, the equity issue in climate change process, and the linkage with sustainable development.
Keywords: Sustainable development; Energy supply and demand; Climate change; Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; China;
Mitigation; Renewable energy; Equity
1. Introduction
China’s rapid economic growth in the past 20 years has impressed the world. About one-fifth of
the world’s population lives in China. The cumulative effects of a huge and still growing population,
a fast-growing economy, low fuel quality, and poor energy and production efficiency have resulted
in serious air pollution and related health concerns.
China relies heavily on coal to meet its energy demand. The total CO2 emission from combustion
is estimated to have been 3,176.1 Mt in 2000 and 3,126.9 Mt in 2001, according to the International
Energy Agency (IEA Database, 2003). This alone could make China the second biggest emitter in
the world after the USA. The latest estimate of China’s total emission of greenhouse gases (GHG),
which also includes CH4 and N2O, was 3,649.5 Mt in CO2-equivalent for 1994 according to China’s
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-228-8151463; fax: +49-228-8151999

E-mail address: xren@unfccc.int
184 X. Ren et al. / Climate Policy 5 (2005) 183–196
first National Communication (NC) [Q1](P.R. China, 2004). The magnitude of China’s GHG
emissions has led to tremendous pressure from the international community.
Many policy studies on climate change in China have been published or are under way. Most of
them rightly focus on energy or technology issues. But they have generally stopped short of
addressing the root causes and driving forces behind these issues, which are crucial for integrating
climate change into social and economic development. The authors have also encountered
misunderstanding, particularly among people outside China, who tend to be overwhelmed by
China’s economic success. This article analyses the basic national and international circumstances
that underline the energy situation, and therefore sustainable development, in China. Since the
bulk (76% according to China’s first NC) of GHG emissions come from energy,1 these factors to a
large extent also decide the amount of GHG emissions from China. Based on that, the article
discusses and reflects on how to integrate climate change, and mitigation in particular, into
sustainable development.
2. Factors affecting energy, GHG emissions and sustainable development in China

2.1. A growing and aging population
The population in China is growing at a slower pace than in most developing countries thanks to
20 years of effort in population control (family planning). The population growth rate in most
developing countries is greater than 2% per year, while in China it is around 0.7%. In contrast,
most industrialized countries have almost zero or even negative population growth. The only
significant exception to this pattern is the USA, where the population is growing at about 1% per
year ([Q2]UNFCCC, 2002). As stated in the USA’s third NC, population levels and growth rates
drive a nation’s consumption of energy and other resources, as more people require more energy
services.
With the continuation of family planning policy in China, the population is expected to grow at
0.7% per year for the next 20 years. This means that each year, the basic needs of about 10 million
more people will have to be met. About 10 million jobs will have to be created each year in order
to maintain social stability and avoid social unrest.
Added to the pressure from the increasing population is the aging of the population. According
to forecasts by experts, China will become an aged society 2 around 2020. This has a significant
impact on energy demand, as an aging population will place higher requirements on energy service,
both in quantity and in quality in terms of heating, air-conditioning, and public services such as
medical and health care. Most of the industrialized countries became aged societies after having
become high-income countries, which enabled them to cope better with the problems associated
with an aged society. In contrast, China is one of the few countries that will face the challenges of
still being a lower-medium income country while becoming an aged society, with all the stresses
on resources that this entails.
2.2. Economic growth, industrialization and urbanization

The need to feed and employ the huge and growing population so as to maintain social stability,
vital not only for China but also for the region and for the world at large, requires economic
growth. In China, urbanization has been the major driving force for such growth and will continue
to be so (Table 1), as it generates demand for infrastructure, housing and consumer goods and
consequently generates employment.
Table 1. Population and urbanization in China

2000 2010 2020
Population (billion; 109) 1.270 1.385 1.485
Urbanization (%) 36 43–45 53–58
Source: [Q21]White Paper on China’s Population, 2000.
However, urbanization has led to, and will continue to lead to, an increase in demand for
commercial energy. In rural areas of China, at present one-third of the energy comes from non-
commercial energy sources, mainly biomass (i.e. agricultural wastes and fuel wood). On average
each urban resident consumed 221 kg coal equivalent (kgce) of energy in 1999, while the rural
population consumed only 68.6 kgce ([Q3]Zhou et al., 2003). This difference, more than triple,
demonstrates the extent to which urbanization impacts on energy consumption and demand.
Moreover, the expansion of infrastructure associated with urbanization boosts the production of
building materials such as steel, glass, cement and aluminium. All are energy-intensive.
The importance of the primary sector (mainly agriculture) to economic growth has been constantly
declining (Table 2). A similar trend can be observed in practically all countries that have undergone
industrialization. The increase in the service sector has mainly centred on the big cities and the
coastal zones of China, exemplifying the unbalanced development across different regions of the
country and among the population, which is characteristic of today’s China.
Table 2. Structure change in China since 1980 (% of GDP)

Sector 1980 1993 2002 2010 2020
Primary 30 20 16 11 9
Secondary 49 47 51 52 48
Tertiary 21 33 33 37 43
Source: [Q4]National Bureau of Statistics of China (2003).
Unlike industrialized countries, where the share of secondary sector is lower than that of the
service industries, manufacturing industry in China remains the pillar of gross domestic production
(GDP), despite the decline of the primary sector and increase in the service sector. Industry used
about 68% of the total energy consumed in the country in 2001, much more than residential (11%)
and transport (8%) ([Q4]National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2003), and higher than its
contribution to the GDP. Industry will continue to use most of the energy, as infrastructure still
needs to be built in the vast inland areas of China.
2.3. Soaring energy demand, limited cleaner fossil fuel resources and severe air pollution
Urbanization and rapid industrialization have led to soaring energy demand and severely stressed
China’s resources and environment. The total primary energy consumption is estimated to be
about 1.48 billion (109) tons[Q5] of coal equivalent (tce) in 2003 [Q4]National Bureau of Statistics
of China, 2003) and the consumption for 2004 is thought to be 1.6–1.7 billion tce. For future
energy demands, the study published by the [Q6]Energy Research Institute (ERI) in China, a
think tank of the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) for national energy
policy and economics, provides the most comprehensive projections and energy development
plan for 2000–2020.
The main assumptions of the projections include a 7% per year growth in GDP and 2.4–3.8% per
year in energy use, both close to or lower than what they have been in the last decade. Energy
demand in the residential and public sectors will increase faster than in industry but will remain
dominated by basic needs, such as heating, cooking, lighting and hot water supply. Transport will
grow rapidly with rising energy consumption. However, public transport will remain the predominant
means of mobility. All these assumptions indicate a modest development scenario, judging by today’s
OECD standards. Still, the energy demand by 2020 is forecast to be 2.3 billion tce per year at best,
taking into account advances in technology and energy conservation measures, and 3 billion tce
under the medium scenario. While the share of coal in the energy mix will continue to decrease, the
shares of nuclear and renewable energy (mainly hydropower) will increase considerably (Table 3).
The share of oil remains almost stable. The share of natural gas is projected to more than quadruple,
equivalent to a gas demand of 200 billion [Q7]m3 by 2020 under the best scenario, more than six
times that in 2002. About 120 billion m3 will come from domestic production and 80 billion [Q7]m3
from imports.
Table 3. China’s energy consumption structure in the past

and projections for the future
Year Coal Oil Hydro Natural gas Nuclear
% of total
1990 76.2 16.6 5.1 2.1 0
1995 74.6 17.5 5.8 1.8 0.3
2001 67.0 23.0 6.9 2.5 0.5
2020 ~54 ~24 ~9 ~12 ~1
Data for 1990 and 1995 (see http://www.stats.gov.cn/).
Data for 2001 and 2020 (see [Q3]Zhou et al., 2003).
The natural endowment of energy resources in China is not rich except for coal. Coal is of
poorer quality than oil and natural gas in that coal has a lower heat value per unit, and higher
carbon and sulphur contents. This means higher transportation and distribution costs, much higher
CO2, SO2 and NOx emissions leading to a greenhouse effect, acid rain and smog. A number of
China’s megacities are among the most polluted megacities in the world in terms of suspended
particulate matters and SO2. One-third of the territory is affected by acid rain. The mounting air
quality problems both in urban areas and at the regional level have pushed the government to
increase the use of cleaner fuels (e.g. natural gas) and cleaner technology such as higher efficiency,
clean coal technology and desulphurization.
China became a net importer of oil after 1993. In 2002 oil imports amounted to 81.3 million
tonnes[Q5] (Mt), accounting for 32.8% of the total oil consumption (NDRC, 2004). With the
booming economy and the associated increase in transport activities, the demand for liquid fuel is
soaring. The main focus of this article, however, is on natural gas due to its great potentials in fuel
and feedstock switching, and thus in mitigation.
Compared with the enormous demand, China’s domestic natural gas reserve is moderate. The
estimate for the economically recoverable reserve varies from source to source but is roughly
around 2–2.5 trillion (1012) [Q7]m3. Most of the gas resources are located in the western part of the
country, far from the major users in big cities and the coastal area in the east. Transport of gas
might be more of a challenge than the lack of a large domestic reserve. Domestic production of
120 billion [Q7]m3 by 2020 means almost quadrupling that of 2002, when the total production
was 32.6 billion [Q7]m3 ([Q4]National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2003), and building around
10 pipelines of the size of the West-to-East project3 within 20 years. To import 80 billion [Q7]m3
gas by 2020 means building 1–2 import pipelines each with the capacity to import 20 billion
[Q7]m3 annually, plus 30–50 million tons[Q5] of liquefied natural gas imported to the coastal
zone, because it is too far from the domestic reserve to justify gas supply by pipeline. All these
require huge investment in the next 20 years.
3. Potential of renewable energy and nuclear power

Hydropower already constitutes 19% of the electricity used in China, while more than 80% of
electricity comes from coal-fired power plants, with the remaining less than 1% from other sources,
mainly nuclear power generation. In order to further explore hydropower and to bring its share up
to about 9% of the primary energy mix and 31% of total electricity production by 2020, China will
need to build 8 GW of new capacity each year, which is almost equivalent to building one Three
Gorges Power Station (capacity estimated at 18.2 GW) every two and a half years. More than 60%
of China’s hydro energy potential would be harnessed by 2020 under such a scenario ([Q3]Zhou
et al., 2003), close to the maximum utilization rate of 70% in developed countries.
The most promising renewable resources in China other than hydropower lie in wind and biomass
(mainly agricultural wastes) in terms of abundance and availability of economically viable
technology. China intends to accelerate exploitation of its renewable resources so as to increase
the share of electricity from renewable resources other than hydropower from currently negligible
to 3.9% by 2020. Such an ambitious plan will be achieved mainly through wind power by adding
1–2 GW capacity of wind power each year for the period 2000–2020.
However, in China, the following constraints may limit the use of renewable energy:
• China is highly reliant on the import of key technology, e.g. large-capacity wind turbine needed
for large-scale commercialization of wind energy.
• As the direct result of reliance on the import of key technology and equipment, the cost is much
higher in China than the world average. China needs to localize the design and production of
key technology.
• High population density, associated with competition for land-use, and distance between
resources and the main users make electricity from renewable energy unlikely to be able to
displace grid electricity.
The most feasible application therefore lies in remote, coastal or island areas with abundant wind
or solar resources and enough space, where grid connection is so costly that the otherwise expensive
renewable energy becomes competitive. Rural development is another area where renewable
resources traditionally supply the bulk of the energy and can play an important role in future, with
multiple benefits.
In general, renewable energy is unable to change the primary energy mix in China much in the
foreseeable future. Even in the EU, which is a pioneer in this field, renewable energy is targeted to
reach 22% of total electricity consumption and only 12% of gross primary energy consumption by
2010 ([Q8]EU, 2001).
Nuclear power will assume a more prominent role but it cannot change the energy mix either,
due to its late introduction in China (since 1994) and high costs resulting from reliance on the
import for key technology. In order to raise its share to 5% of the total electricity generation by
2020, 1–2 nuclear power stations with a capacity at GW level need to be built and brought into
operation each year.
All this colossal effort and investment seems beyond conceivable means today. Even if all this
could be achieved, China still needs to greatly increase coal production to meet the predicted
minimum demand. It is evident that coal will continue to be the major source of energy for the
next 20 years at least. The question is: With this inherently dirty coal, how will China manage to
continue fuelling its economic growth at the same time as reducing the impacts on environment
and health as well as on global climate change?
4. Discussions and reflections

Measures adopted or taken by developed countries in mitigating GHG emissions from energy
include fuel-switching, restructuring, energy efficiency, cogeneration, and renewable energy. To
what extent can China follow these experiences, considering its national circumstance as described
in Section 2.3.
4.1. Managing the energy demand

The above analysis on constraints in energy resources and associated cost as opposed to the
demand shows that China needs to manage its energy demand. This is urgently required not only
for sustaining its social and economic development, but also for slowing down the increase in
GHG emissions and other pollutants associated with energy use. Demand can be managed through
energy conservation, improving the energy efficiency, and restructuring the economy and industry.
Economic reform, the introduction of market competition in China and, more recently,
environmental and health concerns has driven the search for efficiency and restructuring toward
more service-oriented economy. Energy efficiency has been improved through technical innovation,
technology transfer, and process modif ication and retrof it. Improvement in eff iciency has
contributed directly to a slower increase in energy consumption than in the GDP for the past
20 years. However, compared with the world level, China still needs to greatly improve its energy
efficiency. Table 4 shows the gaps in energy efficiency of some of the major energy-intensive
industries in China.
The NDRC prepared the Mid–Long-Term Plan for Energy Conservation published in November
2004 on behalf of the State Council (NDRC, 2004). This Plan covers the eleventh 10-year plan (2006–
2010) and the period 2011–2020 as well. It sets up quantitative targets with a timetable (by 2010 and
Table 4. Energy efficiency of major industry in China compared with the

world average, 2000
Unit China World average
Cement kgce/t 181 125
Iron and steel kgce/t 784 646
Pulp and paper kgce/t 1,195 543
Electricity from coal gce/kWh 392 320
Gas-based ammonium kgce/t 1,273 970
Freight truck l/100km/t 7.6 3.5
Boiler efficiency % 65 80
Motor efficiency % 87 92
Source: The Mid–Long-Term Plan for Energy Conservation (NDRC, 2004[Q22]).
by 2020) on specific energy consumption for major industrial products, energy efficiency for
major equipment, automobiles and appliances, and energy intensity of the economy. The priority
areas for energy efficiency are energy-intensive industry, transport and buildings. The plan
emphasizes energy conservation as a means to achieve sustainable development and highlights it
as the first principle for this plan. Other principles include combining energy efficiency with
structure change, technology innovation and management, combining market mechanism with
government intervention at macro level, strengthening the enforcement of law, and participation
of the whole of society.
Despite all the progress in restructuring, China’s GDP is still dominated by industry. Its industry
is still largely concentrated on the production of basic materials and durable commodities for its
building infrastructure and satisfying the basic needs of its population (see Table 5). Most of these
products are highly energy-intensive. Heavy industries are rapidly expanding in the underdeveloped
regions. This mirrors the early stage of industrialization in developed countries, which witnessed
a rapid increase in energy intensity before it fell to the current levels (Byrne et al., 1996).
Table 5. Change in industrial structure in China (% of industry

GDP; [Q3]Zhou et al., 2003)
Industry 1990 2000
Light industry 35.3 28.7
Mechanical industry 20.9 18.9
Mining 7.1 11.1
Power generation 5.1 9.9
Iron, steel and metals 9.1 7.9
Electronic industry 2.9 7.2
Chemicals 7.8 5.6
Building materials 6.1 4.9
Oil industry 2.6 3.1
Pulp and paper 1.8 1.6
Note: The sum may not be 100% due to statistical and rounding errors.
However, with the economy restructuring to a service-dominated consumer society in

industrialized countries and in countries with economies in transition, the question of ‘who will
produce basic materials for the world in an efficient way?’ will certainly be raised. It is impossible
for such a big country as China to rely on imports from the rest of the world to meet its needs.
Besides, no one will be able to provide for China’s huge population. There might not be much
scope for China to switch its economy to service-based in order to reduce its emissions. The share
of different kinds of industry in the GDP has been rather stable in the last two decades and is
expected to change only slightly in future (Table 2).
On the other hand, China is becoming the world’s factory. International trade of manufacturing
goods has helped to create a boom in China’s economy. China will have to continue industrialization
and trade in order to reduce poverty and attain the millennium development goals. Therefore it
might be more practical to focus on changing the structure of products rather than that of economy.
Efforts have been made to shift to the production of low energy-intensive but higher value-added,
and/or labour-intensive products for multi-benefits on employment, economy and environment.
4.2. Cleaning the energy supply

Fuel-switching from coal to gas can reduce SO2-related air pollution and CO2 emission as well. In
addition, oil and gas have higher boiler conversion efficiencies than coal (in China, 23% and 30%
higher, respectively). This means that generating the same amount of electricity or heat using oil
and gas will consume less fuel than if using coal. Combined with its lower carbon content, fuel-
switching from coal to oil and gas will further reduce CO2 emissions from combustion. Therefore
many developed countries favour fuel-switching as one of the major means to fulf il their
commitments under the UNFCCC in reducing GHG emissions.
Using natural gas to replace coal as feedstock in the chemical and synthetic fertilizer industries
constitutes yet another beneficiary application in favour of energy conservation and GHG emission
reduction. This can be best illustrated by the production of ammonium, a crucial commodity and
raw material for chemicals and nitrogen-based fertilizer production in China, given that the majority
of its population is still engaged in agriculture.
Producing ammonium from gas uses more than 90% less energy than from coal (see [Q9]
Figure 1), and consequently also emits less CO2 and other air pollutants. In China, less than 20%
of ammonium is produced from gas, the rest mostly from coal, in great contrast to the USA,
where, in 2000, 98% of the ammonium was from natural gas. No wonder China wants to greatly
Producing 1 [Q5]ton of ammonium:
• from coal one needs:

1.2 tce coal + 1,000 kWh energy
• from natural gas one needs:
1,000 [Q7]m3 (1.3 tce coal) + 40 kWh energy
Figure 1. Comparison of amounts of coal and natural

gas needed for the production of ammonium.
increase its share of gas-based ammonium to 60% by 2020. This alone will have to consume 10%
of total demand for natural gas by 2020.
Presently only around 10% of natural gas is used as fuel in China, mainly in cogeneration and
urban areas (cooking etc.) due to local air-quality concerns. Most natural gas is now used as
feedstock in industrial processes, where greater GHG reduction, energy saving and improvement
in air quality can be achieved.
In future, in order to curb the severe air pollution and to mitigate CO2 emissions, China plans to
use more natural gas in power generation and medium-sized cogeneration after fulfilling the need
in feedstock and in the residential and public sectors. However, how to finance production, transport
and import and how to ensure the supply security of large scale import have proved to be one of
the bottlenecks and top concerns for China’s long-term development and sustainability.
Since coal is expected to dominate the energy mix in China for decades to come, cleaning coal
becomes a natural choice to curb local air pollution as well as mitigate GHG emissions.
Coal washing can work as a low-cost option to reduce particle and SO 2 emission, and CO 2
emission resulting from transport of a large volume of coal, as is the case in China. The government
has regarded coal washing as an important strategy but fell short of implementation due to complex
reasons, as discussed in a recent study ([Q10]Glomsrød and Wei, 2005). Presently nearly 70% of
all coal used in China is burned directly without washing. The study also shows a rebound effect
in that improved efficiency and lower transport costs stimulate total energy use. The authors suggest
that this might be the case for all fossil fuel energy efficiency efforts everywhere. This issue is
further discussed in Section 4.4.
As to clean coal technology, China has been very interested in gasification of coal for power
generation, such as the integrated gasification combined cycle. Instead of burning coal, the basic
idea is to burn the gases from coal in a way similar to burning natural gas to generate electricity.
However the gasification process itself is highly energy-consuming. Unlike natural gas, the gases
from coal contain unwanted components, such as sulphur and nitrogen oxides that will erode and
damage the turbine and boiler system. Therefore they need to be cleaned, which is a complex and
energy-consuming process as well. The handling of waste generated from the cleaning process
poses yet another problem. In the end, any benefits expected from coal gasification might well be
cancelled out.
4.3. Integrating renewable energy into rural development

Renewable energy holds special benefits for rural China. About 70% of the population lives in rural
areas. They consume 0.6–0.7 billion tce of energy each year ([Q11]Wu and Chen, 2001), more than
one-third of which comes from renewable sources, mainly biomass. About 0.1 billion people in
China still have no access to electricity, most of them in remote and poverty-stricken rural areas.
Efficient, affordable and reliable modern energy service, particularly electricity, has been
recognized as essential for poverty reduction and sustainable development. China has attached
importance to the electrification of the countryside for decades. In the 1980s, small hydropower,
biomass utilization and solar thermal energy have been the priorities for renewable energy. Since
the 1990s, attention has gradually shifted to wind power and solar photovoltaics (PV) systems as
the effort towards electrification intensifies through the ambitious township electrification programme
(completed in 2003 with government funding of US$240 million) and the subsequent village
electrification programme. However both wind power and PV are more costly in China, as explained
in Section 3, and are only viable as an off-grid solution so far. For already-installed PV or wind
systems, lack of training for operators, technical backup for maintenance and financial incentives,
and difficult access to remote areas for after-sale service are the reasons for poor performance or
unsustained operation ([Q12]GNESD–UNEP, 2004).
Biogas from biomass has been widespread in China, with fluctuations due to quality and
management problems. Since the 1980s, energy shortages and waste problems in rural areas have
greatly stimulated and improved biogas production in rural households, large and medium-sized
animal farms, and agro-based processing plants. It also solves the waste problem in rural areas
which difficult to handle by standard centralized waste management, thus improving the hygiene
and comfort of life. The biogas (mainly methane) produced provides cleaner energy for cooking,
heating and lighting, thus reducing indoor air pollution and improving health and living conditions.
By the end of 2003, there were over 13 million household-scale biogas digesters all over China
producing 3.9 billion [Q7]m3 of biogas per year, equal to replacing 6.6 Mt of coal and thus avoiding
about 17 Mt of CO2 emissions. In addition, there were about 1,351 medium/large-scale biogas plants
in China, turning 22.86 Mt wastes into 50.63 million [Q7]m3 of biogas per year ([Q13]Yao, 2004).
Moreover, biogas reduces the need for fuel wood, thus alleviating desertification, another severe
problem in China. After generating biogas, the digested liquid is ideal fodder for pigs, the staple
domestic animal in China. The residue/sludge can be used as bio-fertilizer to improve the organic
content of soil. Such a win–win system with multi-benefits for sustainable development in rural
areas has been promoted in China.
However both biogas and solar thermal water heaters have been overshadowed in recent years
by wind power and the PV partly due to rural electrification programmes and perhaps partly also
due to more attention being provided by international cooperation and funding toward wind power
and PV systems.
Wind power and PV technology are very important in providing electricity in rural areas. However,
they do not bring about the other benefits of biogas utilization as detailed above. Generating
power from biogas, on the other hand, is not commercialized. A balance needs to be struck. Biogas
and solar thermal energy utilization are low-cost with mature and localized technology. They
present a far more cost-effective and practical approach to address GHG emission, renewable
energy, the waste problem, rural energy and sustainable development together, given the prevailing
situation in a developing country such as China.
In addition to all these technical and sectoral approaches, China needs to carefully define its
overall development goals and strategies so as to avoid the situation where improved efficiency
and technology give rise to higher total demand and thus higher total emissions.
4.4. Redefining development goals and indicators

How to define development and how to measure the success of a country are related questions
contentiously debated in the context of sustainable development. Traditionally, GDP per capita
was, and still is, a relevant measure of the wealth of a country. However, consensus has been
reached that being developed is more than economic wealth, as reflected by the UNDP human
development report: ‘The most basic capabilities for human development are to lead long and
healthy lives, to be knowledgeable, to have access to the resources needed for a decent standard of
living and to be able to participate in the life of the community’ ([Q14]UNDP, 2003b).
Setting up appropriate development goals and translating them into sensible practical terms will
determine what path we choose to develop, and consequently what future lies ahead, sustainable or
not. The indicators constantly quoted when comparing the development level between developing
countries and OECD countries, such as dwelling area per capita and numbers of cars per 1,000
capita, are useful and relevant. However, they need to be adjusted according to the national
circumstances of the country in question. For a country like China with a large population and high
population density vs. limited arable land threatened by desertification and soil erosion, the dwelling
area per capita in the OECD countries cannot be regarded as a goal in its entirety. Instead, a target
adjusted, for example, by the type of dwelling (house vs. apartment building) should be considered
by policy makers, as it will make a big difference in terms of energy, material and land-use. For a
country whose natural and energy resources are not rich on a per capita basis, with its environment
already deteriorating, its eco-capacity cannot afford an OECD-style of car ownership. Instead, the
development indicator for transport should be measured by a decent level of public mobility, such as
efficient and reasonably comfortable public transport, rather than the number of cars.
On one hand, the Western consumption style should not be advocated. On the other hand,
China is becoming the biggest market for many of the major manufacturers and companies of the
world (cars, electronic devices and fast food, to name a few). High GDP growth is needed for
social stability domestically too, as was substantiated earlier in this article. A stable and wealthier
China is good for the world both socially and economically. All these are inevitably influencing
and driving China onto the Western style and conventional path of development that developed
countries have been through. China and the world are facing a difficult balance when pushing for
reactions to climate change, mitigating GHG emissions, and other millennium development goals.
4.5. Implication on future commitment of China in GHG mitigation

The tough reality in energy demand, supply and associated costs in China has implications for the
mitigation of GHG emissions. The high price of natural gas (3–4 times that of coal) due to limited
domestic reserves, high cost of gas transport, insecure supply, and cost of large-scale imports etc,
all make fuel-switching in the power sector and industry a rather costly option for China.
As a result, the focus in mitigation should be on energy efficiency and renewable resources,
which were identified by China as priorities. Accordingly these areas were also priority areas for
technology transfer and clean development mechanism (CDM). Although some energy-efficiency
actions (e.g. industrial boilers and motors) are low-cost, they have not attracted CDM investment
so far.
Some studies on CDM potential and cost in China revealed that mitigation in sectors with the
highest GHG reduction potential is not as cheap as previously thought. Compared to the current
prevailing carbon price of US$4–6/tCO2, the mitigation cost in the Chinese energy sector is much
higher (see Tsinghua University’s side-event at the COP-9 of the UNFCCC, December 2003, Milan,
Italy). Considering the high mitigation cost in energy, accounting for 70% of total GHG emissions,
the large-scale reduction in GHG emissions (i.e. a commitment in the style of the Kyoto Protocol)
seems beyond China’s capability in the mid-term, as China has to continue to rely mostly on its
own domestic energy resources.
China’s affordability and capability can be further illustrated by its human development indicator
([Q14]UNDP, 2003a). Among 175 countries listed by UNDP, China ranks 102nd by GDP per
capita (see Table 6) and 104th by HDI.
Table 6. Comparison of human development indicators

(HDI) ([Q14]UNDP, 2003a)
GDP per capita HDI
(2001 PPPa US$)
E. Asia and Pacific 4,233 0.772
Arab States 5,038 0.662
Latin America and Caribbean 7,050 0.777
OECD countries 23,363 0.905
World average 7,376 0.722
Central & Eastern Europe and CIS 6,598 0.787
Medium H.D. 4,053 0.684
China 4,020 0.721
a
PPP = purchasing power parity.
The ranking shows that, in spite of its rapid economic growth in recent years, China is still a
developing country at medium level, with an income even slightly lower than the medium level of
human development (and far lower than the world average even after adjusted by purchasing power
parity (PPP)). China has an estimated 28 million people below the national poverty line. However, if
measured against an international poverty standard, the poor comprise about 58% of the total population
(GNESD–UNEP, 2004). This view was confirmed by a study carried out by the [Q15]China Academy
of Social Science.4 China still has a long way to go in overcoming poverty.
China needs to develop for its own sake and for the sake of the world, but it needs sustainable
development. Such an example is not available either among developed countries or newly
industrialized countries on their way toward industrialization and development. These nations
have benefited from an early start when global competition was less fierce and the environment
had not taken its toll to the extent of limiting development today.
4.6. The equity issue in climate change

China’s dilemma reveals the equity issue in a practical and realistic form. The difficulty China is
and will be facing is that China will have to fuel its development mostly by its own domestic
natural and energy resources. This is the reality now and will continue into the future. In contrast,
few industrialized countries have managed to reach their level of well-being today solely on their
own domestic resources. Most of them are either running out of domestic energy or have reduced
(or even stopped) the use of it due to low quality (in most cases, coal) or the need for an emergency
reserve (in the case of oil) and turned to using quality energy such as oil and gas from all over the
world. This manifests in concrete term in the fact that 20% of the world’s population consumes
more than 70% of the world’s energy. Only limited oil and gas are left for the rest of the world to
fuel their own development. The recent high oil price illustrates this well. China’s increased import
of oil was considered one of the forces driving the oil price high and has caused considerable
alarm among developed countries about future oil supplies.
When it was the turn of developing countries to embark on their rapid development, they found
a world where the availability of energy, especially oil and gas, was much more reduced than
several decades ago. The competition for the scarce resources has become so fierce that it can
sometimes lead to military action. Globalization is not only about global production and trade, but
also global competition for resources and energy. In such a global thirst and race for energy, most
developing countries are disadvantaged. They are unable to compete with developed countries in
buying energy or ensuring the supply. The ups and downs in the negotiations surrounding the
building of a oil pipeline from Russia to China is a good example of a developing country unable
to compete with developed countries for energy.5 The current balance in world energy supply and
demand is based on the fact that the majority of the population cannot afford and secure quality
energy. Developed countries need to reduce their energy consumption in order for adequate energy
resources, especially those with lower carbon content and thus lower CO2 emissions, to be available
for developing countries.
The inequity in the distribution of and access to world energy inherited from history is one of
the root causes of today’s dilemma faced by some developing countries in their quest for sustainable
development and their inability to mitigate GHG emissions to the extent desired by the rest of the
world. Under the current pattern of international politics and economic order, it is impossible to
consider redistribution of energy resources to maximize the well-being of humanity as a whole
and minimize the threat and damage to our planet. If the world is really serious about climate
change, however, more attention should be paid to solutions that incorporate equity considerations.
5. Conclusion
Climate change for developing countries is far beyond a global environmental issue. It is more
about energy supply and security, about a reasonably comfortable and decent standard of life (still
far below the current OECD living standard), and about livelihood and sustainable development
in future. National and international efforts to tackle the challenge of climate change must be able
to deliver urgently needed co-benefits in social and economic development and in addressing
local environmental problems in order for climate change be truly integrated into sustainable
development.
Notes
1 Here energy refers to IPCC category, which includes both the energy sector and energy use in industry, transport, residential,
public and service sectors.
2 The definition of an aged society is when more than 10% of the population is older than 65 years.
3 The pipeline is about 4,000 km long with an annual capacity of 20 billion [Q7]m 3 and a total investment of [Q16]120 billion
yuan RMB (roughly US$14 billion) for the first phase, including 20 billion yuan[Q16] for upstream exploitation in the
Xinjiang autonomous region, 40 billion yuan[Q16] for pipelines, 60 billion yuan[Q16] for downstream user facilities.
4 The number of people in poverty has dropped from 250 million to 29 million and the poverty rate from 30% to 3% in the past
25 years since adopting the ‘reform and opening’ policy. However, the current rural absolute poverty standard is below
625 yuan per year for each farmer in China, well below the 900-yuan threshold calculated in accordance with the UN
international poverty standard ([Q17]People’s Daily, 24 January 2005; available at http://english.people.com.cn/200501/24/
eng20050124_171731.html).
5 Russia and China reached consensus in 2001 to build an oil transmission pipeline from eastern Siberia to Daqing in northeast
China. Technical assessments have been completed. Russia’s Yukos Oil is evaluating a US$1.7 billion pipeline stretching
2,400 km from Angarsk in Irkutsk, eastern Siberia to China’s Daqing. The line would have a capacity of about 30 million
tonnes[Q5] per year and could be finished as early as 2005. However, when Japan offered more attractive package of
investment in Siberian oil development, some Russian oil companies put forward a new plan to pump oil from Angarsk to the
Russian Pacific port of Nahodka. The Russian government decided in March 2003 in principle to adopt a compromise plan,
comprising a main pipeline from Angarsk to Nahodka and a branch pipeline to Daqing. Building a pipeline to Nakhodka is
expected to cost four times more than the Daqing route. The competition over Russian oil between Asia’s two superpowers
foreshadows a future scramble for resources ([Q18]Financial Times, 24 March 2004).
[Q19]References
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Mälardalen

A POLICY ANALYTICAL APPROACH OF ASSESSING ENERGY

Mälardalen University Press Dissertations

A POLICY ANALYTICAL APPROACH OF ASSESSING ENERGY

A POLICY ANALYTICAL APPROACH

som för avläggande av teknologie doktorsexamen i energi- och miljöteknik vid

Fakultetsopponent: professor Siaw Kiang Chou, National University of Singapore

Akademin för ekonomi, samhälle och teknik

Akademin för ekonomi, samhälle och teknik

Kina är världens största producent och konsument av hushållsapparater,

As a part-time PhD student, it has taken me over 8 years to complete my

This thesis is based on a series of studies which generated the following

1. Hu Bo, Li Jiayang, Lei Zeng, Market Analysis for China Energy

1. Lei Zeng, Jiayang Li, Michael Scholand, Assessment of Opportunities

Figure 1: Electricity Consumption for Typical Products in China (2011) ........ 2

Table 1: Overview of China’s Energy Efficiency Standards........................... 6

1.1 Appliances and Energy Consumption

Figure 1: Electricity Consumption for Typical Products in China (2011)

1.2 Rationale of Appliance Energy Efficiency S&L

Figure 2: Market Transformation by Standards and Labelling Polices

Figure 2 (McMahon and Wiel, 2005) illustrates the process of market

1.3 China’s Energy Efficiency Standards and Labeling

Table 1: Overview of China’s Energy Efficiency Standards

China’s Energy Labeling System covers five product categories, including

Table 2: Product Categories under China’s Energy Labeling System

Industrial Small and medium three phase asynchronous motors, power

Energy efficiency tier

Specific technical parameters

Figure 3: An Example of China’s Energy Label

1.4 Issues and Questions Related to China’s S&L

In answering these questions, the first step we take is to develop a

As this thesis aims at exploring a method of conducting effective policy

2.1 Theories on Design, Development of Standards &

Step 3.Design and

Figure 4: Typical Steps in Developing Appliance Standards and

2.2 Theories on Evaluation of S&L programs

2.3 Review of Methodologies on Energy Saving

2.4 Review of Benchmarking Studies on Energy

2.5 Summary of Literature Review

 Although there are some studies available providing theories for

1) Market Analysis of China Energy Efficient Products (MACEEP)

Figure 5: Analytical Approach for Assessing China’s Energy

1) Component I: Market analysis

4.1 Methodology and Approaches for Component I

Table 3: Summary of Major Data Sources Used in the Analysis

On-line dealer websites: Source of data on products Single data collection in

Miscellaneous Mainly macro statistics and generic

Table 4 is a summary of data used in this research. Although the 11,734

Table 4: Summary of Data Used in the Research

4.2 Overall Findings on the Market Analysis

Figure 6: Market Distribution within Energy Efficiency Tiers for

4.3 Fixed Speed Air Conditioners

Figure 7: Annual Sales of Room Air Conditioners in China

4.3.1 Market Distribution of Fixed Speed Air Conditioners

Examining the breakdown further, as shown in Figure 9, we found the low

Figure 9: Fixed Speed Air Conditioner EET Distribution by Cooling

Figure 10: Energy Efficiency Tiers Thresholds, Individual Model EER

4.3.2 Discussion on Policy Implications

2) Need to Revise the Energy Efficiency Standard and Label to

4.4 Variable Speed Air Conditioners