CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The related literature presented in this section includes article reviews

and research findings that are relevant to the variables and indicators of this
study. The variables include Writing Skills and Speaking Performance of the
students. Writing Skills is comprised of Grammar, Vocabulary, Mechanics,
and Organization. In contrast, the Speaking Performance variable comprised
of Lexical Complexity, Syntactic complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency.

Writing Skills

The aspects of writing skills as follows: grammar, vocabulary,

mechanics, and organization (Hughes 1996).

Furthermore, writing skills is the most challenging area in learning

English language. It is based on a very appropriate and strategic uses of
language with structural accuracy and communicative potential (Dar and
Khan, 2015).

Meanwhile, writing skills is a cognitive process that tests the memory,

verbal commands and thinking ability to successfully express the ideas,
because prescient composition of a text indicates the successful learning of
the English language (Kellogg 2001).

On the other hand, writing skills is a process of thinking to invent ideas,

thinking about how to express words through a good writing, and arranging
the ideas into statement and paragraph clearly without any grammatical
mistakes (Nunan 2001).

Evidently, writing skills is the production of all the written words that
results in a text and must be read and comprehended in order for the
communication takes place. In addition, writing is a complex process that
allows the writers to explore further of their thoughts and ideas, and make
them visible and concrete (Celce-Murcia 2001).

Moreover, writing skills is a very effective way of reinforcing. Writing is

the best way to practice grammar skills in terms of sentence structures. It
could help the learners to look up new vocabularies and to learn English
punctuation rules. In addition, writing is very important because written
communication is a basic life skill that we’ve encounter every day. Sufficient
ability of writing skill gives one the confidence and marks of a person’s
expertise on a particular language (Hossain 2015).

Similarly, in the study entitled “Improving Students’ Paragraph Writing

Skill through Task-Based Approach”, the researcher asserts that writing skills
is a developmental process that can be observed and encouraged. It takes
time for students to achieve competency in writing as they move through
characteristic stages from scribbling to conventional spelling (Muluneh 2018).

Accordingly, writing skills is meant for conveying thoughts, ideas, and

facts in easy and lucid language. Students have to learn the good art of
writing which is essential for them. Good writing skills are indeed needed for
all the students. Students should improve their writing skills through providing
instruction in writing processes and rules of writing, such as grammar rules
and writing practice. Naturally, students having good writing skills are always
successful at expressing their thoughts and ideas. They should develop their
writing skills for their benefits and success. The process of writing is to teach
students how to write with coherence, in an appropriate grammar structure
and an acceptable and proper spelling (Rao and Durga 2018).

Grammar. Grammar may be roughly defined as the way of a language

manipulates and combines words or bits of words together in order to form a
meaning. For example, in English the present form of the verb is in the third
person has two distinct forms, and if the plural is combined with a singular
subject, the result is usually unacceptable or ‘ungrammatical’. There is a
set of rules how meaning may be constructed in any language. We may say
that a learner who knows grammar is one who has mastered and can apply
these rules to express him/her in what would be considered acceptable
language forms (Ur 2001).

Accordingly, effective grammar instruction starts with what students

already knew about the grammar. It helps them to use about their English
knowledge as they write. By connecting their knowledge of written to oral
language, instructors can demystify abstract grammatical terminology so that
students can write and speak with greater competence and confidence (Chin,
2000).

Further, grammar is an element of writing which deals with a set of

rules to have a writer construct sentences that make sense and acceptable in
English (Hughes 1996).

Additionally, grammar is a subject that stresses many students out, as

it can be quite confusing and complicated. However, correct grammar is
important for your writing and success in life (Tutors 2014).

In addition, grammar explains the forms and structure of words called

‘morphology’ and how they are arranged in sentences called ‘syntax’. In other
words, grammar provides the rules for both spoken and written so we can
more easily understand the language (MacMillan 2017).

Meanwhile, writing a composition needs the proficiency to use suitable

words in a grammar construction to form meaningful sentences of different
types, the ability to choose appropriate conjunctions to link sentences, and the
ability to choose correct punctuation marks (Nasser 2018).

On the other hand, the grammar of a language includes basic axiom

such as the existence of tenses of verbs, articles and adjectives and their
proper order, how questions are phrased, and much more. Language cannot
function without grammar. It would simply make no sense. People require
grammar to communicate effectively (Nordquist 2019).

Similarly, grammar makes written content more readable and in turns

more interesting. Improper grammar can also affect the clarity of meaning of
an intended message. On the other hand, proper grammar is also very
significant for understanding English as a second language. Grammar rules
are also essential in everyday life for clarity of meaning and intent (Tutors
2014).

Vocabulary. Vocabulary is defined as knowledge of words which is

considered vital for language development and acquisition and is recognized
as a significant factor in writing. It can also describe as the ability to use words
in understanding the sentences (UK essays 2017).

However, vocabulary deals with a list of words and their meanings.

However, a great vocabulary is just one essential tool. Vocabulary can make
your writing more powerful and help you say exactly what you mean about
something. This indispensable tool will help you choose the best word that
does not give your readers a good sense of your meaning. Building your
vocabulary is one of the easiest ways to improve your writing skills and make
any writing task that much easier and better (Hughes 1996).

Indeed, vocabulary knowledge is viewed as an essential tool for

mastering any language skills. It also contributes to the understanding of
written texts. Thus, while more frequent the exposure to vocabulary ,
learners are more confident to understand and interpret the meaning of
some unknown words from context. Indeed, learning vocabulary does not
only talks about the learning of new words but also to know their functions and
applicability to different contexts and situations of each word (Viera 2017).

Certainly, vocabulary is one of the most important factors in

determining written fluency. The idea that the vocabulary used in written
language may differ underlines the importance of considering the impact of
the type of task (Thériault 2015).

Without a doubt, one of the most basic skills for writing is the ability
understand text. In order to write, first need to be able to find unfamiliar
words and instantly recognize many other words. Then they need to
understand the meaning of strings of words, in sentences and in paragraphs.
Having a good vocabulary will help with understanding in writing skills (Lee
2014).
 In likewise manner, vocabulary is an individual word or a set of words
which have specific meaning. Vocabulary is the knowledge of meanings about
words. Vocabulary in writing skills consists of those words for which the
meaning is known when we write or read silently. The problems of
vocabularies occur when someone is lack of vocabulary does not know how
combine the vocabularies into a good sentence. This means that vocabulary
in writing is a very essential thing in order to construct words (Kamil and
Hiebert 2005).

Mechanics (Punctuation, Capitalization, and Spelling).In

composition, the mechanics of writing includes spelling, punctuation, and
capitalization (Nordquist 2019).

In addition to this, Mechanics is the convention in writing skills, which is

related to punctuation, spelling, and capitalization. On the other hand, this
section will show the importance of correct use of punctuation, spelling, and
capitalization according to its message in terms of precise writing (Hughes
1996).

Furthermore, a writing skill also involves of mastering the mechanics of

letter formation, following the conventions of spelling and punctuation to
convey one’s intended meaning. This means that in order to achieve proper
writing skills, must follow its proper use of mechanics which are the
punctuation, capitalization and spelling (Nunan 1998).

Punctuation. Is often essential in conveying a meaning. Poor

punctuation contributes to unorganized writing and confuses readers because
of the incorrect use of punctuation. Structures in any piece of texts are
influenced by the use punctuation marks. Without a correct use of
punctuation, the readers will confuse because the punctuation marks will
demonstrate the power of the message that you need to convey (Gamaroff
2000)
 Accordingly, ambiguity or inexactness can result from incongruous use
of punctuation marks. It can also cause of confusing the message. This
means that the correct meaning can be conveyed through the proper use of
punctuation marks (Connelly, 2009).

Furthermore, skillful writers have learned that they must make alert and
successful choices between proper punctuations according to meaning and
intended emphasis. It states the importance of the correct use of punctuation
according to its meaning (Dawkins 1995).

Moreover, punctuation marks can also help to organize your words into
sentences, and hence into identifiable units of meaning. Punctuations are the
signs that alert readers to the appropriate pauses in your text. These pauses
are the signals where you are intend the intonation to be placed, and thus
how you want the text to be read. Punctuation marks would help you tell the
readers how to find the meaning from your structures of the words. This
means that punctuation is one of the most important things in writing skills
(Charles Darwin University 2020).

On the other hand, punctuation is often essential to convey meaning.

Poor punctuation contributes to unorganized writing and also confuses
readers. Any structures in any piece of the text will be influenced by
punctuation marks. With that being said, punctuation really matters the
meaning of the words (Gamaroff, 2000).

However, the purpose of punctuation is to eliminate vagueness and

make clear relationship between words. The proper use of punctuation can
convey the correct message of the texts or appropriate meaning can convey
through the proper use of punctuations. Therefore, incorrect punctuation can
confuse the readers. With that being said, proper punctuation is very essential
(Carey 1978).

Similarly, punctuation conveys pauses, stresses, intonations that could

help readers comprehend any piece of text. Moreover, they claim that
punctuation splits sentences into clauses and makes clear the relationship
between the parts of a sentence (Zolfaghari 1999).
 Capitalization. Popularly refers in the writing of a word where in the
first letter was written in uppercase and the remaining letters are written in a
lowercase. Writers are used to miserly with capitals. Capital letters are
valuable for sentence initials, the start of important words, in theme,
subheading, etc (Kroll, 1990).

In any case, one of the most important concepts in writing skills with a
correct grammar deals with capitalization. Capitalization is essential in writing
skills to show the importance of specific words and to indicate change
depends on its meanings. Capitalization is using the capital form of the first
letter in a word, while all the other letters in the word remain lowercase.
Capitalization's purpose is to help show the importance of different words like
how capitalization shows the importance with nouns. A proper noun must start
in a capital letters. With a proper capitalization, you can see how capitalization
shows the clear meaning of the words (Janovsky, 2014).

Furthermore, capitalization is a very essential feature in writing skills.

Meanwhile, it is important to know that capitalization is necessary quite a bit
more than simply knowing to begin names and titles with capital letters. It is
necessary to use the proper capitalization in terms of writing skills in order to
identify if it is belong to the noun (Scribendi 2020).

Meanwhile, learners having trouble in the use of correct capitalization.

There are many causes of student's problems in using correct capitalization.
The rules of capitalization can cause difficulties in writing for students (Gower
et al,. 1995).

In addition to this, participants committed high degree of errors in

capitalization due the fact their mother tongue doesn’t have capitalization are
used a lot within sentences joining complete thoughts (Shokouhi and Zadeh-
Dabbagh 2009).

Spelling. It is defined as the form of words with the proper or correct

letters with its correct orders. It also defined as the ability to recognize, recall,
reproduce or obtain in written form the correct sequence of letters in words.
Brief and simple as the definition may look, the process involved is far more
difficult than learning most other language skills that may require only recall or
recognition (Graham and Miller 1979).

On the other hand, spelling in writing skills is the arrangement form of

words. Learning a proper spelling requires a remembering of numerous
spelling forms. Furthermore, spelling is so unpredictable because it consist a
vocabulary of many words that are derived from other languages. Meanwhile,
proper spelling is necessity in terms of writing skills in order to convey an
exact meaning of a word (Nordquist 2019).

Similarly, spelling in writing skills is the ability to arrange letters with its
proper order to make the words more understood. Proper spelling is essential
and required in learning in order to develop a strong connection of letters and
learning with high frequency. The only have understanding in spelling
structure rules can understand a lot of spelling rules exceptions (Kidsense
2019).

Accordingly, spelling in writing skills is the sense of standard wherein

the spelling is naming the letters. Spelling attempts to transcribe the words of
letters. But, incorrect spelling could also change the meaning of the words
depends on how the spelling is written (Wikipedia 2020).

However, a correct spelling is important in writing skills in terms of

communication because spelling is a critical component of communication.
Poor spelling can interfere with the risk like sending someone to the wrong
address, and sending someone instructions on prescriptions. Incorrect
spelling in writing skill will misinterpret your message. In addition, making the
connection in written communication is much more complex, and requires a
combination of observation and formal instruction (3P Learning 2020).

Organization. Is a form that is the logical sequence and cohesion, or

the flow of ideas being put into written language, to make unified contribution
to whole paragraph (Hughes 1996).
 However, in terms of speech and composition, the organization is the
arrangement of ideas, incidents, evidence, or details in a perceptible order in
a paragraph, essay or speech. It is also known as the arrangement or
‘dispositio’ during the classical rhetoric. This was defined by Aristotle during
his Metaphysics. It also talks about the sequence of the topic itself (Nordquist,
2019).

Evidently, organization typically refers to the large elements of text

structure. Organization in writing refers on how ideas should be presented in
the texts. Typically, organization refers to the parts of a piece in writing; it also
refers to how paragraphs and sentences are written and formed. The flow of a
piece of writing affects how readers interpret the ideas through the proper
form of sentences. If the organization does not provide readers with the
information they are looking for, they will quickly lose interest on what they are
reading. Unorganized writing makes readers search for the information they
needed to (Kiefer 2020).

Moreover, the organization of academic writing is of importance to

teachers and institutions. This is evidenced is by the fact that in many analytic
rating scales for writing, organization is one of the analytic rating scales of it
(Ruegg and Sugjyama, 2013).

Accordingly, organization of the content of ideas of the paragraph and

a complete text can reflect to have new and complete information, publishing
and revising one’s initial efforts, and selecting an appropriate style for one’s
audience (Nunan 1998).

On the other hand, Hertzberg (2018) added that if you’re going to

organize your thoughts is essential as being raconteurs. It is important in
written communication also that think about how you'll organize your
sentences before begin writing (Hertzberg 2018).
 Speaking Performance

The four (4) indicators of speaking performance as follows: fluency,

accuracy, syntactic complexity, and lexical complexity (Koizumi 2005).

On the other hand, speaking performance is the most important skill

because it is one of the abilities that are needed to perform a conversation.
Indeed, English speaking is not an easy because speakers should know a lot
of significant components such as pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and
fluency. Learners should have enough English speaking skills in order to
communicate easily with other people (Leong and Ahmadi 2017).

Meanwhile, speaking performance is a spoken productive language

skill. It usually refers about how the students should produce the language
orally. Therefore, speaking focused on output where the learner’s attention is
on conveying ideas and messages to another person (Handoko, 2017).

Nevertheless, the significance of speaking performance is indicated

with the integration of the other language skills. Speaking helps learners
develop the vocabulary and grammar skills and then make the writing skill
better. Students can express their emotions, ideas; say stories; request; talk,
discuss, and show the various functions through the use of English speaking
without any mistakes about the language. These statements have been
supported by the researcher who said that learners who speak English very
well can have greater chance for better education (Baker and Westrup 2003).

In addition, speaking performance is vital unless someone is learning

English purely for academic reasons and does not intend to communicate in
English, which is quite rare. Good commands on speaking skills develop a
real sense of progress among learners (Hossain 2015 ).

Evidently, speaking performance ability is an essential tool for

communicating, thinking and learning. Through speaking, students learn a lot
of concepts develop their vocabularies and perceive the structure of the
English language which is the essential components of learning to that
specific language. Exchanges students have with their peers and teachers
can help them know more in speaking fluently. When students talk about their
ideas, they clarify their thinking and ideas. They can figure out what they
believe and where they stand on particular issues (Ho 2018).

Accordingly, speaking performance is one of the skills that have to be

mastered by students in terms of learning English language. It involves
fluency and accuracy expression. In addition, speaking refers to the process
in which people share information, ideas and feeling, it also involves all of
body language that adds meaning to a message (Hybels and Weaver 2001).

Furthermore, speaking performance is a form to say or talk something

wherein you’re expressing of your ideas, opinions, views and description to
other for getting response or way of conveying message in order to make an
understanding contribute to the other (Nunan 1991).

Lexical Complexity. Accordingly, lexical complexity is one of the most

heavily investigated topics with multiple meanings for the term. Nonetheless,
many educators have studied the issue of lexical complexity because it is
focusing on the student’s ability to produce more lexical variation and different
types of words that are complex to them (Larsen-Freeman, 2006).

On the other hand, Lexical Complexity is a Sentence length, coupled

with vocabulary having a difficulty also in speaking. Meanwhile, Lexical as it
refers to the sense or meaning of a word or lexeme as it appears in
a dictionary. Contrast with grammatical meaning or structural meaning
(Nordquist 2019).

Furthermore, lexical complexity means relating to the words or

vocabulary of a language. Meanwhile, vocabulary is an individual word or a
set of words which have specific meaning. Meanwhile, the vocabulary is the
knowledge of meanings of words. Oral vocabulary is the set of words for
which we know the meanings when we speak orally. The problems of
vocabularies occur when someone is lack of vocabulary needed to talk and
does not know how combine the words into a good sentences (Kamil and
Hiebert 2005).
 In addition, in the real communication, nobody paid much attention to
the correct grammar expression, but emphasized the content and how to reply
in a correct manner. Students are clearly know what they are going to say in
the source language, but when they have to switch the language itself into the
target language like English, they often get confuse to combine and use the
proper vocabularies and words that are needed. This literally means that
lexical complexity is the problem of vocabularies in terms of combining a word
(Doris and Jessica 2007).

Moreover, oral speaking is not easy because students are demanded

the proper use of grammar and vocabularies. Students also confuse on how
to understand the language properly. Lexical complexity in speaking
performance occur when the learners encounter a word they do not
understand, a form of word they do not know how to use, or find that they are
unable to express their intended meaning (Hinkel 2005).

Syntactic Complexity. Syntactic complexity usually refers about the

rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses,
and sentences. The term syntax comes from the Greek word, which means
‘arrange together’. The term is also used to mean the study of the syntactic
properties about the English language (Nordquist 2020).

Meanwhile, syntactic complexity is a well-established phenomenon in

which speakers tend to re-use the structure that they recently encountered
when more than one structural alternatives is suitable for expressing the same
message (Momma 2018).

However, syntactic complexity relates to the kind of thinking, action,

and knowledge needed in order to answer a question, solve a problem, or
complete a task and how many different ways are there to do this. Complex
questions, problems, and tasks often challenge and engage students to
demonstrate thinking at the higher levels and communicate strategic and
extended thinking (Maverik Education 2018).
 On the other hand, syntactic complexity concerns the problem of how
roles such as subject and object are allocated in sentences and how different
meanings are bound together. In sum, it is concerned with how we go from
phonemes to sentence structure in order to understand spoken utterances. In
likewise manner, Syntactic complexity is concerned with such problems as the
assignment of roles subject, object, etc. to the different participants in a
sentence, and the binding together of different meanings. The syntactic
complexity involved in even a straightforward sentence is of fearsome
complexity (Williamson 2014).

Moreover, the simple view of syntactic complexity holds that the fewer
words in a sentence, the less difficult to comprehend. However, these
perspectives may be misleading; more words may simply for more ideas. In
other words, complexity could be driving difficulty, and the number of words in
a sentence simply indexes that complexity (Klare, 1984).

Furthermore, syntactic complexity refers to the set of rules, principles,

and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a given language,
usually including orders of words. In likewise manner, the term syntax also
used to refer of such principles and processes of words. However, syntactic
complexity is a study in which sentences are well formed and structured. If
learners do not know the rules of syntax, they will never be able to
communicate using English in speaking effectively. Syntax becomes difficult
because learners do not learn a correct structure. Even the learners appear to
have mastered a structure. These particular errors may appear when the
students speak since they are not mastered enough in the correct structured
of English. This problem leads to syntactic complexity because of the
complications in understanding and constructing of that specific language in
terms of speaking orally (Celce-murcia and Olshtain 2000).

Accuracy. Accuracy usually refers on how learners' use of the

language, including their use of grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary with
correctness. This accuracy refers on how the students have a proper
grammar, perfect punctuation and correct vocabulary in terms of speaking
performance among students. In likewise manner, accuracy refers to
how much a learner speaks without errors in real-time communication (Wolfe-
Quintero et al, 1998).

On the other hand, one of the characteristic of speaking performance is

accuracy. Learners must pay enough attention to the exactness and the
completeness of the form of language when speaking such as focusing on
grammatical structures, vocabulary, and pronunciation (Mazouzi, 2013).

Meanwhile, accuracy in speaking performance is when someone can

produce sentence in vocabulary, grammar and word choice so it can be
understood. Meanwhile, accuracy refers to the extent in which students’
speech matches what people actually say when they use the target language
(Bailey et al. 2001).

On the other hand, accuracy refers to the pursuing mainly grammatical

correctness. This view called accuracy oriented approach. Practices that
focus on repetition of newly introduced forms of grammatical structures are
thought to help the learning of a language. In this case, the students will
effectively express their ideas if they are accurate enough to speak English
properly (Kumar, 2013).

Since accuracy talks about the exactness of the words, it also added
that accuracy or correctness refers to the extent of learners speaking
performance if they can speak English without any mistakes (Wolfe-Quintero
et al. 1998).

Fluency. Becoming a more fluent speaker of English is an important

goal for the majority of English language learners. In this chapter, the concept
of ‘speaking fluency’ is briefly defined. Fluency is the area of language ability
in which relates to the speed which a language learner performs in one of the
four core language of speaking skills, listening, reading and writing (Raine,
2011).

However, fluency in Speaking is ‘the ability to link units of speech

together with facility and without strain or inappropriate slowness or undue
hesitation’. In this case, the speech of non-fluent English learners tends to be
characterized by ‘frequent pauses, repetitions and self-corrections’ (Hedge
2000).

Moreover, fluency also improves when language knowledge has

become ‘atomized’. Like for example, when the learner is able to speak the
language without consciously thinking about it (Thornbury 1999).

Accordingly, fluency is the learners’ ability to speak in understandable

way in order not to break down communication because listeners may lose
their interest. On the other hand, fluency is the ability to answer coherently by
connecting the words and phrases, pronouncing the sounds clearly, and using
stress and intonation (Hughes 2002).

Indeed, fluency the students can be called master of English or have a

good ability in English if they can speak fluently. It means the student’s
fluency in English is a sign that they are master of English. Fluency is the
extent to which speakers use the language quickly and confidently, with few
hesitations or unnatural pauses, false starts, and word searches (Nunan,
2003).

In addition, fluency is natural language use occurring when a speaker

uses in meaningful interaction and maintains comprehensible and ongoing
communication despite limitations in his or her communicative competence
(Richards 2006).

On the other hand, fluency generally increases as learners’ progress of

the English and become more comfortable using the language. Language
teachers who concentrate on fluency help their students to express
themselves in English and make them more fluent. They pay more attention to
the meaning and are less concerned with grammatical errors (ICALTEFL
Accepted Worldwide, 2012).

However, students’ frustrated in feeling of not being able to participate

in speaking activity. Some of the teachers believe that speaking performance
problems can be solved through more practices in vocabulary and proper
structure of words, learning and using language is strongly connected to the
learner’s constructions of words. In fact, achieving fluency in speaking is not
easy (Arnold, 2000).

Furthermore, fluency is related to using all speaking skills in the context

of the time-bound nature of speaking. It relies on the speaker's ability to use
facilitation skills such as fillers, lexical phrases, ellipsis etc. and compensation
skills such as self-correction, rephrasing, or repeating to cope with the
ongoing fast communication (Segalowitz, 2000).