Methods and Strategies of Teaching

Principal Elements of Teaching

1. The Learner
2. The Teacher
3. The Learning Environment

A. Learner as an Embodied Spirit

Fundamental Equipment of the Learners
● Ability
● Aptitude
● Interest
● Family and Cultural Background
● Attitude

Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)

● Verbal-Linguistic
● Logical-Mathematical
● Musical
● Bodily-Kinesthetic
● Visual-Spatial
● Interpersonal
● Intrapersonal
● Naturalist
● Exitentialist

B. The Teacher
Considered as licensed professional who possess dignity and reputation with high moral values as well as technical and
professional competence.

Personal Attributes:
Passion Humor
Compassionate Knowledgable
Patience Positive
Communicative Motivational
Creative Flexible

C. The Learning Environment

Composed of Physical Environment and Psychological Climate/Atmosphere.
Seating Arrangement includes:
1. Horseshoe Pattern
2. Circular Pattern
3. Rectangular Pattern
4. Traditional Formal Pattern

Instructional Planning
● The ability to visualize into the future—creating, arranging, organizing and designing events in the mind that may occur in the
classroom accurate time management and related instances teacher’s ability to make decisions about the how and what of teaching
Importance/ Function of Instructional Planning
● Provides an overview of instruction
● presents a total picture of the lesson for the day or for the year
● allows some degree of flexibility
● Facilitates good management and instruction
● provides a classroom script to follow as lessons are conducted
● shows a clear direction of lessons
● Makes learning purposeful
● teacher’s clear understanding of students’ behavior will help increase students opportunities for learning and reduce anxiety
and uncertainty
● enables the teachers to engage in reflective thinking before making/writing a unit/lesson plan or even during teaching time
● Provides for sequencing and pacing
● Economize time
● Makes learners’ success more measurable which assists in reteaching
● Provides for a variety of instructional objectives
● Creates opportunity for higher level questioning
● Assists in ordering supplies
● Guides substitute teachers
Variables in Instructional Planning (Brown, 1988)
● teacher- attitudes, beliefs, teacher’s content background
● students- age, background knowledge, motivational level, interest
● content- the type of content that influences the planning process, textbook being used
● learning content- subject matter guidelines
● Material/ resources- activities and equipment/ tools for teaching are considered first in planning
● Time- considerable planning for time

Lesson Plan
● Sets forth the proposed program or instructional activities for each day
● A daily plan
● A step-by-step approach to learning

Components of Lesson Plan

1. objectives
2. subject matter
3. learning activities
- review/ drills
- motivation (intrinsic/extrinsic)
- presentation of the lesson
- generalization
- application
4. evaluation
5. assignment (for enrichment, extension or remedial)
● Characteristics of Assignment
✔ Should be interesting
✔ Should be directed to definite concepts
✔ Provision should be made for individual differences
✔ Should be explained with given examples
✔ Should be monitored for completion and accuracy

Instructional Objectives
● Specific and relates to singular subjects and grade levels which includes…
a. audience- who is to do the tasks?
b. behavior- what is the task to be completed?
Aims
● General objectives of the Philippine Educational System; broad and value-laden statements about the intent of education
● Answer the needs and demands of society especially children and youths
● Formulated by experts
Goals
● Statements that cut across subjects and grade levels
● Represent the entire school program by professional associations
● More definite than aims but still non-behavioral and therefore non-observable and non-measurable
Objectives
description of what is to eventually take place at the classroom level that are stated in..
o Behavioral terms
o State specific skills
o Tasks
o Content attitudes

Domains and Levels of Objectives

Each domain reflects a particular set of beliefs and assumptions about how students learn and behave
● Cognitive Domain - objectives that have their purpose to develop students’ intellectual skills
o knowledge- emphasis on remembering information
o comprehension – emphasis on understanding and organizing previously learned information
o application- emphasis on using information in pertinent situations
o analysis – emphasis on thinking critically about information by studying its parts
o synthesis- emphasis on original thinking about information by putting its parts into new whole.
o evaluation- emphasis on making judgments about information based on identified standards
*Anderson added creating as the highest level in cognitive domain

KENDALL & MARZANO’S NEW TAXONOMY

S ELF-SYSTEM
M ETACOGNITION
K NOWLEDGE UTILIZATION
A NALYSIS
C OMPREHENSION
R ETRIEVAL
 ● Affective Domain - deals with attitudes, values, interest and appreciation which ranges from simple awareness or perception of
something to internalizing a phenomenon so that it becomes a part of one’s lifestyle
o receiving – emphasis on becoming aware of some communication or phenomenon from the environment
o responding – emphasis on reacting to a communication or phenomenon through participation
o valuing – emphasis on attaching worth to something form the environment evaluating beliefs in the form of acceptance,
preference, and commitment
o organization – organizing the values in relation to each other
o characterization – acts in accordance with the accepted value and becomes part of personality

● Psychomotor Domain - objectives in this domain are especially appropriate of the objectives generally associated with motor and
muscular-skill development
o Perception- Uses the sense organs to obtain cues that guide motor activity; ranges from sensory stimulation (awareness)
through cue selection to translation.
o Set- Readiness to take a particular action, includes mental, physical, and emotional set. Perception is an important
prerequisite.
o Guided response- Concerned with early stages of learning a complex skill. Includes imitation, trial and error.
o Mechanism- Concerned with habitual responses that can be performed with some confidence and proficiency ( less
complex).
o e. Complex Overt response- Skillfully performs acts that require complex movement patterns, like the highly coordinated
motor activities. Proficiency indicated by quick, smooth, and accurate performance, requiring minimum effort.
o f. Adaptation- Concerned with skills so well learned that they are modified to fit special requirements or to meet a problem
situation.
o g. Origination- Creates new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or problem.

Determining Appropriate Learning Materials to Facilitate Instruction

Principles in the Selection of Instructional Materials
● Responsiveness
● Utility
● Meaningfulness
● Breadth
● Appropriateness
● Simplicity
● Authenticity
● Purpose
● Interest
● Communication Effectiveness
● Correctness

● Types of Instructional materials and tools

▪ Visuals – representations of objects, persona or events in realistic or precise expression on canvas, paper or other surfaces.
Include the following:
● Still pictures/photographic prints – include textbook, periodicals and similar printed materials; serve as efficient
substitutes for first-hand experience; are relatively cheap and convenient to use
● Graphics – make use of symbols representing the phenomena they portray
- come in many forms; maps diagrams, charts, tables, graphs, posters, cartoons that illustrate lessons for better
understanding, with less use of unnecessary teacher talk
● Realia - refers to all objects as they exist in natural context
● Models - refer to objects that are constructed when realia are unavailable
● Drawings – may be the likeness of the real things or symbolic representations such as maps, charts, graphs, cartoons
● Visual display devices – come in the form of chalkboards, marker boards, flip charts, bulletin boards are valuable in
emphasizing the major points of a lesson
● Projection devices – may be slide and film strips projector or opaque/ overhead projectors which provide colorful and
realistic production of original subjects

▪ Sound recordings (audio media) – include phonograph records, audio tapes, compact discs, radio, recorder and players that
has playback capability
▪ Film, television, and computer – mediated programs are mostly audio-visual media that magnify visual images
▪ Computers and internet – can be used even in the absence of teacher; allow one to learn at his/her own pace; provide wide
range of online information

The Concrete- Abstract Continuum

- Instruction should proceed from direct experience (enactive) to iconic presentation of experience (e.g. using pictures and
films) to symbolic presentation (i.e. using words).Learning is facilitated when instruction follows a sequence from actual
experience to iconic representation to symbolic or abstract representation

Factors Affecting the Selection of Media for Instruction

● Human Factors
- Learner factors – refers to learner differences that can influence media choice
 ● Individual differences
● Attention span
● Number of learners
● Physical disabilities of learners
- Teacher factors – refers to those that affect the success of media implementation
● Teachers’ skills in handling the technology/ media
● Teachers’ habits
● Teachers’ attitude toward a certain technology / media
● Instructional Method-the method of instruction dictates or limits our choice of presentation media; it is self-regulated
learning method or lecture/expository
● Practical Constraints
- Administrative and economic constraints both limit the choice of methods and media.
- Objectives- can the objectives be obtained or presentations be made at more economic juice?
- Availability- are there available and suitable material in the market
- Time- can the media be produced early and without delay?
- Resources- will the media operate in a conditions of “(temperature, sources)?
- Is the environment well adapted to its use?
● Instructional Objectives/ content
- for information- information may be disseminated unidirectional
- for instruction- require a two-way communication between transmitter and the receiver

The Selection of Learning Activities

● students should profit from the experiences
● experiences should help students meet their needs
● consider students’ interest in activities
● experiences should encourage students to inquire further
● experiences should be authentic, contextualizes and “grounded” on the real world
● experience should provide for the attainment of a range of objectives
● experiences should provide opportunities for both broad study and deep study

The Instructional Media Selection Process

● determine if the content is instruction or
information
● determine transmission method
● determine lesson characteristics
● select an initial class of media
● analyze media characteristics
● plan the development testing of the medium and
lesson materials

GENERAL PRINCIPLES & METHODS OF TEACHING

Concepts
● Approach- viewpoint toward teaching
● Strategy- general design of how the lesson will be delivered
● Method- procedure employed to accomplish the lesson objective/s
● Technique- style or art of carrying out the steps of a method

Principles Underlying Instruction

● Principle of Context – learning depends largely on the setting materials in which the process goes on. This principle comes in different
scales of application:
● textbook only
● textbook with a supplementary material
● non-academic and current materials (newspaper, clippings, articles, magazine)
● multi-sensory aids
● field experiences; personal, social and community understanding
● Principle of Focus – instruction must be organized about a focus or direction
 ▪ Scales of application
Focus established by:
● page assignment in textbook
● announced topic together with page or chapter references
● broad concept or a problem to be solved, or a skill to be acquired to carry on understanding
● Principle of Socialization – instruction depends upon the social setting in which it is done.
▪ Scales of application
Social patterns characterized by: submission > contribution >cooperation

● Principle of Individualization – instruction must progress in terms of the learner’s own purposes, aptitudes, abilities and experimental
procedures
▪ Scales of application
Individualization through:
● differential performance in uniform tasks
● homogenous grouping
● control plan
● individual instruction
● large units with optional related activity
● individual undertakings, stemming from and contributing to the joint undertaking of the group of learners

● Principle of Sequence – instruction depends on effective ordering of a series of learning tasks.

▪ Sequence is a movement
▪ from meaningless emergence of meaning
● from immediate remote
● from concrete symbolic
● from crude discriminating
▪ Scales of application
Sequence through
● logical succession of blocks of content (lesson/courses)
● knitting learning/lesson/course together by introductions, previews, pretests, reviews
● organized in terms of readiness
● organized in terms of lines of emerging meanings

● Principle of Evaluation – learning is heightened by a valid and discriminating appraisal of all its aspects
▪ Scales of application
● evaluation or direct results only
● evaluation related to objectives and process
● evaluation on total learning process and results

General Approaches to Teaching

Two approaches in teaching: Direct Instruction Approach and Indirect Instruction Approach

A Comparison Between Direct and Indirect Approaches

Direct Approach Indirect Approach
● makes use of expository strategies ● makes use of exploratory strategies
● aimed at mastery of knowledge and skills ● aimed at generating knowledge for
● teacher-oriented experience
● direct transmission of information from teacher ● learner-centered
● teacher-controlled ● students search for information with teacher’s supervision
● highly structured ● learner-controlled
● content-oriented ● flexibly organized
● learner is passive, receives ready information for the ● experience-oriented
teacher ● learner is active in search for information

Direct Instruction Methodology

1. Deductive Teaching/Anticipatory Deduction/Explanatory Deduction

Concept/s Steps
I. Statement of the Problem
● motivation
● presents a rule/concept/generalization/ ● discussion/relating problem to real life situation
principle II. Generalization
● illustrate these rule/concept , etc. with ● solve the problem from given one or two generalization, rules
examples III. Inferring
● look for the principle that will fit the solution of the problem
 Anticipatory – forecasts details found in
the different students IV. Verification
Explanatory – connects facts with ● establish validity using references/ materials
principles as interpreted by the teacher

2. Showing Method
Concept/s Steps
I. Introduction
● use for teaching concepts and skills ● review of prior learning
● a teacher-centered strategy that uses II. Presentation
teacher explanation and modeling ● explaining the new concept
combined with student practice and ● modeling the skill
feedback to teach concepts and skills III. Guided practice with necessary feedback
● widely applicable in different content areas ● provides necessary practice to practice new skills
● establishes interaction between teacher ● categorize examples of new concept
and students
● helps students to learn procedural
knowledge
● promotes learning of declarative knowledge IV. Independent Practice
● focuses students’ attention on specific ● more practice of the skill on concept learned for retention and transfer
content/skill
● ensures mastery of skills

3. Lecture-Discussion/Expository Method
Concept/s Steps
I. Planning
● designed to keep students learn organized bodies of
● Identifying goals
knowledge
● Diagnosing student background
● a teacher-directed model designed to keep learners
understand relationship in organized bodies of ● Structuring
knowledge ● Preparing advance organizers
● attempts to help students understand not only the II. Implementation
concepts but how they are related ● Introduction
● based on David Ausubel’s concept of meaningful defining the purpose of the lesson, sharing of objectives and
verbal learning overview to help students see the organization of the lesson
● helps learner link new with prior learning and relate ● Presentation
the different parts of new learning to each other defining/explaining major ideas
● designed to overcome the most important weakness comprehension monitoring - determining whether or not
of the lecture method by strongly emphasizing student understand concepts and ideas
learners involvement in the learning process ● Integration
● applicable in different subject areas exploring interconnections between important ideas
● ensures clear understanding of information ● Review and closure
summarizing the lecture
● allows student’s participation

4. Demonstration Strategy
Concept/s Steps
I. Preparation
● a show and tell method ● motivation
● teacher presents and talks about a process, ● identify objectives/problem/procedure
a concept and shows the principles II. Explanation of Concepts/Principles/ Process/Theory, etc.
● learner observes and notes down events III. Demonstration of concept process by the teacher, students observe and
during teachers’ performance take down notes
IV. Discussion of students’ observations and answering problems
V. Verification - justification conclusion

Indirect Instruction Methodologies

Inductive Teaching Strategies
Concept/s Steps
I. Preparation
● It is a discovery learning strategy ● apperception
● Involves many observable cases or ● motivation
instances that can be compared by the ● presentation of the aims of the lesson
learners II. Presentation
● Students formed own conclusions/ ● teacher/learner cite specific cases of instances which will be the
generalization when they are ready to so source/ bases of drawing generalization
● Used when the generalizations are III. Comparison and Abstraction
important enough to justify the time spent to ● noting commonalities/differences among the cases, examples cited
the lesson IV. Generalization
● Lesson progresses from observations to ● Draw generalization for the instances/ examples given from
generalizations generalization which can be a rule, a formula, principle, concept, etc.
V. Applications
● Use the newly learned generalizations in new real life situations

2. Inquiry/ProA
I
Inquiry Approach
Concept/s Steps
I. Presentation and clarification of a problem/
● Engages learners in critical thinking , issue of inquiry
analysis and problem solving ● presentation of objectives
● A systematic and disciplines method of ● statement of the problem, issue or query
solving and assessing results ● clarification of the problem
● Involves testing solution to see if they work
and a step-step procedure to solve a II. Formulation of Hypotheses
problem systematically ● giving tentative solutions to the problem/ query
● Engages students in investigative work ● clarify hypotheses
● Involves scientific ways of solving problems ● noting down of hypotheses
that include these steps:
1. Defining problems III. Gathering Data
2. Formulation of hypotheses ● select references/sources of data/ information
3. Gathering data ● appraise and organize the needed information to answer the
4. Analyzing & interpreting data problem solving
5. Making conclusion
Forms of Inquiry IV. Testing Hypothesis
1. Guided Inquiry
▪ Teacher provides data, problems, V. Formulation of Conclusions
questions to students
● Note needs for more study and evaluate procedures
2. Open inquiry
▪ Students give solutions/ gather data
and draw conclusions VI. Application
3. Individualized Inquiry ● Solving problems using rule/principle etc. in new situations
● Students work independently

Laboratory/Investigative Method
Concept/s Steps
I. Preparatory
● Motivation
● Orientation to the work/activity
● Hands-on experiences about materials or ● Presentation of materials
facts obtained from research, investigation ● Precautionary measures
or experiences II. Supervised Work Period/Laboratory
● Actual context of learners with the ● Students work on the problem (may be the same of different
materials/variables problem)
● Used to develop skill in basic science ● Teacher supervises the students’ work
process
● A discovery experience
● Develop centered thinking skills
● Involves all students in the manipulative III. Culminating Activities
skills ● Reporting of group work result/findings
● Role of teacher is mostly supervision of ● Discussion of the process/findings
activity ● Formulation of generalization, rule, concepts, etc.
● Proper handling of tools, equipments, ● Application of the discussed concepts/ generalization to new
laboratory material (keeping/using/ situation
retrieval)
● Opportunity to improvise tools/ equipments
(resourcefulness)

Problem Solving Method

Concept/s Steps
I. Identification and recognition of the problem
● An activity that will remove a difficulty or
flexibility through reasoning process II. Discussion of key elements of the problem
● May be used; for solving a whole
unit/subject as a problem or utilizing III. Statement of hypotheses
problem solving method in a unit of work ● Students give/suggests temporary solutions to the problems
● Involves scientific ways of searching
information IV. Collection/Gathering Data
● Energizes students to participate activity to ● Noting down relevant information/ evidences
find the best solution to a problem ● Interpretation of related evidences
● Develop higher order thinking skills (HOTS) ● Organizing collected/gathered information
● Enhances analytical, logical and create
abilities V. Critical evaluation of suggested solutions
● Involves these steps or hypotheses
✔ Defining problems
✔ Stating/explaining VI. Verification of accepted hypotheses
✔ Critical evaluation of hypothesis/ ● Testing of given solutions/hypotheses
solution VII. Application of the solutions to solve the
✔ Verification of accepted hypotheses problem – given problem or another problem

Discovery Teaching

Concept/s Steps
Inductive Discovery
I. Observe and discuss specific examples
● Teacher facilitates II. Identify and describe common elements of features
discovery
III. Discuss other examples and note common elements
IV. State main idea based on the common
 ● Learners participate elements against the new examples /elements
actively in the learning ● Check them
process Deductive Discovery
● Learning depends on own I. Present an idea that can be verified against evidences
insights, reflections and II. Learners gather/collect finds supporting evidences or examples
experiences (discovery
learning) III. Reasoning/Justifying why a certain evidence found is supported to the main idea.
The two discovery teaching
strategies are
✔ Inductive discovery IV. Students continue searching/finding other evidences to support the given idea.
✔ Deductive discovery

Project Method
Concept/s Steps
I. Purposing
● A significant practical unit of activity of a ● Statement of objectives of the projects
problematic nature ● Explain the nature of the project
● Involves planning and carrying out of the ● Teacher and students decide on the activities cooperatively
planned activities II. Executing
● Students completes certain task in a natural ● Student carry out the activities as planned under the guidance of
manner the teacher
● Involves the use of physical materials to
complete the unit of experience III. Evaluation
● Develops sense of cooperation, responsibility to ● Viewing of finished project
complete a task ● Evaluation by teacher and students based on some decided
● Energizes students to evaluate own and other’s criteria for the project evaluation
works (projects) objectively based on developed
criteria.

Concept Attainment/Development
Concept/s Steps
I. Presenting examples
● Positive and negative examples are presented and hypotheses
● An inductive teaching strategy designed to help students generated
reinforce their understanding of concepts and practice II. Analysis of hypotheses
hypotheses testing based on the positive and negative
● Hypotheses analyzed in the light of new examples
examples presented to them
III. Closure
● Encourages students to think freely
● Examples are continuously analyzed and generate critical
● Trains students to develop hypotheses characteristics and form a definition
● Trains students to formulate definition or generalization
● Promotes student participation IV. Application
● Used for forming generalization ● Additional examples are provided and analyzed in terms of the
● Develops critical thinking through hypotheses testing definition learned.

Other Indirect Models/Strategies of Teaching

● Problem-Based Instruction (PBI)

o The essence of PBI consists of presenting students with authentic/meaningful situation that can serve as springboards for
investigations and inquiry.
o This model is highly effective approach for teaching higher-level thinking processes involving:
o Deriving questions on problem both socially important and personally meaningful to students.
o Interdisciplinary focus on a particular subject but solutions requires students to deliver into many subjects.
o Authentic investigation necessitates students to pursue investigation that seek real solution to real problems.
o Production of articrafts and exhibits requires students to construct products in the form of articrafts and exhibits that represents
their solutions.
● Constructivist Models
o Popularized by Piaget and Vygotsky
o A perspective of teaching and learning in which a learner constructs meaning from experience and interaction with others
o Teacher provides meaningful/relevant experiences for students from which students construct their own meaning (facilitation)
o Suggests that learners develop their own understanding of topics they study instead of having it delivered to them by others.
o Places learner in the center of the learning process why the play an active role in the process of constructing their own
understanding.

● Metacognitive Strategy
o Students are trained to become aware of and control their own learning through the metacognitive process.
o Used when students:
- plan what strategies to use to meet goal
- decide what resources are needed
- monitor own progress
- evaluate progress
● Reflective Teaching
 o Process that enables individual to continually learn from own experiences by considering alternative interpretations of
experiences, actions, discussions, beliefs, using introspection and analysis
o Used when students:
- Acquire concrete experiences
- Analyzes experiences
- From abstractions
- Apply generalizations to actual situation

● Cooperative Learning Strategies

o Features:
- Heterogeneously grouped
- Interdependence among members
- Individual accountability
- Explicit teaching of collaborative skills
o Variants:
JIGSAW
● How/when used:
o A group are formed
o Material is divided into sections
o One member takes care of a section of the material
o Each member meets with those from other groups who are assigned to a similar section
o Members discuss/work on the material
o Return to their previous group to inform others in their group
o Testing students after the “puzzle” is completed

Student Teams Achievement Strategy (STAS)

● A type of group work activity in which students interact together to master a specific academic material
● How/When Used:
o Information is presented;
o Students are divided into learning teams to master lessons using worksheets;
o Discussion, tutoring, quizzing one another;
o Scores from tests are recorded; and
o There is improvement from the previous achievement score of the team, additional points are given.

Some Essential Teaching Techniques

● Discussion
o An attempt to get away from the traditional classroom procedure of question and answer and recitation style; it is also a tool for
implementing the democratic process in teaching and learning transaction.
o To get the desired understanding through analysis and evaluation of facts by encouraging group thinking as learners/participants
attempt to find solutions to a problem.
o Steps
1. providing objectives and set
2. focusing the discussion
3.holding the discussion
4. ending the discussion
5. briefing the discussion

o Types of Discussion Procedures

Panel- Forum-A direct, conversational, interactional discussion among a small group of experts or well-informed lay persons.
o Like any intelligent conversation, except that participant speak loud enough for the audience to hear
o Success depends on the preparations done before the meeting, the wise selection of participants, and the
discussant leader
o Guidelines to Ensure a Successful Panel-Forum
▪ The leader or chairperson
▪ Emphasizes tactfully the purpose and philosophy of the discussion;
▪ Keeps the conversation moving from point to point;
▪ Makes sure that each panel member has a chance to express his/her views,
▪ to ask questions intended to clarify points for the audience.
▪ Maintains an impartial position by refraining from participating as a member of the panel.
▪ Must be group-oriented rather than self-centered; and
▪ Summarizes discussion briefly and invites comments or questions from the audience
▪ The participants in the panel
● Talk in a formal manner; and
● Contribute to the method of public conversation meeting by giving brief remarks to each other
but should be heard by the audience

Symposium-Forum
▪ More formal than the panel discussion
▪ Persons with special competence deliver uninterrupted speeches on different aspects of a problem, and these
are followed by a forum period
▪ Essentially a public-speaking program; not conversational
▪ Guidelines to Ensure a Successful Symposium Forum
 o Organizing a symposium includes:
o Deciding the purpose of the meeting
o Choosing and framing the topics to arouse interest
o Choosing speakers (the number of speakers depends on the number of significant sources of
information or points of view that should be considered)
o Choosing a chairman
o Briefing the chairman and the speakers on the objective of the symposium and in the procedures
to be followed
o Speakers should not forget that discussions mean “thought in process,” that its purpose is to help
listeners analyze the problem and not to make conclusions for them
o In the discussion process, the chairman or the moderator should help bring together the thoughts
of the speakers as the program unfolds. The chairperson also makes a proper transition to the
forum period.
o The chairperson or moderator sees to it that the important questions about he issues presented
are not neglected before the adjournment of the forum.
Debate
▪ A discussion that occurs when people with different beliefs study the same problem and arrive at different
conclusions;
▪ A more formal type in which each participant makes a prepared speech for or against a proposition;
▪ Debaters are usually allotted equal time to speak to present an analysis of a problem and a fair presentation of the
arguments for or against it.

▪ Guidelines to Ensure a Successful Debate

o Attitude in debate is properly adjusted in relation to the subject, the opponents, and the listening
audience. Arguments are directed toward the person. A proper attitude includes keeping one’s
perspective, temper and sense of humor.
o Refutation, or the answering of opponents’ arguments, should be woven throughout the main speeches
in a debate. There are a number of ways of answering an argument that is to be refuted; including
- Pointing out that it is not relevant or important to the question
- Showing that it is not supported by the facts or that insufficient evidence has been given
- Indicating fallacies in reasoning
- Arriving at a contrary argument by sound reasoning
- Supplying more and better evidence to support one’s side of the argument
- Turning the argument so that it actually helps one’s side
o Make each point consistent with those made by colleagues who are also upholding a similar view.
o In answering point of the other side, it is well to have a large supply of evidence that can be drawn from
to support one’s position.
o A knowledge of the audience on the question will be helpful in determining whether the audience is
favorably or unfavorably disposed to what is being said.
o A card-index file of all points and evidence that may be used should be kept; with some system worked
out, so that the members of the team can quickly draw on the material they want to include at any given
stage in the debate.
Round Table Conference
▪ A small discussion group seated face to face around a table, without a larger audience; a small conference by another name
and has the nature of an informal semi social gathering
▪ Members will not be hearing speeches but do their own talking
Guidelines to Insure a Successful Round Table Conference
o All members should have a precise understanding of what is to be delivered
o A leader whom the group likes and respects is chosen to lead and prepare for the meeting
o Procedure in conducting the session of a round table conference is summarized below:
- Introducing remarks, stating the question to be discussed in as interesting a manner as possible
- Statements of the facts or a brief story of a real or fictitious case
- Presentation of agenda
- Group discussion of each of the issues in the agenda
- Summary of the discussion
- Consideration of what action to take as a result of the discussion
Special Techniques to insure active participation in the forum period:
a. Role playing
▪ Spontaneous acting out of problems or situations
▪ Portray a situation more candidly
b. Case Study
▪ Another group centered procedure which presents specific situations or problems to stimulate discussion
▪ This technique implies extensive analysis and interpretation of a case selected to demonstrate a learning outcome
c. Buzz Session
▪ Is used when dealing with familiar topics that need group opinion, evaluating, planning or interaction
▪ Involves groups not exceeding six persons
▪ A leader and a secretary are chosen to lead the discussion and to record what have been discussed
▪ Each group is given the time to present the questions or outcomes of their discussion
d. Workshop
▪ Involves the use of group process in attacking and solving problems
▪ Persons with problems of common concern come together to attack and solve their problems cooperatively
▪ Makes use of a variety of means and devices in the solution of problems such as group meeting, individual conference, field
trips, excursions and the use of resource persons and consultants
 ▪ Values gained from the workshop are both intellectual and social
e. Seminar
▪ Deliberately looks for the solution to the problems form the evidence based on reading, experiences and minds of the
participants
▪ Attempts to develop a policy or solution that is better than what is in existence

ART OF QUESTIONING

What is Questioning? Key technique in teaching

▪ Purposes of Questions
o Arouse interest and curiosity
o Review content already learned
o Stimulate learners to ask questions
o Promote though and the understanding of ideas
o Change the mood/tempo, direction of the discussion
o Encourage reflection and self evaluation
o Allow expressions of feelings
Types of Questions
o According to thinking process involved:
o Low-level questions- focused on facts, don’t test level of understanding or problem solving skills
- Examples: Who declared martial law? What important events happened in WW II?

o High-level questions- go beyond memory and factual information, more advance, stimulating and more
challenging, involve abstraction and point of view.
- Examples:
- How did the recent war between the government forces and MILF affect the people in Mindanao? What
alternative could we practice to become attentive?
o According to type of answer required:
o Convergent questions- tend to have on correct and best answer.
- Are used to drill learners on vocabulary, spelling and oral skills but not appropriate for eliciting thoughtful
responses
- Usually start with what, who, when, or where
- Are referred to as low-level questions
- Are useful when applying inductive approach and requires short and specific information from the learners
o Divergent questions- open-ended and usually have many appropriate answers.
- Reasoning is supported by evidence and examples
- Associated with high level thinking processes and encourage creative thinking and discovery learning
- Usually start with how and why, what or who followed by why
o According to the cognitive taxonomy
- 1st Level: Knowledge- memorize, recall, label, specify, define, list, cite, etc
- 2ndLevel: Comprehension-describe, discuss, explain, summarize translate, etc
- 3rd Level: Application- solve, employ, demonstrate, operate experiment, etc.
- 4th Level: Analysis- interpret, differentiate, compare invent, develop, generalize
- 5th Level: Synthesis: Invent, develop, generalize
- 6th Level: Evaluation- Criticize, judge, interpret
o According to the questions used by teachers during open discussion
- Eliciting Questions- these are employed to : encourage an initial response; encourage more students to
participate in the discussion; rekindle a discussion that is lagging or dying out
- Probing Question—seek to: expand or extend ideas; justify ideas; clarify ideas
- Closure-seeking Questions- used to : help students form conclusions, solutions or plans for investigating
problems.
Referential questions – are questions that seek to draw response from students which a teacher has no
expected answer
Display Questions- are questions in which a teacher expects a correct answer from the student
▪ Guidelines in Asking Questions
o Wait Time- the interval between asking a question and the student response.
o Prompting- uses hints and techniques to assist students to come up whit a response successfully
o Redirection- involves asking of a single question for which there are several answers; used in a high level questioning.
o Probing- a qualitative technique used for the promotion of effective thought and critical thinking; provides the students a
chance to support or defend a stand or point of view
o Commenting and prompting- used to increase achievement and motivation
▪ Tips on Asking Question
o Ask questions that are:
- stimulating/thought-proving
- within student’s level of abilities
- relevant to students daily life situation
- sequential- a stepping stone to the next
- clear and easily understood
o vary the length and difficulty of questions, phrase questions cleraly
o have sufficient time for deliberation
o follow up incorrect answer
o call on volunteers or non-volunteers
o cal on disruptive students
o move around the room for rapport/socialization
 o encourage active participation

Determining Appropriate Evaluation Instruments

The concept of evaluation
▪ aims basically to determine student mastery of what has been taught.
▪ is a two-part process:
o measuring pupils’ individual performance
o judging about the adequacy of the – may use one of two major approaches in determining how well a pupil has performed:
o norm-reference assessment, where a pupils’ performance is compared to the average performance of his/her
classmates;
o criterion – reference assessment, where the rating is based on comparison of a students’ performance with a
pre-determined standard instruments used for evaluation may be:

o informal evaluation – depends on teacher’s observations of a variety of pupil performances as they do learning tasks, complete
projects, or interact with others; requires teachers to make judicious inferences about what learners can and cannot do; may use
this question as a basic guide in selecting informal assessment techniques, “Will the procedure provide the information/ need to
make an adequate judgment about a child’s performance?”
o formal evaluation – includes teacher–prepared tests and commercially-available standardized tests, such as rating scales, learning
checklists, essay tests, true-false test, multiple-choice tests, completion tests, matching tests, etc.
● may also be used to:
o assess progress of individual learners
o evaluate own performance of teacher
o refine instructional plans and/or provide instruction to clear up understandings of certain topics
taught
o provide basis for instructional planning when the same content tested is taught again
o has a need for good record keeping to monitor the
o progress/development of learners overtime
When to use some test types.
● use informal evaluation tools when looking for specific behaviors that learners are expected to demonstrate
● use rating scales and checklist when judgment about several levels of performance quality is needed
● use essay tests especially for upper grade levels when determining students to put together isolated process of information in a
meaningful way
● use true-false test when covering a broad range of content
● use matching test if pupils’ grasp of association is to be tested
● use completion test to sample only a cross-section of content and to eliminate guessing among pupils

What evaluation type to use during the instructional act

a. Prior to Instruction: Pre assessment
● done to determine the learner’s entry behavior (what knowledge/skills/attitudes they already know or still need to know) before
objectives are set or before instruction begins for maximum learning purposes
● involves use of such instruments as readiness test, aptitude test, pre test on course objectives, or observational techniques
b. During Instruction: Formative Evaluation
● provides on-going feedback to the teachers and students regarding their success or failure during instruction;
● helpful in deciding whether changes in subsequent learning experiences are needed
● helpful in determining specific learning errors that need correction
● usually makes use of paper and pencil tests and observational methods
c. After Instruction: Summative Evaluation
● is provided to determine > how well students have learned/attained instructional objectives >how well instruction was done
> what rating the students deserve to get >includes the use of achievements tests, rating scales, or evaluation of students
products
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
What is Classroom Management? Refers to the operation and control of classroom activities; involves the ability to maintain order and
sustain pupil attention
What are the Purposes of Classroom Management?
▪ To minimize the occurrences of discipline problems
▪ To increase the proportion of classroom time devoted to constructive and productive activity.
3 C’s of Classroom Control
▪ Content- facilitate the delivery of instruction
▪ Conduct- promotion of orderly and safe learning environment
▪ Context- emphasis is on communication rather than physical elements associated with classroom setting
Types of Control
▪ Preventive Control- aimed at minimizing the onset of anticipated discipline problems though planning
▪ Supportive Control- aimed at directing student’ behavior before it becomes a full blown problem
▪ Corrective Control- seeks discipline student’ behavior before it becomes a full standard of good conduct
Nature and Dynamics of Approaches to Classroom Management
Behavior-Modification Approach
o Based on principles of behavioral psychology: “All behavior is learned” (Sulzer and Mayer)
o Built on two assumptions:
- Learning is controlled largely, if not entirely, by events in the environment.
- There are four processes that account for learning at all age levels and under all conditions (positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement, extinction or time out and punishment)
A behavior is shaped by consequence (what consequence follows a behavior).
Some situations that illustrate the use of Behavior Modification Approach
▪ Ben prepares a neatly written paper, which he submits to the teacher. The teacher praises Ben’s work and comments that neatly written
papers are more easily read than those which are sloppy. In subsequent papers, Ben takes great care to write neatly. >Positive
reinforcement, the introduction of reward after a behavior, causes the behavior to increase in frequency

▪ Susan whose neat work has always been praised by the teacher, prepares a neatly written paper, which she submits to the teacher. The
teacher accepts and subsequently returns the paper without comment. Susie becomes less neat in subsequent papers. >Extinction is
the withholding of an anticipated reward in an instance where that behavior was previously rewarded. Extinction results in the decreased
frequency of the rewarded behavior.

▪ The students in Ms. Tan’s English class have come to expect that she will give them the opportunity to play a word game if their work is
satisfactory. This is the activity they will enjoy. Miss Tan notes that all their papers were neatly done except Jim’s paper. She tells Jim that
he will not be allowed to participate in the class game and must instead, sit apart from the group. >Subsequently, Jim writes less sloppily
.Time out is the removal of a reward from the student or the removal of the student from the reward, it reduces the frequency of
reinforcement and causes the behavior to become less frequent

▪ Jim prepares a rather sloppily written paper, which he submits to the teacher. The teacher rebukes Jim for failing to be neat, informs him
that sloppily written papers are difficult to read, and tells him to rewrite and resubmit the paper. Jim writes less sloppily. >Punishment
introduces an undesirable or aversive stimulus after a behavior and the punished behavior tends to be discontinued

▪ Jim is one student in the class who consistently presents the teacher with sloppy papers. Despite the teacher’s constant nagging of Jim,
his work becomes no neater. For no apparent reason, Jim submits a rather neat paper. Miss Tan accepts it without comment-and without
the usual nagging. Subsequently, Jim’s work becomes neater. >Negative reinforcement is the removal of an undesirable or aversive
stimulus after a behavior, and it causes the frequency of the behavior to be increased. The removal of the punishment serves to
strengthen the behavior.

Guidelines for Using Punishments

o Don’t threaten the impossible. Make sure the punishment can be carried out.
o Don’t punish when you are at loss of what else to do in an emotional state. The quiet cool approach is more effective that the angry,
emotional approach.
o Don’t assign extra homework as well as the subject
o Be sure the punishment follows the offense as soon as possible. Don’t impose the punishment two days after the student misbehaves
o Be sure the punishment follows the offense as soon as possible. Don’t overact mild behavior or underplay or ignore serious misbehavior.
o Be consistent with punishment. If you punish one student for something, don’t ignore it when another student does the same thing.
However, students and circumstances differ, and there should be room for modification
o Don’t use double standards when punishing. You should treat both sexes to same way, and low-achieving students the same way.
o Give the students the benefit of doubt. Before accusing or punishing someone, make sure you have the facts right
o Don’t hold grudges. Once you punish the student, put the incident behind and try to start with a clean slate.
o Don’t personalize the situation. React to misbehavior, not to the student
o Document all serious incidents. This is especially important if the behavior involves sending the student out of the room or possible
suspension.
Socioemotional-Climate Approach
o Has its roots in counseling and clinical psychology (Carl Rogers)
o Places great importance on interpersonal relationships
o The teacher is the major determiner of interpersonal relationships and classroom climate
o Attitudes that are essential in effective facilitation of learning (Rogers)
o Realness, genuineness and congruence – realness is the expression of the teacher being himself or herself, the teacher is aware of
his/her feelings, accepts and acts on them and is able to communicate them when appropriate… allows the teacher to be perceived by
students as a real person
o Acceptance, prizing , caring and trust – behaviors that makes students feel trusted and accepted
o Emphatic understanding- using student’s point of view, sensitive awareness of the student’s feelings and is nonevaluative and
nonjudgmental
Principle of Communication (Ginott, Teacher and Child)
o The teacher talks to the situation and not to he personality and character of the child
o The teacher shows the ability to describe what she/he saw, describe how he/she feels and describe what needs to be done.
Glasser’ View: The importance of Teacher Involvement ( Schools Without Failure)
o Student misbehavior is the result of the student’s failure to develop success identity
o Suggests that a teacher should:
- Become personally involved with the student; accept the student but not the student misbehavior
- Elicit description of the student’s present behavior
- Assist student in making a value judgment about the problem behavior
- Help student plan a better course of action
- Guide student in making a commitment to the course of action he/she selected
- Reinforce the student as she follows the plan and keeps the commitment
- Accept no excuses if the student fails to follow through with her commitment
- Allow the student to suffer the natural and realistic consequences of misbehavior

Use of logical consequence

 o LC express the reality of the social order; LC results from a violation of an accepted social rule (Punishment expresses the power of a
personal authority)
o LC are logically related to the misbehavior; the student sees the relationship between the misbehavior and its consequence
o LC involve no element of moral judgment; student’s misbehavior is viewed as a mistake, not a sin
o LC is concerned with what will happen next; the focus is on the future (Punishment is in the past)
o LC are involved in a friendly manner (Punishment involves either open or concealed anger); the teacher should try to disengage himself
from the consequence

Group –Process Approach

o Also known as sociopsychological approach – based on the principles from social psychology and group dynamics (Schmuck, Johnson
and Bany and Kounin)
o Based on the following assumptions:
- Schooling takes place within a group context- the classroom group
- Teacher’s task is to establish and maintain an effective, productive classroom group
- The effective, productive classroom group is characterized by certain conditions that are compatible with the properties
- of a social system
- The classroom management task of the teacher is to establish and maintain such conditions
Six properties of Classroom Management (Schmuck)
o Leadership – creating a climate in which students perform leadership functions
o Attraction – refers to the friendship patterns in the classroom group
o Norms – shared expectations of how group members should think, feel and behave
o Communication – the vehicle through which the meaningful interaction of members takes place and through group processes in the
classroom occur
o Cohesiveness – collective feeling that the class members have about in the classroom group
o Facilitation and Maintenance (Johnson and Bany)
▪ Facilitation – refers to management behaviors that improve conditions within the classroom
▪ Maintenance – management behaviors that restore or maintain effective conditions
Four Kinds of Facilitation Behaviors
▪ Achieving unity and cooperation
▪ Establishing standards and coordinating work procedures
▪ Using problem solving to improve conditions
▪ Changing established patterns of group behavior
Three Kinds of Maintenance Behaviors
▪ Maintaining and restoring morale
▪ Handling conflict
▪ Minimizing management problems
Management Dimension of Teaching (Kounin)
▪ Withitness behaviors
▪ Overlapping behaviors
▪ Momentum
▪ Flip-flop
▪ Truncation
▪ Dangling
▪ Thrust
▪ Stimulu-bounded
▪ Hurdle Help
▪ Proximity Control
▪ Signal Interference
▪ Antiseptic Bouncing
▪ Direct Appeal
▪ Planned Ignoring

Techniques of Building Good Discipline:

▪ Demonstration. Students know exactly what is expected. In addition to having expected behavior explained to them, they see and
hear it.
▪ Attention. Students focus their attention on what is being depicted or explained. The degree of attention correlates with the
characteristic of the model (teacher) and characteristics of students
▪ Practice. Students are given opportunities to practice the appropriate behavior.
▪ Corrective feedback. Students receive frequent, specific, and immediate behavior is suppressed and corrected.
▪ Application. Students are able to apply their learning in classroom activities (role playing, modeling activities) and other real-life
situations

Strategies for Managing Students with Problems

▪ Accept students as they are, but build on and accentuate their positive qualities
▪ Be yourself. Students can recognize phoniness and take offense at such deceit.
▪ Be confident. Take charge of the situation, and don’t give up in front of the students.
▪ Provide structure. Many of these students lack inner control and are restless and impulsive.
▪ Explain your rules and routines so students understand them. Be sure your explanations are brief; otherwise you lose your
effectiveness and you appear to be defensive of preaching
▪ Communicative positive expectations that you expect the students to learn and you require work.
▪ Rely on motivation, and not on your prowess to maintain order; an interesting lesson can keep the students on task
 ▪ Be a firm friend, but maintain psychological and physical distance so your students know that you are still the teacher
▪ Keep calm, and keep your students calm, especially when conditions become tense or upsetting. It may be necessary to delay
action until after class when emotions have been reduced
▪ size up the situation and be aware of undercurrents of behavior, since these students are sizing you up and are knowing
manipulators of their environment
▪ Anticipate behavior, being able to judge what will happen if you or a student decide on a course of action may allow you to curtail
many problems
▪ Expect, but don’t accept, misbehavior. Learn to cope with misbehavior, but don’t get upset or feel inadequate about it

Classification of Time Management

1. Mandated Time
2. Allocated Time
3. Academic Time

Principle in Time Management:

1. Remain involved with the students during the entire class period.
2. Use fillers, in case you finish the lesson ahead of time.
3. Make sure to have a calendar with daily, weekly, or long term activities.
4. Follow consistent schedules
5. Handle administrative tasks quickly and efficiently.
6. Prepare materials ahead of time.

Prepared By:
Jojie Calamlam
Angeli Ann Moral
Albert Puylong
Carmina L. Yencheung