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Principles of Aquaculture

8-22 February 2023

Dr. Ram Devi Tachamo Shah
Panchkhal
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• Credit hours: 2+1 hrs

• Theory: 32 hours
• Practical : 48 hours
• Full marks: 100

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Course description
• This course provides basic knowledge of fish, fisheries, aquaculture,
desirable characters fish and biology of cultivated aquaculture species;
• This course equips students with basic knowledge and skills on
determination of water quality parameters;
• The course describes the crucial parameters of pond management for the
production of healthy fish;
• Students will be familiar with fish farming systems on the basis of farming
intensity; fish species; enclosure; Integration; fish breeding; and
• The course provide knowledge on identification and management of
common diseases and parasites.
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Objectives
• To equip students with basic knowledge of the types of cultivated
fishes in Nepal
• To familiarize students on natural water bodies, pond fish farming and
water quality parameters
• To demonstrate importance of fish breeding
• To identify common fish diseases and learns management approaches
of common fish diseases.

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Animals having body temperature that varies with the

environment (except birds and mammals)
What is fish?
• Fishes are aquatic cold-blooded (poikilothermic)
vertebrates, which breathe by means of
pharyngeal gills and propelling and balancing
themselves by means of fins which are supported
by dermal fin.
• Fishes swim in water and breathes using the gills.
• Many types of aquatic animals named “fish”,
such as Shellfish, Crayfish, Jellyfish, Starfish and
Cuttlefish, are not true fish.

General Morphology of fish

Head

Trunk

Tail

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Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Sub-phylum: Craniata
Division: Gnathostomata
Super-class: Pisces
Vent

General characteristics of fishes

• Body of fish is generally fusiform and streamlined but in globiforms (e.g. Puffer fish), the body is globe shape
and in eels – serpentine form.
• Body is bilateral symmetrical with prominent lateral line system.
• The body is generally covered by tough skins armored by variety of scales.
• The appendages of the fish comprise of the fins which are generally paired (pectoral and pelvic fins) and
unpaired (dorsal, anal and caudal fins) – locomotory organ.
• Body of fish is generally fusiform and streamlined but in globiforms (e.g. Puffer fish), the body is globe shape
and in eels – serpentine form.
• Body is bilateral symmetrical with prominent lateral line system.

Common body
shapes of fish and
their cross section
A- Tapering at both ends
B- Tall, thin shape and flat side to side
C- Broad shape and flat top to bottom
D- Snake-like
E – Threadlike
F - Ribbon shaped and laterally compressed
G- Arrow like
H - Globe like with short fins and large round eyes

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General characteristics of fishes

• The body is generally covered by tough skins armored by variety of scales.
• The appendages of the fish comprise of the fins which are generally paired (pectoral and
pelvic fins) and unpaired (dorsal, anal and caudal fins) – locomotory organ.
• Mount generally situated anteriorly.
• Jaws are hinged.
• Respiratory organs are generally in the form of gills and other accessory respiratory
organs.
• Nostrils are paired and do not open into the pharynx.
• Skeleton is in the form of notochord, connective tissues, bones, cartilages, and non-bony
scales.
• Digestive tract is well developed (with mouth, oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach,
intestine and anus).
• Hearth is bi-valved (with one auricle and one ventricle)
• Kidneys of fish are paired. They are longitudinal structures that lies above the body
cavity.
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General characteristics of fishes

• Body of fish is generally fusiform and streamlined but in globiforms (e.g. Puffer fish), the body is
globe shape and in eels – serpentine form.
• Body is bilateral symmetrical with prominent lateral line system.
• The body is generally covered by tough skins armored by variety of scales.
• The appendages of the fish comprise of the fins which are generally paired (pectoral and pelvic fins)
and unpaired (dorsal, anal and caudal fins) – locomotory organ.
• Mount generally situated anteriorly.
• Jaws are hinged.
• Respiratory organs are generally in the form of gills and other accessory respiratory organs.
• Nostrils are paired and do not open into the pharynx.
• Skeleton is in the form of notochord, connective tissues, bones, cartilages, and non-bony scales.
• Digestive tract is well developed (with mouth, oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, intestine
and anus).
• Hearth is bi-valved (with one auricle and one ventricle) 10

Kidneys of fish are paired. They are longitudinal structures that lies above the body cavity.

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General characteristics of fishes

• Brain is well developed with ten pairs of cranial nerves. Cranium
completely surrounds the brain.
• External ear us completely absent but internal ears with well-
developed semi-circular canals.
• Sexes are separate.
• Some are viviparous (Labeo, blue shark) and most are oviparous.
• Fertilization is external.
• Embryonic membranes are absent
• Eggs are large with much yolk.
• Development is direct (without any metamorphosis)

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General
morphology
• Body shape is a good
indicator of how a fish
moves and where it lives.
• Sizes ranging from few
millimeters to several
meters in length.
• Smallest fish- 7.9 mm Vent
(Paedocypris progenetica,
Indonesia) and in Nepal-
Erethistes hara (Hara hara)
of cypriniformes.
• Largest – Whale shark
(Rhincodon typus- 20 m and
34 mt) and in Nepal –
Bagarius yarellii
(Siluriformes – 2.25 m and
280 kg)

Department of Energy & Environmental

Protection

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External organs

Nares don't lead to the throat the way nostrils do in mammals, but open up
into a chamber lined with sensory pads

located clos to the mouth

Column Surface Bottom 13

feeder feeder feeder

External organs
• Mouth
• Predatory fishes have a wide mouth while herbivores and omnivores fishes have smaller
mouth.

• Snout
• A portion of head situated in front of the eyes. The snout has a pair of nostrils or nares on each
side.
• Eyes
• A pair of eyes without eye-lid (except in some sharks) situated on the lateral sides of the head.
Column Surface Bottom The position and size vary depending on the habitat and behavior of the species.
feeder feeder feeder • Their lenses are spherical, a designed enabling a fish to focus in water.
• Fish donot sleep but some spend a good portion of time on resting.
• Fish can detect.
• Lateral line
• Lateral line is a sense organ that
consists of perforated scales extend
ing from head to tail.
• Helps fish to feel pressure and temperature changes
in water
• Helps fish to navigate without vision in darkness or muddy water.
• Complete/incomplete/interrupted.

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Measurement of fish

Fin rays

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Urinary bladder
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Fish diversity
• There are altogether 10,336 freshwater fishes in the world
and 10 fish species were extinct in the wild as of 2021 as
assessed by IUCN.
• Some species of freshwater fish, such as salmon and trout,
are called anadromous. They hatch in fresh water, head out
to sea, where they live until they return to fresh water to
reproduce.
• Then there are catadromous species, or those that do it in
reverse, such as freshwater eels. These animals hatch at sea,
live most of their lives in fresh water, then return to the
ocean to reproduce.
• Some species are potamodromous. They hatch upstream
headwaters and move downstream when they are young.
These fishes complete their life cycle entirely within
freshwater.
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Fisheries
• The industries that involve catching, processing and selling of aquatic
organisms from natural water resources.
• Aquatic organisms which are exploitable by people as a common
property with or without appropriate license are called fisheries (FAO,
1998).
• Fisheries in marine system, lake, reservoir, wetland, paddy field, river.
Fisheries

Capture Enhanced
E.g., fishing in Culture fisheries
fisheries fisheries
lakes, rivers, or aquaculture
reservoirs 19

Fisheries
• No stocking
• No management practices: feeding, fertilization, liming,
monitoring etc,
• Only harvesting
Capture fisheries • Provide table fish for consumption, seed and feed for
aquaculture, and seed for enhanced fisheries
• Examples; Fishing in rivers, lakes, reservoirs, wetlands and
paddy field

• Only stocking
• No management practices: feeding, fertilization, liming,
monitoring etc.
Enhanced fisheries • Harvesting
• Provide table fish for consumption, feed for aquaculture
• Examples: Enhanced fishing in lakes, rivers, wetlands.

• Farming in water
• Includes both aquatic plants and animals
Cultured fisheries • management practices: feeding, fertilization, liming,
monitoring etc,

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Aquaculture/Enhanced Fisheries/Capture Fisheries

• Aquaculture production implies:
• Human intervention to enhance captive stock
• Individual/Cooperative ownership of stock
• Fisheries production implies:
• Human intervention to manage and maintain fished stocks at natural production levels
• Public ownership of stock
• Capture fisheries implies:
• Hunting-gathering activity
• Variable recruitment and unpredictable stock size
• Uncertain sustainable level of exploitation
• Difficult to regulate so as to maintain stock sizes
• Relatively low productivity
• Many of world’s major capture fisheries range from heavily exploited to heavily 21
overexploited

Fisheries Science
• A multidisciplinary area of research, including fishing technology, biology,
economics, and management.
• Fisheries Management
• Applying knowledge gained through basic research to
manipulate aquatic organisms, aquatic environments, and their human
users to produce sustainable benefits to people

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Biological definitions
• Aquaculture is man’s attempt, through inputs of labour and energy, to
improve the yield of useful aquatic organisms by deliberate manipulation of
their rates of growth, mortality and reproduction (Reay 1979).
• Russell equation for production of biomass from a fish population:
• Biomass= recruitment + growth- mortality-harvest
• Through investment in an aquaculture systems (tanks, ponds, enclosures,
reservoirs) an in appropriate husbandry, the aqua-culturist attempts to
maximize recruitment and growth,, and minimise mortality. By contract,
fisheries management is usually an attempt to control only harvest.

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• Economic definition
• Aquaculture is production of aquatic organisms from the basis of site
leasehold or stock ownership.
• A legal definition
• Wilson (1982) in Canada- Aquaculture is culture or husbandry of
aquatic flora and fauna, but does not include the raising or breeding of
flora or fauna (a) as aquarium specimens, (b) in laboratory experiments,
or © by individuals on their own property as food for their own use

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FAO Definition of Aquaculture

• “Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs,
crustaceans and aquatic plants. Farming implies some sort of intervention in
the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking,
feedings, protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or
cooperate ownership of the stock being cultivated. For statistical purposes,
aquatic organisms which are harvested by an individual or corporate body
which has owned them throughout their rearing period contribute to
aquaculture while organisms which are exploitable by the public as a
common property resource, with or without appropriate licenses, are the
harvest of fisheries” (FAO, 1999).

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Aquaculture
• Greek words- “aqua” – “water” and “culture”- “farming”
• Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms (plants or animals) in water.
• Aquaculture is the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of fish, shellfish, algae, and
other organisms in all types of water environments for any commercial, recreational
or public purpose.
• Aquaculture takes place in all types of water environments including ponds, rivers,
lakes, the ocean and man-made “closed” systems on land.
• Freshwater aquaculture includes trout, catfish and tilapia. The current total national
fish production is 77,000 mt of which 28% contributes from capture fisheries while 72% is from
aquaculture (Kunwar and Adhikari, 2017).
• Marine aquaculture refers specifically to the culturing of oceanic species (as
opposed to freshwater). Examples of marine aquaculture production include oysters,
clams, mussels, shrimp, salmon and algae.
• Aquaculture produces almost half of the seafood/freshwater food consumed by
humans globally, a trend that continues to increase. 26

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Principles of Aquaculture
• Species selection and stocking of quality fish seed
• Water quality management for suitable aquatic environment
• Pond liming and fertilization
• Nutrition and feeding management
• Mono/polyculture or integrated aquaculture with other farming
• Seed production, genetic management and stock improvement
• Environmental protection
• The use of records to analyse profit and loss
• Harvesting, value addition and marketing

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Scope of Aquaculture
• Use of natural water resources
• Potential of international market
• Diverse climate
• High demand- 1/3rd world fish feed to livestock as fish meal
• Highly profitable business
• Government priority on promotion
• Cheap fish feed and labor cost
• Commercialization/ industrialization.

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Characteristics of aquaculture
• Extensive- Adoption of traditional techniques of aquaculture e.g.,
dependence on natural productivity and little control over the stocks.
• Intensive- Adoption of full component of culture techniques including
scientific pond design, fertilization, supplemental feeding or only feeding
without fertilization; full measure of stock manipulation, disease control,
scientific harvesting , high level inputs and high rate of production.
• Semi-Intensive- Adoption of mid-level technology, partial dependence on
natural productivity, fertilization, supplementary feeding, with stock
manipulation, medium level inputs and medium rate of production

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Fish production by aquaculture and fisheries

(FAO, 1988)
Type of production Designation
Aquaculture Fisheries
Hatchery √
Ponds, cages, tanks, raceways and temporary barrages √
Permanent lakes and reservoirs infrequently or regularly √
stocked with fish or crustaceans
Fish caught by sports fisherman in open waters √
Privately owned “put and take” sports fisheries √
Rice-cum-fish culture √

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Importance of fish (describe them)

1. Food value: Globally up to 20 percent of
human protein consumption comes from
aquatic animals and fisheries are a major
source of income and jobs for many
communities around the world.
2. Nutritive value
3. Medicinal value
4. Fish products
Fish meal, fish oil, fish silage, fish flour, fish
manure and guano, fish glue, Isinglass, Fish
leather, Fish fin, Fish caviar, Fish pearls, Fish
insulin
5. Biological control: Puntius spp., grass crap;
Tilapia, Silver barb.
6. Sports and games: Sahar (Tor spp.); Asala;
Rainbow trout etc
7. Decorative value: gold fish; zebra fish fighting
fish, Koi, guppy etc
8. Employment opportunity 31

Origin of Aquaculture
• First aquaculture text written in China about 500 BC (Fan Lei)
• Aquaculture developed thousands of years later in China, about 3500 BC.
• First fish species cultured – Common carp
• Oysters were farmed in Japan about 2,000 BC
• In many other continents such as in Africa, Americas and Australia started
only within the last several hundred years.

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Main groups of cultured species worldwide

• Fishes (freshwater and marine species)
• Mollusks (bivalve and gastropods)
• Crustaceans (Decapods)
• Algae (Macro-and micro-algae)
• Cyprinid fishes (carps) and macro-algae dominate world aquaculture
production, but many other species are also target of aquaculture- in China,
some 110 species of aquatic animals and plants are cultured.

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Global aquaculture scenario (FAO)

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Water resources for fish farming in Nepal

• Rivers, lakes, fish ponds, swamps, reservoirs, ponds and paddy field

Table 1: Estimated Wetland Area in Nepal Source: NBSAP, 2014-2020

S.N. Wetland Types Estimated Area (ha) %

1 Rivers 395,000 48.21
2 Lakes 5000 0.61
3 Reservoirs 1500 0.18
4 Marshy Lands 12,500 1.53
5 Ponds 7277 0.89
6 Irrigated Paddy Fields 398,000 48.58
Total 819,277 100.00
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Aquaculture in Nepal
• Aquaculture was initiated around 1947 on a small scale in ponds with
indigenous Indian major carp seed from India.
• Further development began in the 1950s with the introduction of the exotic
species common carp (Cyprinus carpio).
• Its breeding success in the 1960s followed monoculture practices and
gained considerable popularity in the private sector.
• More significant progress was seen in the 1970s with the introduction and
farming of three exotic Chinese carp species: silver carp
(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix ), bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis ) and
grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus ).

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Aquaculture in Nepal
• Their breeding success in captivity has been a major breakthrough in the
development of aquaculture in Nepal.
• Similarly, the induced breeding of three commercially valuable indigenous
major carps: rohu (Labeo rohita), mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala ) and catla
(Catla catla) were successfully established in the country.
• This success followed the polyculture system of production in ponds with
seven species of fish with different feeding habits.
• This practice contributed considerably to increased production per unit area
and higher economic benefits, which in turn attracted a large number of
farmers.
• The actual development of this practice was seen from the beginning of the
1980s with the execution of the Aquaculture Development Project
supported by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP).
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Aquaculture in Nepal
• Aquaculture represented 4.18% and 1.13% of the agriculture GDP and National GDP
respectively (CFPCC,2018/19).
• Out of 252 total fish species reported -11 species are under commercial farming which
includes; 7 Carps species, 1 Perch (Tilapia), 2 catfish and 1 trout species (Shrestha,
2019).
• The number of households involved in fish farming is 54,237 with the total of 143,241
people employed in this sector.
• Annual fish production of Nepal is 91832 metric tons with the contribution of 70832
metric tons from aquaculture and 21000 metric tons from the inland capture fisheries
(CFPCC, 2018/19).
• In recent years, domestic production occupied 90% and imported fish occupied
10% of the total national fish consumption.

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Fish production in Nepal

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Desirable characters of fish for culture

• Growth rate
• Grow to a large size in shorter period for culture
• Natural ability to grow fast so that they attain a marketable size
in a shorter time.
• Small fish are not suitable for culture.
• Efficient conversion of food
• Must be an efficient converter of feed
• Give more edible flesh per unit of food consumed is preferred
than which gives less flesh per unit weight.

Feed intake (kg)

• Food conversion ratio (FCR) =
Weight gain(kg)

Weight gain(kg)
• Feed efficiency (%) =
Feed intake(kg)

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Desirable characters of fish for culture

• Short food chain
• To have a short food chain in order to reduce the loss of energy
resulting from the passage of one link of production of low priced
products
• Best fishes:

Herbivorous Omnivorous
Fish feeding
detritus

Plankton eaters Microphagous Carnivorous

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Food Chain

Fish

Phytoplankton Zooplankton Worms/Insects

Examples: Silver carp, Bighead carp,

Tilapia
Small Fish

Fish
Short Food Chain Long Food Chain 45
Examples: Catfish; Rainbow trout

Desirable characters of fish for culture

• Ready to accept compound/formulated feed
• Larvae that accept formulated feeds would be easier to rear in hatcheries.
• Raising of lives foods is comparatively more difficult and expensive.
• Disease and poor water quality resistance
• Occur usually under stressful environment such as stocking, sampling,
hypoxia or sub-acute conditions of chemicals like ammonia.
• Ideal fish- low susceptibility of disease (cultured in regions where knowledge
of pathogen is limited, or where therapeutics are unavailable or prohibitory
expensive).
• Reared fish must be resistant to diseases, tolerant to wide range of
environmental parameters like low dissolved oxygen, high ammonia, wide
ranges of temperature, and pH, and accept handing and transporting without
difficulty.

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Desirable characters of fish for culture

• Mean quality/consumer’s acceptance
• High meat quality and suit the taste of consumers
• Examples: Carps I Nepal while catfishes in America; Milk fish (marine fish) in South Asia but
not in Kenya; A catfish (Ictalurus melas) not preferred though high productivity.
• Easy to breed in captivity
• Fish reproduce in captivity (if the fish cannot breed in captivity then they can not be
domesticated).
• If fish matures more than once a year, there is a possibility to have several crops of seed and
possibly adults.
• High fecundity
• Fecundity refers to the number of eggs in the ovary of females prior to spawning period.
• High fecundity and high frequency of spawning.
• A shorter incubation period and larval cycle often contribute to low mortality of larvae and
greater survival in hatcheries.

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Desirable characters of fish for culture

• Economic and market consideration
• Should be economically viable and easy to market.
• Scale-less carp, reduced vertebrate bone, color, etc
• Features of carp:
• Fish is very hardy: wide range of temp, DO, pH, salinity and turbidity.
• Fish is Omnivores: feeds on zooplankton (young) and well as bottom invertebrates and
detritus (adult).
• Fish can easily fatten on cereals and leguminous seeds.
• Fish feeds on a variety of formulated feeds (live and prepared).
• Fish is easily induced to spawn in captivity.
• Fish grows well as a constituent of polyculture.
• Fish responds well to selective breeding and hybridization, making improvements feasible in
the race.
• More economical

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Stocking density
• Stocking density is a key factor affecting growth, production and
survival of fish besides food supply and its quality, genetics and
environmental conditions.
• In many cultured species, growth is inversely related to stocking
density and this can be attributed to social interactions (Huang and
Chiu, 1997; Irwin et al., 1999).
• Rearing fish at inappropriate stocking densities may impair growth
and reduce immune competence due to factors such as social
interactions and deterioration of water quality, which can affect both
feed intake and conversion efficiency of the fish

Source Mehta et al., 2018 49

Pangas
• Pangas catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus), belonging to the family
Pangasiidae under the order Siluriformes, is a newly introduced exotic fish
species in Nepal.
• Pangas is now considered as the third most important freshwater fish group
within the aquaculture sector (FAO, 2016).
• The origin of pangas catfish was from the Mekong River of Vietnam to Chao
Phraya River of Thailand and distributed to other countries such as Malaysia,
Indonesia and China (FAO, 2016)
• Pangas or “baikhi” gained popularity because of its omnivorous feeding habit,
fast growth rate, high stocking capacity, easy culture system, high disease
resistance, good market demand and tolerance to a wide range of
environmental change (Sarkar et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2005; Rohul Amin et al.,
2005).
• 120000 fish per hectare is profitable (Mehta et al., 2018).
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Pangas
• Commercial culture and production of pangas
has recently been expanded dramatically in
some Asian countries especially in China,
Thailand, Vietnam and Bangladesh.
• This fish is sold to more than 130 countries
globally, mainly in the form of white fillets.
• Pangas can be cultured in high stocking
density as this fish has a higher number of
erythrocytes than any other fish, plus an
additional respiratory organ, and can breathe • Moreover, the vast majority of
through bubbles and skin which help it people consume this fish due
tolerate an environment short of dissolved
oxygen (Shrestha et al., 2015). to its delicacy and taste with
• There is a huge demand for pangas in high fat content.
Nepalese markets due to lower market price
and presence of fewer spines inside body.
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Pangas

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Fish production

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Market analysis

• The average production

of fish species was
6.06ton/ha which is
slightly higher than the
national average.

Patel et al., 2020 54

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Cost/Benefit Analysis

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Taxonomy of Fishes of Nepal

• Greek word- taxis – Kingdom is the highest level on the biological classification
arrangement and nomia – scale. All living creatures are classes as part of the Animalia
Kingdom.
methods. Phylum splits animals by major characteristics. Vertebrates
(fish, birds, mammals including humans) are in the Chordata
• It is the science of classifying Phylum.
biological organisms.
Class distinguishes further. Fish are divided into
• Fish taxonomy – identification Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) and Osteichthyes (bony
and classification of fishes to fish).
the level of species and Order further differentiates by physical characteristics
subspecies, following the
conventional principles of Family follows on from order by placing into groups by
basic taxonomy. further physical characteristics.

• Classification – revised from Genus is a further, final breakdown.

time to time.
Species is the final step and pinpoints the exact creature.
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• Absence of cell wall.

• Heterotrophic
• Plastids and vacuoles are generally
absent and centrioles and lysosomes
are present
• Reserve food is glycogen

• Aquatic habitat
• Streamlined body
• Respiration by means of gills
• Locomotion by means of fins
• Body covered by scales
• Presence of internal ear

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Taxonomy of Fishes of Nepal

• J. Muller (1844) proposed 7 sub-
classes under the class “Pisces”.
• Berg (1940) has classified the Super-
class (Series) Pisces into 7 classes:
• (1) Acanthodii, (2) Coccostei, (3) Pterichthys,
(4) Elasmobranchii, (5) Holocephali, (6)
Dipnoi, (7) Teleostomi
15 40 120 252

Fishes of Nepal belong to

the sub-class Actinopterygii

Berg has divided the sub-class Actinopterygii (Osteichthyes)

into a series of 59 orders of which only 15 orders are
represented in freshwater ecosystem of Nepal
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Biology of cultivated indigenous fish species

• Large varieties of
indigenous fish
species
• Some exotic species
have been introduced
for food
• Majority of exotic
species belong to
carps but also find
trout, catfishes,
tilapia, silver bard and
freshwater prawn.
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Important Indigenous food fishes

S.No. Common Name Status Water type
1 Rahu Well established Warm water
2 Naini/Mrigal Well established Warm water
3 Bhakur/Catla Well established Warm water
4 Gurdi Breeding success Warm water
5 Mungri/Maur Breeding success Warm water
6 Masheer/Sahar Cultured in limited scale Cool/warm water
7 Tor tor /Sahar Confined to research station Cool/warm water
8 Buche Asala Confined to research station Cold water
9 Katle Confined to research station Cool water

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Exotic fish species

S.No. Common Name Status Water type
1 Common Carp- Well established Warm water
German carp
Mirror carp
2 Grass carp Well established Warm water
3 Silver carp Well established Warm water
4 Bighead carp Well established Warm water
5 Nile Tilapia Culture in limited scale Warm water
6 Tilapia Well established Warm water
7 Silver barb Confined to Gov. farm Warm water
8 Gold fish Decoration use Warm water
9 African catfish Cultured in limited scale by farmers Warm water
10 Rainbow trout Well established Cold water
11 Pangas catfish Cultured in limited scale by farmers Warm water
12 Freshwater water prawn Confined to research station Warm water 61

Cultured fish species of Nepal

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Common carp

• The most important cultivated fish in the world

• Introduced to Nepal in 1956 and 1960 from
India and Israel, respectively.
• Artificial breeding and natural selection has
brought lost of morphological variations.
• Two varieties – (formerly Osteichthyes)
• German carp (Cyprinus carpio var. communis) &
Mirror carp (Cyprinus carpio var. specularis)
• A widespread freshwater species of eutrophic
waters in lakes and large rivers
• Wild population – vulnerable to extinction Additional standardized endings:
Suborder: - oides
Subfamily: - inae
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Tribe: - ini

German carp vs Israeli carp

• German or Scale carp (Cyprinus • Flat and deep body

carpio var. communis) & Israeli or • Short and small head
Mirror carp (Cyprinus carpio var. • Protractile mouth, sub-terminal with upper jaw
slightly longer than the lower jaw
specularis). • 2 pairs of maxillary barbels
Golden scale • Dorsal fins is long with a sharp spine
• Bottom feeder, omnivorous and fees on insect
larvae, worms, molluscs, detritus, fresh and decayed
vegetation
• Also accept formulated feed.
• German carp- 1-2 kg in the 1st year while mirror carp
Shiny scale – 2-3 kg
• Multiple breeders – 5 times in a year
• It breeds easily without hypophysation and artificial
breeding with hypophysation is also common.
• Breeding seasons – March/April in Tarai while
April/May in Hills
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Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)

• Exotic carp – from India and Japan in 1967 and 1968.
• Body is elongated and cylindrical with large, greenish scales Grass carp Common carp
• Head broad.
• Barbels absent.
• Mouth sub-terminal with upper jaw slightly longer than the
lower jaw.
• Toothless mouth but has specialized pharyngeal teeth for
grasping aquatic vegetation.
• Short and sparse gill rakers.
• Grass carp is a column/marginal feeder, herbivorous and feed
on a wide variety of aquatic macro-vegetation including
certain terrestrial plants.
• Natural food includes-protozoa, rotifers, nauplius larvae and
diatoms
• Voracious feeder and consume 50-60% weight of grass per
day of its body weight. But of the food material is excreted as
feces (incomplete digestion).
• Fast growing fish- 1-2 kg in 1st year and matured in 2-3 years
• Artificial breeding is done by hypophysation.
• Breeding season- April/May (22-27 degree C)
65

Rotifers/ Nauplius

66

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Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix)

• Exotic fish- in 1967 and 1968 from • Flat and laterally compressed body covered by small silvery
scales.
India and Japan. • Head small
• Barbels absent
• Mouth upturned with lower jaw longer than upper jaw
• Abdominal keel is complete.
• Posterior margin of the pectoral fin does not extend
beyond the base of the pelvic fin.
• Dense gill rakers. They are connected and covered with a
spongy sieve membrane.
• Surface, phytoplankton feeder but young fry feed on
zooplankton.
• 1-2 kg in the 1st year , attains 40-50 kg.
• Season breeders and matured in 2-3 years
• artificial breeding with hypophysation is also common.
• Breeding seasons – April – July (22 -28 degree Celsius).
• Highly sensitive and nervous fish during handling.
• High mortality can occur. 67

Bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys/Aristichthys nobilis)

• The bighead carp is a species of cyprinid • Flat and laterally compressed body covered by small silvery
freshwater fish native to East Asia. scales brownish above.
Head long and massive
• It is one of the most intensively exploited •
fishes in fish farming. • Barbels absent
• Mouth large and upturned with lower jaw longer than
• Introduced in 1969 and 1972 to Nepal upper jaw
from America and Hungary • Abdominal keel is incomplete.
• Posterior margin of the pectoral fin extends beyond the
base of the pelvic fin.
• the gill rakers are comblike or filamentous appearance
capable of efficiently filtering larger zooplankton.
• Surface, zooplankton feeder but young fry feed on
unicellular phytoplankton and rotifers and nauplii.
• 1-2 kg in the 1st year , attains 40-50 kg.
• Season breeders and matured in 2-3 years
• Artificial breeding with hypophysation is also common.
• Breeding seasons – may – July (24 -28 degree Celsius).
• Docile and hardy fish.
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Rahu (Labeo rohita)

• Rohu is considered the tastiest • Elongated and cylindrical body.
among the cultivated carps in • Small pointed head.
Nepal. • Sub-terminal mouth
• One pair of maxillary barbels.
• Body color- dull reddish on the sides and whitish
on belly.
• Column feeder (browser), feeds on plant matter
including decaying vegetation, filamentous
algae, periphyton, detritus and small
crustaceans and rotifers.
• Slow growth –upto 900 g in the 1st year; 1-30
kg.
• Season breeders and matured in 2 years
• Artificial breeding with hypophysation.
• Breeding seasons – June – August (25-30 degree
Celsius).
69
• Docile and hardy fish.

Catla/Bhakur (Catla calta)

• Catla, also known as the major • Deep and laterally compressed.
South Asian carp, is an
economically important South • Massive head.
Asian freshwater fish in the • Large up-turned/superior mouth
carp family Cyprinidae.
• It is native to rivers and lakes • Barbels absent
in northern India, Bangladesh, • Body color- grayish on dorsal and
Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan, whitish on belly.
but has also been introduced
elsewhere in South Asia and is • surface feeder but young fry feeds on
commonly farmed. zooplankton and phytoplankton.
• 1-1.5 kg in the first year
• Over 1.5 m and size 45 kg
• Season breeders and matured in 2 years
• Artificial breeding with hypophysation.
• Breeding seasons – June – August (25-30
degree Celsius). 70

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Mrigal/Naini (Cirrhinus mrigala)

• One of the important • Elongated and cylindrical body.
species after rohu and • Small head and sub-terminal mouth with
catla. non fringed lips.
• Up-turned/superior mouth
• One pair of small barbels.
• Body color- grayish on dorsal and whitish on
belly but not pinkish as rohu.
• Bottom feeder, omnivorous but young fry
feeds on zooplankton.
• Slower compared to rohu and catla
• Over 90 cm and upto 30 kg.
• Season breeders and matured in 2 years
• Artificial breeding with hypophysation.
• Breeding seasons – June – August (25-30
degree Celsius). 71

72

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• Hypophysation is one type of technique whereby ripe fish brooders

are stimulated by pituitary hormone introduction to spawn in
captive condition.

73

Sahar or Masheer (Tor putitora)

• Important edible fish • Semi-rounded body and slightly flattened along
the ventral surface from near the mouth opening
found in the rivers and to the anus and a sudden tapering of the body just
tributaries of Nepal after the anal region.
• Large eyes and situated more towards the dorsal
surface
• Mouth small and terminal.
• Two pair of small barbels.
• Entire body covered with large scales and also
called as large-scale barbel.
• One of the largest species of the Cyprinidae
family- attains a length up to 1.5 m and sometimes
exceeding 30 kg.
• During spawning season, males develop strong
tubercles and are easily distinguished from
females.
• Long lives and slow growing fish.
• Feed on insects and fish fry other species (drifting
aquatic and terrestrial insects).
74

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Sahar or Masheer (Tor putitora)

• Adults feed on smaller fish.

• Sexual maturity – 1-2 years
• Seasonal breeder
• Breeding seasons –
March/April of
September/October
75

Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

• is a species of tilapita, a • Characterized by the presence of the
cichlid fish presence of long spiny dorsal fin,
• native to the northern and interrupted lateral line and the presence of
central African river systems distinct black stripes on the body and tail.
and has been introduced • Adult male- raddish underside and red
throughout the world. coloration at the tip of caudal fin
• First introduced in 1985 • Adult female- yellowish underside and
from Thailand. brownish with stripes on dorsal surface
• Omnivorous and prefers vegetable primarily
phytoplankton but also accepts
crustaceans, insects, chironomids, detritus
and formulated feed.
• Maxi size in 2.5 kg.
• Prolific breeder. High plasticity in the age
oand size at which it attains sexual maturity.
• Spawns at ages of 2-6 months and of size
less than 20 g. 76

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Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

Reproduction phase-
• Make define and defend territories on the bottom and form a nest by
cleaning a circular area 20 to 30 cm wide.
• In a pond the soft bottom is excavated 5 to 8 cm deep by digging with
mouth.
• The female is attracted to the nest where she is courted by the male
• The female lays eggs on the nest after which they are fertilized by the
male.
• Several hundreds to 2000 eggs per batch.
• The fertilized eggs are picked up by females in her mouth and leave
the nest.
• Appro. 1 month is required for a • The eggs are incubated for 3-5 days in the female’s mouth before they
female tilapia to complete hatch.
reproduction cycle. • Young fry stay with her mother for another 5-7 days.
• Breeding doesnot occur each moth, • The female does not eat during incubation and caring the new fry.
but under the favorable conditions a
• The phase of incubation, intense feeding and recovery follows, usually
female will normally produce several lasting about 1-2 weeks, before she is ready to spawn again.
batches of young in a year. 77

Silver barb (Puntius gonionotus)

• Introduced in 1991 • Flat body and laterally compressed and covered by

large silvery scales sometimes with golden tint.
from Bangladesh • Small head and snout pointed with terminal mouth.
• Very few tubercles are present on the snout which is
not visible without magnification
• Barbels are very minute.
• Herbivorous but feeds on both plants and animals
including phyto, zoo, filamentous algae, higher plants
and detritus.
• Adult fish also feed on macrophytes.
• Grows about 500 g in 1st year- largest size 1.5 kg of
40 cm.
• Sexual maturity gains at the end of 1st year
• Artificial breeding is done by hypophysation.
• A year-round spawner in the tropical climate, but
hatchery operations are usually confined to the
beginning of the rainy season. 78

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African catfish/Mangur (Clarias gariepinus)

• Long cylindrical body, flat bony head.
• Introduced middle
• A broad terminal mouth.
of 199s from India • 4 pairs of barbels.
• Dark grey or black coloration on the dorsal side, fading to a
white belly.
• The dorsal and anal fins are very long and without spines but
pectoral fins have spines.
• Caudal fins are rounded.
• Carnivorous but also shows omnivores feeding habit.
• It feeds on living as well as dead animal matter.
• It has air breathing labyrinthine organ (called rosette or air tree)
arising from gill arches.
• Survive in shallow, muddy water for long time
• 1st year- 1.5 to 2 kg and largest size attaines 20-30 kg.
• Seasonal breeder- sexual maturity in 1-2 years
• Artificial breeding is done by hypophysation.
• Breeding season – May to July (25-30 degree C).
79
• Docile and hardy fish for transportation and handling

African catfish/Mangur (Clarias gariepinus)

• Long cylindrical body, flat bony head.
• Introduced middle
• A broad terminal mouth.
of 1990s from India • 4 pairs of barbels.
• Dark grey or black coloration on the dorsal side, fading to a
white belly.
• The dorsal and anal fins are very long and without spines but
pectoral fins have spines.
• Caudal fins are rounded.
• Carnivorous but also shows omnivores feeding habit.
• It feeds on living as well as dead animal matter.
• It has air breathing labyrinthine organ (called rosette or air tree)
arising from gill arches.
• Survive in shallow, muddy water for long time
• 1st year- 1.5 to 2 kg and largest size attaines 20-30 kg.
• Seasonal breeder- sexual maturity in 1-2 years
• Artificial breeding is done by hypophysation.
• Breeding season – May to July (25-30 degree C).
80
• Docile and hardy fish for transportation and handling

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Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

• In 1988 from Japan • Elongated body and laterally compressed.

• High-valued cold fish • Rounded snout
• A member of Salmon • Upper side of the head is blue-green, yellow-green or almost
family brown.
• Native to the USA • Silvery body and marked with a bright pink blush to red band
and many black spots.
• The underside is silvery, white or grey to yellowish.
• Dorsal and caudal fins have radiating rows of black spots.
• Rainbow trout is highly carnivorous and a predators with a
varied diet.
• It feeds on animal matter like insects, mollusks, fish eggs and
small fishes etc.
• Needs high protein content feed for culture.
• Growth in the 1st year is 200- 300 g (marketable size in Nepal)
• Seasonal breeder- matured in 3-4 years.
• Artificial breeding is done by hypophysation.
• Breeding season – November to January (9-12 degree Celsius).
81

Pangas Catfish (Pangasius hypophthalmus)

• Native to the rivers of • Long body and laterally fattened with no scales.
South Asia • Head is relatively small.
• Unauthorized introduction • Eyes are relatively large.
to Nepal from India and
has been cultivating by • Two pairs of barbels are present, upper shorter than the lower.
farmers since few years. • Fins are dark grey or black.
• Gill rakers are normally developed.
• Large adults are uniformly grey and lack the stripping.
• The sides are silvery in colour.
• Adipose fin present
• It is omnivorous and the diet mainly consists of crustaceans,
other fish, and plant matter.
• Grows better in the temperature range – 25-30 degree Celsius.
• Growth in 30 cm max. published weight: 44.0 kg.
• Seasonal breeder- matured in 2-3 years.
• Artificial breeding is done by hypophysation.
• Breeding season – April – July (25-28 degree Celsius).
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Freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)

• Not real fish but are
crustaceans. • Five pairs of legs on the main part of the
• They live in fresh water but body.
larval stages require
brackish water to survive. • Stalked eyes and two pairs of antennae.
• Body size 32 cm, and female grows to 25
cm.
• Omnivores and bottom feeder.

83

Group Presentation (2-3 mins)

• Literature – 3 to 5 no.
• Max slides – 8 no.
Content
• Background
• Natural Habitats
• Cultured in Aquaculture
• Breeding and growth rate
• fish density/ production/oxygen requirement/ feed efficiency/production period for attaining
1 kg
• Transportation and handling of fish
• Market values
• Major challenges in farming

84

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85

Rice-fish culture in the hills and valleys

• Introduced in the 1960s in Nepal.
• In spite of its potential, this practice has not taken off. In 2002/2003 this
practice yielded 87 tonnes from an area covering 218 ha.
• Fish culture in the marginal agricultural land along irrigated areas, ditches,
flood plains, swamps etc. has recently been developed to utilize these areas
through increased participation of rural targeted communities in managing
the resource for production.
• An extensive system of carp polyculture practice has been adopted in these
areas.

86

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Cage fish culture

• In lakes and reservoirs with herbivorous carps
(major species: silver carp and bighead carp) in
the 1970s was initiated with the support of
FAO/UNDP and later the International
Development Research Center (IDRC) Canada.
• Carp polyculture in lake enclosures has been
developed as a popular aquaculture activity. It
has further underlined the potential role of lakes
for increasing fish production.

87

Nylon or polythene cage

• 50 m square of cases are used as they are easy to
handle and highly portable
• Mesh size ~ 25 mm
• These types of cage are mounted bamboo frame
which maintains the structure for floating.
• Silver Carp and bighead carp are popular for culture
in cages.
• Occasionally, Rahu is also stocked with silver and
bighead carp.

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Construction of pond
• Optimum pond size is about 1000 to 2000 m sq. of pond

Feed Requirements for fish farming

• Usually, aquaculture systems in Nepal have relied on carp polyculture in
earthen ponds which could run relying mainly on natural food without much
supplemental feeding particularly in the light of the low stocking density.
• Cereals and the availability of mill by-products including broken rice, rice
bran, wheat flour, maize bran and wheat bran, corn in addition to mustard
oil cake, meat meal, soybean cake, fish meal and bone meal are common
feeds for fish farming.
89

Trends, Issues And Development

• Fish culture in gholes was developed as a popular livelihood improving
system for the rural targeted community and poverty focused production
system.
• The production estimate (DOFD, 2005) from this culture was reported to be
20 tonnes in 1992/1993, reached 1254 tonnes in 2002/2003 and 1 519
tonnes in 2003/2004.
• This tremendous increase in production clearly indicates the significant
usefulness and popularity of the system.
• Major issues:
• Technological and input management problems
• The conversion of paddy fields into fish ponds.
• Environmental pollution due to spillover, nutrient leaching.
90
FAO 2022. https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/countrysector/np/en

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Cultured Species
• Three indigenous major carps (rohu - Labeo rohita , catla - Catla catla and
mrigal - Cirrhinus mrigala ) are already included in the country's aquaculture
production systems.
• The commercial production of three high-value indigenous cold water fish
species: asala (Schizothorax spp.), katle (Acrossochielus spp.) and mahseer
(Tor spp.) are envisioned.
• In addition to these indigenous fish species, exotic species such as rainbow trout
( Oncorhynchus mykiss ), common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ), and three species of
Chinese carps (grass carp - Ctenopharyngodon idellus , silver carp -
Hypophthalmicthys molitrix and bighead carp - Aristichthys nobilis ) of
commercial value have over the years been introduced into the country for
production.
• Recently, Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus ), Java barb (Barbonymus
gonionotus ) and giant river prawn ( Machrobrachium rosenbergii ) have been
introduced. 91

Integrated aquaculture systems

• Aquaculture system combing polyculture of carp in ponds with livestock
(pigs and ducks) and horticulture was introduced several years ago to
utilize optimum levels of pond productivity and waste utilization for
increased production.
• The method has bot been successfully expanded on a larger scale due to
management complexities

92

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Harvesting and Marketing of Fish

• High demand than production.
• Harvesting of fish must be organized so that fish farmers do not compete with each
other, especially in the areas having low market capacity.
• Marketing and trade- Low per capita consumption compared to neighboring
countries despite increasing trend.
• The domestic fish production is not sufficient to meet the domestic demand and
there is a significant import from neighboring countries each year.
• Few rainbow trout farms limiting the supply.
• Market system comprises wholesale market, retail market, and fish retail markets
(Gupta & Gupta, 2008).
• As of 2017, there were 1681 markets registered for fish selling and 22,406 farmer’s
pond sites, and 69 live fish selling stalls for the selling of live fish in Nepal
(NFS, 2017).
• The national GDP of Nepal in 2019 was 30.64 billion USD, of which agriculture
and aquaculture share 24.3% (World Bank, 2020,a). 93

Issues and challenges in fish farming

• Fisheries development policy-
• Increased production through intensified,
commercialized and diversified operations,
appropriate management and conservation of
indigenous fish species, and an improved
marketing network for fresh fish by using
appropriate post-harvest techniques.
• Major problems:
• Health and diseases control: Several external and
internal parasites have been observed- no serious
mortality experiences. Common diseases are:
Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome, followed by
trichodiniasis, fin rot, gill rot, coccidiosis, white
spots, argulosis and dropsy.
• Prophylactic measures are considered the best
method to present this occurrence. 94

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Major problems….
• Lack of sustainable fingerlings supply systems.
• Not enough infrastructure present- No fish-processing factory to produce
meat from all the fish and lacks essential machinery and infrastructure.
• Sensitive to Manage: A slight mistake could result in degenerated fish
growth or even death which can cause massive revenue loss
• Demand-supply gap: about 40% of the demand from the consumers and
the majority of the fish sold in the local market.
• Fish is Priced High- Due to production cost, fish produced from the farm is
priced higher compared to those caught from rivers and ponds by fishermen.

95

Fish Marketing Problems

• Lack marketing infrastructure and marketing facilities.
• Lack of all-weathered roads connecting fish producing areas with assembly
markets and consumption centers
• Absence of cold storage facilities or chilling rooms for holding the harvest and
regulate supply
• Absence of insulated vehicles to prevent spoilage during sales
• Long marketing channel
• Lack of transportation, fish diseases,
• Lack of financial facilities
• Lack of research about fish marketing, unhygienic storing condition
• Lack of specialized fish marketing manpower and lack of adequate marketing
infrastructure
• Lack of varieties of fish products 96

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Contribution To The Economy

• The value of fish as a supply of high quality protein has further emphasized
its important role in the food security of the country.

A strategy to reduce poverty is the main guiding criterion in the execution

of the 15th Five Year Plan in the country (2020-2023).
• Cage fish culture and enclosure fish culture are also rural targeted
community based programmes and contribute significantly to poverty
alleviation.
• Programmes have recently been developed to involve small-scale rural
targeted communities in fish seed nursing activities as additional livelihood
opportunities.
97

NPC 2020
98

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NPC 2020 99

Promotion and management of the sector

• The Institutional Framework
• The fisheries development programme is one of the important commodity programmes of the
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development.
• It is carried out through the Directorate of Fisheries Development of the Department of
Agriculture under the Ministry.
• The Directorate of Fisheries Development is the commodity specific national focal body.
It is responsible for central level policy issues, planning and programming, monitoring
and supervision, etc. It also coordinates with national and international institutions with
focus on research, marketing, credit, input supply, etc.
• The Directorate does its work through the following major institutional set up: the
National Inland and Aquaculture Development Programme responsible for pilot
initiatives and execution, database and feasibility, monitoring and coordination, etc.
• Central Fisheries Laboratory responsible for technology management, support services,
database, monitoring and coordination, etc.
• Fisheries Development and Training Centre responsible for training and awareness,
input supply, technical support services and monitoring, etc.
• Fisheries Development Centres responsible as resource centres - bottom/bridge set up
of the central institution with local governance for policy coordination, local resource
utilization, input supply, technical support services, supervision and monitoring, etc. 100

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Promotion and management of the sector

• Other institutions involved in fisheries development activities and their
major functions are:
• Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC),
• Fisheries Research Division (FRD) for aquaculture and fisheries research.
• Tribhuwan University for education and scientific research.
• NAST for scientific research.
• Nepal Fisheries Society for technical partnership.
• Fish Growers Association for enhanced production and promotion.
• Other Line Agencies for support and coordination.
• Agriculture Development Bank for credit facilities and services.
101

Monosex fish production

• Sex control is desirable for aquaculture development as some fishes have
superior sex specific growth rate where one sex of fish grows faster than the
other.
• The important example is tilapia where males grow faster than the females.
• Himalayan golden Mahseer, the females grow faster than males.
• Sex control is also important for population control particularly in those fish
species:
• which are prolific breeders and adversely affect the productions as overcrowding causes
stunting.
• specific attractive colouration and body forms may also attract aquaculturists for utilizing the
sex manipulation technologies in aquarium trade.
• In addition, many exotic fish species are potential candidate species of aquaculture but are
associated with some adverse ecological impacts i.e., invasiveness.
• Therefore, application of monosex/sterile fish production technique is carried out
for ecological safety also i.e., it prevents the introduced fish species from
breeding in wild even if it escapes from the farm facilities. 102

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Monosex fish production

1. Surgical gonadectomy is of no use for commercial purpose.
2. Induction of autoimmunity of gonads. Certain steroids as estradial- 17B in high
doses and methyl testosterone inhibit spermatogenesis in the trout.
3. Irradiation of embryonic or fry stage to induce. Sterility of gonad.
3. Hybridization secure sterile hybrid in many fishes.
4. Chromosomal manipulation for production of polyploidy. They are sterile as
normal meiosis is prevented. Only auto diploid and like-forms can be fertile.

103

Monosex fish production: Commercially feasible

• By sex reversal (Genetic make up). Both way reversal is possible in fish,
from genetically make to phenotypically female (feminization) and from
female to male (masenlinization). This is possible because the gonad in
early stage has potentiality to become either testes or overly like other
"vertebrate”. But the genetic complement of gametes is not changed. An
important method of sex reversal is the introduction of exogenous sex
hormones that over rides the endogenous hormones. Such hormones are
administered through breeding of hormone incorporated diet to the early
developing masculinization or feminization. Production of sex reversal male
is easier as methyl testerone and synthetic androgen (ethylocyl testosterone)
are reported to induce musculinization producing all male population.

104

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Ducks farming
• Duck farming in Nepal is an agricultural occupation of plain region for
home use to produce egg and meat.
• Nowadays Duck farming popularity increasing in plain and hilly region
also.
• Commercial duck farming in the country is going popular between farmers.
They maintained duck farm and fish farm at the same place.
• Duck farming stared in Nepal since 1970 as an alternative of chicken.
• Duck farming is a best source to generating income in rural areas of Nepal.
• 3 categories of breeds
A) Egg-type
B) Meet-type
105
C) Ornamental-type

Advantages of duck farming

1. Lay more eggs per year than chicken
2. Egg is larger than hen by about 15 to 20 gms
3. Require less attention and thrive wee in scavenging conditions
4. Have longer profitable life.
5. Don’t require any elaborate houses like chicken.
6. Resistant to common avian diseases.
7. Lay eggs morning before 9:00 am. Thus saving lot of time and labour.
8. Suitable for integrated farming systems such as duck-cum-fishing, duck
farming with rice cultivation.

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Thank you

107

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