MEMORY

Def
ini
ti
on:
Thepr
ocessbywhi
chweencode,
stor
e,andr
etr
iev
einf
ormat
ion.

• Encodi
ngr
efer
stot
het
ransl
ati
onofi
ncomi
ngst
imul
usi
ntoauni
queneur
al
codet
hataper
son’
sbr
aincanpr
ocess.

• St
oragei
sther
etent
ionoft
hemat
eri
alencodedov
eraper
iodoft
ime.

• Ret
ri
evali
sther
ecov
eryoft
hest
ored orr
etai
ned i
nfor
mat
ionatal
ater
occasi
on.

Cl
assi
cal
Appr
oach:
Atki
nsonShi
ff
ri
nModel
(1968)
• Sensor
ymemor
y:Thei
nit
ial
,moment
aryst
orageofi
nfor
mat
ion,l
ast
ingonl
y
ani
nst
ant
.
• Shor
t-
ter
m memor
y:Memor
ythathol
dsi
nfor
mat
ionf
or15t
o25secondsand
st
oresi
taccor
dingt
oit
smeani
ngr
athert
hanasmer
esensor
yst
imul
ati
on.
• Long-
ter
m memor
y:Memor
ythatst
oresi
nfor
mat
iononar
elat
ivel
yper
manent
basi
s,al
thoughi
tmaybedi
ff
icul
ttor
etr
iev
e.
SENSORYMEMORY

• Amoment
aryf
lashofl
i
ght
ning,
thesoundofat
wigsnappi
ng,
andt
hest
ingof
api
n-pr
ickal
lrepr
esentst
imul
ati
onofexceedi
ngl
ybr
iefdur
ati
on,butt
hey
maynonet
hel
esspr
ovi
dei
mpor
tanti
nfor
mat
iont
hatcanr
equi
rear
esponse.
• Suchst
imul
iar
eini
ti
all
yandf
orashor
tti
mear
est
oredi
nsensor
ymemor
y,
t
hef
ir
str
eposi
tor
y(wher
einf
ormat
ioni
sst
oredandf
ound)oft
hei
nfor
mat
ion
t
hewor
ldpr
esent
stous.
• Ther
ear
esev
eralt
ypesofsensor
ymemor
ies,eachr
elat
edt
oadi
ff
erent
sour
ceofsensor
yinf
ormat
ion.
• I
coni
cmemor
yref
lect
sinf
ormat
ionf
rom t
hev
isualsy
stem.Last
slesst
hana
second.
• Echoi
cmemor
yst
oresaudi
tor
yinf
ormat
ioncomi
ngf
rom t
heear
s.Fades
wi
thi
n2-
3seconds.
• I
naddi
ti
on,
ther
ear
ecor
respondi
ngmemor
iesf
oreachoft
heot
hersenses.
• Sensor
ymemor
ycanst
orei
nfor
mat
ionf
oronl
yav
eryshor
tti
me.
• I
finf
ormat
iondoesnotpassi
ntoshor
t-
ter
m memor
y,i
tisl
ostf
orgood.
• Despi
tet
hebr
iefdur
ati
onofsensor
ymemor
y,i
tspr
eci
sioni
shi
gh:Sensor
y
memor
ycanst
oreanal
mostexactr
epl
i
caofeachst
imul
ust
owhi
chi
tis
exposed.
• Geor
geSper
li
ng(
1960)exper
iment–l
ett
ers/l
ett
erswi
thsound.
• I
n sum,sensor
y memor
y oper
ates as a ki
nd ofsnapshott
hatst
ores
i
nfor
mat
ion—whi
chmaybeofav
isual
,audi
tor
y,orot
hersensor
ynat
ure—f
or
abr
iefmomenti
nti
me.
• Buti
tisasi
feachsnapshot
,immedi
atel
yaf
terbei
ngt
aken,i
sdest
roy
edand
r
epl
acedwi
thanewone.
• Unl
esst
hei
nfor
mat
ioni
nthesnapshoti
str
ansf
err
edt
osomeot
hert
ypeof
memor
y,i
tisl
ost
.

SHORTTERM MEMORY

• Oncer
aw sensor
yst
imul
i
,af
termademeani
ngf
ulandmakesenseofi
tand
possi
blyr
etai
nit
,thei
nfor
mat
ionmustbet
ransf
err
edt
othenextst
ageof
 memor
y:shor
t-
ter
m memor
y.
• Shor
t-
ter
m memor
yist
he memor
yst
orei
n whi
ch i
nfor
mat
ion f
ir
sthas
meani
ng,
alt
hought
hemaxi
mum l
engt
hofr
etent
iont
her
eisr
elat
ivel
yshor
t.
• Thespeci
fi
cpr
ocessbywhi
chsensor
ymemor
iesar
etr
ansf
ormedi
ntoshor
t-
t
erm memor
iesi
snotcl
ear
.
• Somet
heor
ist
ssuggestt
hatt
hei
nfor
mat
ioni
sfi
rstt
ransl
atedi
ntogr
aphi
cal
r
epr
esent
ati
onsori
mages,andot
her
shy
pot
hesi
zet
hatt
het
ransf
eroccur
s
whent
hesensor
yst
imul
iar
echangedt
owor
ds.
• I
nfact
,thespeci
fi
camountofi
nfor
mat
iont
hatcanbehel
dinshor
t-
ter
m
memor
yhasbeeni
dent
if
iedassev
eni
tems,or“
chunks,
”ofi
nfor
mat
ion,wi
th
v
ari
ati
onsupt
opl
usormi
nust
wochunks.(
7∓2)
• Achunki
sameani
ngf
ulgr
oupi
ngofst
imul
ithatcanbest
oredasauni
tin
shor
t-
ter
m memor
y.
• Accor
ding t
o Geor
ge Mi
l
ler(
1956)
,a chunk can be i
ndi
vi
duall
ett
ers or
number
s,per
mit
ti
ngust
ohol
dasev
en-
digi
tphonenumber(
suchas226-
4610)i
nshor
t-
ter
m memor
y.
• Butachunkal
somayconsi
stofl
argercat
egor
ies,suchaswor
dsorot
her
meani
ngf
uluni
ts.
• Forexampl
e,consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngl
i
stof21l
ett
ers:
PBSFOXCNNABCCBSM TVNBC
PBSFOX CNN ABC CBSMTV NBC
• Chunkscanv
aryi
nsi
zef
rom si
ngl
elet
ter
sornumber
stocat
egor
iest
hatar
e
f
armor
ecompl
i
cat
ed.
• Thespeci
fi
cnat
ureofwhatconst
it
utesachunkv
ari
esaccor
dingt
oone’
spast
exper
ience.

Justhowbr
iefi
sshor
t-
ter
m memor
y?
• Mostpsy
chol
ogi
stsbel
i
evet
hati
nfor
mat
ioni
nshor
t-
ter
m memor
yisl
ost
af
ter15t
o25seconds—unl
essi
tist
ransf
err
edt
olong-
ter
m memor
y.

REHEARSAL

• Thet
ransf
erofmat
eri
alf
rom shor
t-t
olong-
ter
m memor
ypr
oceedsl
argel
yon
 t
hebasi
sofr
ehear
sal
,ther
epet
it
ionofi
nfor
mat
iont
hathasent
eredshor
t-
t
erm memor
y.
• Rehear
salaccompl
i
shest
wo t
hings.Fi
rst
,asl
ong ast
he i
nfor
mat
ion i
s
r
epeat
ed,
iti
smai
ntai
nedi
nshor
t-
ter
m memor
y.
• Mor
eimpor
tant
,howev
er,r
ehear
salal
l
owsust
otr
ansf
ert
hei
nfor
mat
ioni
nto
l
ong-
ter
m memor
y.
• Whet
hert
het
ransf
eri
smadef
rom shor
t-t
olong-
ter
m memor
yseemst
o
dependl
argel
yont
heki
ndofr
ehear
sal
thati
scar
ri
edout
.
• I
ncont
rast
,ift
hei
nfor
mat
ioni
nshor
t-
ter
m memor
yisr
ehear
sedusi
nga
pr
ocesscal
l
edel
abor
ati
ver
ehear
sal
,iti
smuchmor
eli
kel
ytobet
ransf
err
ed
i
ntol
ong-
ter
m memor
y.
• El
abor
ati
ver
ehear
saloccur
s when t
he i
nfor
mat
ion i
s consi
der
ed and
or
gani
zedi
nsomef
ashi
on.
• Theor
gani
zat
ionmi
ghti
ncl
udeexpandi
ngt
hei
nfor
mat
iont
omakei
tfi
tint
oa
l
ogi
calf
ramewor
k,l
i
nki
ngi
ttoanot
hermemor
y,t
urni
ngi
tint
oani
mage,or
t
ransf
ormi
ngi
tinsomeot
herway
.
Eg.
,Buy
ingv
eget
abl
esi
nagr
ocer
yst
ore.

Mnemoni
cs-or
gani
zat
ional
str
ategi
es
Ar
efor
malt
echni
quesf
oror
gani
zi
ngi
nfor
mat
ioni
nawayt
hatmakesi
tmor
e
l
i
kel
ytober
emember
ed.

LONG-
TERM MEMORY-TULVI
NGMODEL
• Mat
eri
alt
hatmakesi
tswayf
rom shor
t-
ter
m memor
ytol
ong-
ter
m memor
y
ent
ersast
orehouseofal
mostunl
i
mit
edcapaci
ty.
• Thedi
sti
nct
ionbet
weenshor
t-andl
ong-
ter
m memor
yisal
sosuppor
tedby
heser
t ialposi
ti
onef
fect
,inwhi
cht
heabi
l
ityt
orecal
linf
ormat
ioni
nal
i
st
dependsonwher
eint
hel
i
stani
tem appear
s.
• Fori
nst
ance,of
tenapr
imacyef
fectoccur
s,i
nwhi
chi
temspr
esent
edear
lyi
n
al
i
star
eremember
edbet
ter
.
• Ther
ei soar
sal ecencyef
fect
,inwhi
chi
temspr
esent
edl
atei
nal
i
star
e
r
emember
edbest
Memor
yModul
es(
Component
s)
• Decl
arat
ivememor
yismemor
yforf
act
uali
nfor
mat
ion:names,f
aces,dat
es,
andf
act
s,suchas“
abi
kehast
wowheel
s.”
• Pr
ocedur
almemor
y(ornondecl
arat
ivememor
y)r
efer
stomemor
yforski
l
ls
andhabi
ts,
suchashowt
ori
deabi
keorhi
tabasebal
l
.
• I
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hingsi
sst
oredi
ndecl
arat
ivememor
y;i
nfor
mat
ionabout
howt
odot
hingsi
sst
oredi
npr
ocedur
almemor
y

DECLARATI
VEMEMORY

Semant
icMemor
yandEpi
sodi
cMemor
y
• Semant
icmemor
yismemor
yforgener
alknowl
edgeandf
act
saboutt
he
wor
ld,aswel
lasmemor
yfort
her
ulesofl
ogi
cthatar
eusedt
odeduceot
her
f
act
s.
• Becauseofsemant
icmemor
y,wer
emembert
hatMumbaii
sont
he
Ar
abi hatmemor
anSea,andt eei
sthei
ncor
rectspel
l
ingofmemor
y.
Thus,
semant
icmemor
yissomewhatl
i
keament
alal
manacoff
act
s.

Decl
arat
iveMemor
y

• Epi
sodi
cmemor
yismemor
yforev
ent
sthatoccuri
napar
ti
cul
art
ime,pl
ace,
orcont
ext
.
• Forexampl
e,r
ecal
lofl
ear
ningt
ori
deabi
ke,orar
rangi
ngasur
pri
sebi
rt
hday
par
tyi
sbasedonepi
sodi
cmemor
ies.
• Epi
sodi
cmemor
iesr
elat
etopar
ti
cul
arcont
ext
s.
• Forexampl
e,r
emember
ing when and how wel
ear
nedwoul
dbean
epi
sodi
cmemor
y
Autobi
ogr
aphi
calmemor
iesOurr
ecol
l
ect
ionsofci
rcumst
ancesandepi
sodesf
rom
ourownli
ves.

CONTEMPORARYAPPROACHES

Al
anBaddel
ey’
sWor
kingMemor
y

Asetofact
ive,t
empor
arymemor
yst
orest
hatact
ivel
ymani
pul
ateandr
ehear
se
i
nfor
mat
ion.

I
nthi
svi
ew,shor
t-
ter
m memor
yisl
i
keani
nfor
mat
ion-
processi
ngsy
stem t
hat
managesbot
hnew mat
eri
algat
her
edf
rom sensor
ymemor
yandol
dermat
eri
al
t
hathasbeenpul
l
edf
rom l
ong-
ter
m st
orage.

Wor
kingmemor
yist
houghtt
ocont
aina cent
ralexecut
ive pr
ocessort
hati
s
i
nvol
vedi
nreasoni
nganddeci
sionmaki
ng.
Thecent
ralexecut
ivecoor
dinat
est
hreedi
sti
nctst
orage-
and-
rehear
salsy
stems:
hev
t isualst
ore,
thev
erbalst
ore, heepi
andt sodi
cbuf
fer
.

Thev
isualst
orespeci
ali
zesi
nvi
sualandspat
iali
nfor
mat
ion,wher
east
hev
erbal
st
orehol
dsandmani
pul
atesmat
eri
alr
elat
ingt
ospeech,
wor
ds,
andnumber
s.
Theepi
sodi
cbuf
fercont
ainsi
nfor
mat
iont
hatr
epr
esent
sepi
sodesorev
ent
s.

 Wor
kingmemor
yper
mit
sust
okeepi
nfor
mat
ioni
nanact
ivest
atebr
ief
ly
sot
hatwecandosomet
hingwi
tht
hei
nfor
mat
ion.

 Fori
nst
ance,weusewor
king memor
ywhen we’
redoi
ng a mul
ti
step
ar
it
hmet
icpr
obl
em i
nourheads,
stor
ingt
her
esul
tofonecal
cul
ati
onwhi
l
e
get
ti
ngr
eadyt
omov
etot
henextst
age.
(
Imakeuseofmywor
kingmemor
ywhenIf
igur
ea20%t
ipi
nar
est
aur
antby
f
ir
stcal
cul
ati
ng10%oft
het
otal
bil
landt
hendoubl
i
ngi
t.
)

• Al
though wor
king memor
y ai
ds i
nthe r
ecal
lofi
nfor
mat
ion,i
tuses a
si
gni
fi
cantamountofcogni
ti
ver
esour
cesdur
ingi
tsoper
ati
on.

• Thi
s can make us l
ess awar
e ofoursur
roundi
ngs—somet
hing t
hathas
i
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
ort
hedebat
eaboutt
heuseofcel
ltel
ephonesi
naut
omobi
l
es.

• St
resscan r
educet
heef
fect
ivenessofwor
king memor
ybyr
educi
ng i
ts
capaci
ty
PHONOLOGI
CALLOOP
Thi
sist
hesubsy
stem t
hati
sassumedt
ohol
ddi
gitsequencesf
ori
mmedi
ater
ecal
l
.
I
tisassumedt
ohav
etwobasi
ccomponent
s,at
empor
aryspeech-
rel
ated/
acoust
ic
st
oreandasubv
ocal
art
icul
ator
yrehear
sal
process.

Funct
ionoft
hephonol
ogi
cal
loop
Suppor
tst
heacqui
si
ti
onof
 l
anguage,pr
ovi
dingat
empor
arymeansofst
ori
ngnew
wor
ds,
whi
l
etheyar
econsol
i
dat
edi
nphonol
ogi
cal
LTM.

THEVI
SUOSPATI
ALSKETCHPAD
Cr
eat
eandmai
ntai
nvi
suali
magesoft
het
ypet
hatwemi
ghtf
orexampl
e,usei
n
at
tempt
ingt
oanswerquest
ionssuchasi
ndescr
ibi
ngt
her
out
efr
om t
hest
ati
ont
o
home,
ort
hatanar
chi
tectmi
ghtuset
oimagi
neabui
l
dinghei
sdesi
gni
ng.

I
thasbeenshownt
hatspat
ialt
askscani
nter
fer
ewi
thspat
ialski
l
lssuchasdr
ivi
nga
car
,whi
l
eamor
epur
elyv
isualact
ivi
tysuchasseei
ngasequenceofpi
ctur
esor
col
ourpat
chesmayi
nter
fer
ewi
thcapaci
tyt
orememberobj
ect
sorshapes

THECENTRALEXECUTI
VE

Thi
sisassumedt
obeanat
tent
ionalcont
rolsy
stem ofl
i
mit
edpr
ocessi
ngcapaci
ty
t
hathast
her
oleofcont
rol
l
ingact
ion.Behav
iourt
hati
srout
ineandhabi
tuali
s
cont
rol
l
edaut
omat
ical
l
ybyar
angeofschemas,
wel
l
-lear
nedpr
ocessest
hatal
l
owus
t
orespondappr
opr
iat
elyt
otheenv
ironment
.
Anexper
ienceddr
iveronar
out
inet
ri
pwoul
dbeagoodexampl
eoft
his,
somet
imes
ar
ri
vi
ngatt
hedest
inat
ionwi
thnomemor
yoft
hej
our
ney
. 

THEEPI
SODI
CBUFFER

Thi
swasassumedt
obeat
empor
aryst
oreofl
i
mit
edcapaci
tyt
hatwascapabl
eof
combi
ningar
angeofdi
ff
erentst
oragedi
mensi
ons,
all
owi
ngi
ttocol
l
atei
nfor
mat
ion
f
rom per
cept
ion,
from t
hev
isuospat
ial
andv
erbal
subsy
stemsandLTM.
I
twasassumedt
odosobyr
epr
esent
ingt
hem asmul
ti
dimensi
onalchunksor
epi
sodes,whi
ch wer
e assumed t
o be av
ail
abl
eto 
consci
ous 
awar
eness.The
capaci
tyt
o bi
nd a r
ange ofsepar
ate sensor
ychannel
sint
othe per
cept
ion of
i
ntegr
atedobj
ect
sisof
tenr
egar
dedasani
mpor
tant
 f
unct
ionofconsci
ousness 

FORGETTI
NG:
WhenMemor
yFai
l
s

• Oner
easoni
sthatwemaynothav
epai
dat
tent
iont
othemat
eri
ali
nthef
ir
st
pl
ace—af
ail
ureofencodi
ng.
• Theot
herr
easonf
ormemor
yfai
l
urei
sthatonepr
obabl
ynev
erencodedt
he
i
nfor
mat
ioni
ntol
ong-
ter
m memor
yini
ti
all
y.
• I
finf
ormat
ionwasnotpl
acedi
nmemor
ytost
artwi
th,t
her
eisnowayt
he
i
nfor
mat
ioncanber
ecal
l
ed.
• Decayi
sthel
ossofi
nfor
mat
iont
hroughnon-
use.
• Thi
sexpl
anat
ionf
orf
orget
ti hatmemor
ngassumest ytr
aces,t
hephy
sical
changest
hatt
akepl
acei
nthebr
ainwhennewmat
eri
ali
slear
ned,
simpl
yfade
awayov
ert
ime

• Of
tent
her
eisnor
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenhowl
ongagoaper
sonwasexposedt
o
i
nfor
mat
ionandhowwel
lthati
nfor
mat
ioni
srecal
l
ed.
• Becausedecaydoesnotf
ull
yaccountf
orf
orget
ti
ng,
memor
yspeci
ali
stshav
e
pr
oposedanaddi
ti
onal
mechani
sm:
int
erf
erence.

• I
nter
fer
ence-Thephenomenonbywhi
chi
nfor
mat
ioni
nmemor
ydi
srupt
sthe
r
ecal
lofot
heri
nfor
mat
ion.

• I
ndecay
,theol
dbooksar
econst
ant
lycr
umbl
i
ngandr
ott
ingaway
,leav
ing
r
oom f
ornewar
ri
val
s.
• I
nter
fer
encepr
ocessessuggestt
hatnew booksknockt
heol
donesof
fthe
shel
f,wher
etheybecomei
naccessi
ble.

• Cue-
dependentf
orget
ti
ng:For
get
ti
ngt
hatoccur
swhent
her
ear
einsuf
fi
cient
r
etr
iev
alcuest
oreki
ndl
einf
ormat
iont
hati
sinmemor
y.
 E.
g.:sear
chi
ngf
orl
ostkey
sandt
aki
ngawal
kthr
ought
orememberwhi
chal
l
pl
acesonev
isi
tedi
nor
dert
ofor
mret
ri
eval
cues.
• Mostr
esear
chsuggest
sthati
nter
fer
enceandcue-
dependentf
orget
ti
ngar
e
keypr
ocessesi
nfor
get
ti
ng(
Mel
’
nikov
,1993;Bower
,Thompson,&Tul
vi
ng,
1994)
.
• Wef
orgett
hingsmai
nlybecausenewmemor
iesi
nter
fer
ewi
tht
her
etr
iev
alof
ol
donesorbecauseappr
opr
iat
eret
ri
evalcuesar
eunav
ail
abl
e,notbecause
t
hememor
ytr
acehasdecay
ed.
Pr
oact
iveandRet
roact
iveI
nter
fer
ence:
TheBef
oreandAf
terofFor
get
ti
ng

Pr
oact
ivei
nter
fer
ence:I
nter
fer
encei
nwhi
chi
nfor
mat
ionl
ear
nedear
li
erdi
srupt
sthe
r
ecal
lofnewermat
eri
al.
Exampl
e:Suppose,
asast
udentoff
orei
gnl
anguages,
youf
ir
stl
ear
nedFr
ench
i
nthe10t
hgr
ade,andt
heni
nthe11t
hgr
adey
out
ookSpani
sh.Wheni
nthe
12t
hgr
adey
out
akeacol
l
egeachi
evementt
esti
nSpani
sh,y
oumayf
indy
ou
hav
edi
ff
icul
tyr
ecal
l
ingt
heSpani
sht
ransl
ati
onofawor
dbecauseal
lyoucan
t
hinkofi
sit
sFr
enchequi
val
ent
.

Ret
roact
ivei
nter
fer
ence-I
nter
fer
encei
nwhi
cht
her
eisdi
ff
icul
tyi
nther
ecal
lof
i
nfor
mat
ionl
ear
nedear
li
erbecauseofl
aterexposur
etodi
ff
erentmat
eri
al.
Exampl
e,y
ouhav
edi
ff
icul
tyonaFr
enchachi
evementt
estbecauseofy
our
mor
erecentexposur
etoSpani
sh,
ret
roact
ivei
nter
fer
encei
sthecul
pri
t

• One wayt
oremembert
he di
ff
erence bet
ween pr
oact
ive and r
etr
oact
ive
i
nter
fer
encei
stokeepi
nmi
ndt
hat
• Pr
o-act
ivei
nter
fer
ence,
thepasti
nter
fer
eswi
tht
hepr
esent
• Wher nr
easi et
ro-act
ivei
nter
fer
ence,
thepr
esenti
nter
fer
eswi
tht
hepast

St
rat
egi
est
oimpr
ovememor
y

1. METHODOFLOCI

Thewor
d l
oci
 
ist
hepl
ural
for
m oft
hewor
d l
ocus 
(i
.e.
,l
ocat
ion)
Themet
hodofl
ocii
nvol
vesament
alst
rat
egyofi
magi
ningonesel
fpl
aci
ngi
tems
ar
oundar
oom

2.PEGWORDMETHOD

• Amnemoni
ctechni
quet
hatr
eli
esonknowi
nga10-
it
em r
hymet
oassoci
ate
10number
swi
th10“
peg”obj
ect
s.
• Av
isual
imaget
oassoci
ateeachi
tem wi
tht
hecor
respondi
ng“
peg”obj
ect
.

3.USETHEKEYWORDTECHNI
QUE
Anyt
wopi
ecesofi
nfor
mat
ioncanbel
i
nkedt
oget
heri
none’
smemor
yusi
ngt
his
met
hod
Forexampl
e,t
olear
ntheSpani
shwor
df pat
orduck( o, onouncedpot
pr -o)

4.ASSOCI
ATI
ONTECHNI
QUE

• Connect
sthei
temsori
deast
oremembert
ovi
sual
theme.
• Connect
sthenewi
nfor
mat
iont
orememberwi
thexi
sti
ngi
nfor
mat
iont
hatone
al
readyknows.

5.I
MAGERY

• Cr
eat
espi
ctur
esi
nmi
nd.
• Thr
oughsy
mbol
s,met
aphor
sanddet
ail
eddescr
ipt
ions.

6.ENCODI
NGSPECI
FICI
TY

• I
sapr
inci
plet
hatst
atest
hathumanmemor
iesar
emor
eeasi
l
yret
ri
evedi
f
ext
ernalcondi
ti
ons(
emot
ionalcues)att
het
imeofr
etr
iev
alar
esi
mil
art
o
t
hosei
nexi
stenceatt
het
imet
hememor
ywasst
ored.
E.
g.r
emember
ingt
hepoi
ntsorcont
entbasedont
hepagei
twasonor
r
ecal
l
ingt
hepl
acei
nwhi
cht
hatcont
entwasst
oredi
n.

7.SPEEDREADI
NG
I
sthepr
ocessofr
api
dlyr
ecogni
zi
ngandabsor
bingphr
asesorsent
encesonapage
al
latonce,
rat
hert
hani
dent
if
yingi
ndi
vi
dual
wor
ds.

SELFSTUDYTOPI
C:

LEVELSOFPROCESSI
NG THEORY:

Def
ini
ti
on:Thet
heoryofmemor
ythatemphasi
zest
hedegr
eet
owhi
chnewmat
eri
al
i
smentall
yanal
ysed.

 I
tsuggest
sthatt
heamountofi
nfor
mat
ionpr
ocessi
ngt
hatoccur
swhen
mat
eri
ali
sini
ti
all
yencount
eredi
scent
rali
ndet
ermi
ninghow muchoft
he
i
nfor
mat
ioni
sul
ti
mat
elyr
emember
ed.
 Accor
ding t
othi
s appr
oach,t
he dept
h ofi
nfor
mat
ion pr
ocessi
ng dur
ing
exposur
eto mat
eri
al—meani
ng t
he degr
ee t
o whi
ch i
tis anal
ysed and
consi
der
ed—i
scr
it
ical
;thegr
eat
ert
hei
ntensi
tyofi
tsi
nit
ialpr
ocessi
ng,t
he
mor
eli
kel
ywear
etor
ememberi
t.
 Thet
heor
ysuggest
sthatt
her
ear
econsi
der
abl
edi
ff
erencesi
ntheway
sin
whi
chi
nfor
mat
ioni
spr
ocessedatv
ari
ousl
evel
sofmemor
y.Atshal
l
owl
evel
s,
i
nfor
mat
ioni
spr
ocessedmer
elyi
nter
msofi
tsphy
sicalandsensor
yaspect
s.
Forexampl
e,wemaypayat
tent
iononl
ytot
heshapest
hatmakeupt
hel
ett
ers
i
nt ddog.
hewor
 Atan i
nter
medi
atel
evelofpr
ocessi
ng,t
he shapes ar
etr
ansl
ated i
nto
meani
ngf
uluni
ts—i
nthi
scase,l
ett
ersoft
heal
phabet
.Thosel
ett
ersar
e
consi
der
edi
nthecont
extofwor
ds,andspeci
fi
cphonet
icsoundsmaybe
at
tachedt
othel
ett
ers.
 Att
hedeepestl
evelofpr
ocessi
ng,i
nfor
mat
ioni
sanal
ysedi
nter
msofi
ts
meani
ng.Wemayseei
tinawi
dercont
extanddr
aw associ
ati
onsbet
ween
t
hemeani
ngoft
hei
nfor
mat
ionandbr
oadernet
wor
ksofknowl
edge.

Fori
nst
ance,
wemayt
hinkofdogsnotmer
elyasani
mal
swi
thf
ourl
egsanda
t
ail
,butal
soi
nter
msoft
hei
rrel
ati
onshi
ptocat
sandot
hermammal
s.We
mayf
orm ani
mageofourowndog,t
her
ebyr
elat
ingt
heconceptt
oourown
l
i
ves.
 Accor
dingt
othel
evel
s-of
-pr
ocessi
ngappr
oach,t
hedeepert
hei
nit
iall
evelof
pr
ocessi
ngofspeci
fi
cinf
ormat
ion,
thel
ongert
hei
nfor
mat
ionwi
l
lber
etai
ned.
 Expl
i
citmemor
y-I
ntent
ional
orconsci
ousr
ecol
l
ect
ionofi
nfor
mat
ion.
 I
mpl
i
citmemor
yMemor
iesofwhi
chpeopl
ear
enotconsci
ousl
yawar
ebut
t
hatcanaf
fectsubsequentper
for
manceandbehav
iour
.
 Pr
imi
ngA phenomenoni
nwhi
chexposur
etoawor
dorconcept(
cal
l
eda
pr
ime)l
atermakesi
teasi
ert
orecal
lrel
atedi
nfor
mat
ion,ev
enwhent
her
eis
noconsci
ousmemor
yoft
hewor
dorconcept
.
 Fl
ashbul
b memor
ies Memor
ies cant
ered on a speci
fi
c,i
mpor
tant
,or
sur
pri
si
ngev
entt
hatar
esov
ivi
diti
sasi
ftheyr
epr
esent
edasnapshotoft
he
ev
ent
.

*
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*