SOIL PARTICLE 3.

Determine the cumulative mass of soil retained above

Soils generally are called gravel, sand, silt, or clay each sieve. For the ith sieve, it is M1+ M2 + Mi .
depending upon the size of the particle within the soil. 4. The mass of soil passing the ith sieve is ∑ M- (M1+
M2+...+ Mi ).
GRAVEL: According to ASTM D2487 5. The percent of soil passing the ith sieve (or percent
Gravel —particles of rock that will pass a 3-in. (75-mm) ∑ M −∑ M i
sieve and be retained on a No. 4 (4.75-mm) sieve. finer) is F=∑ (100)
Subdivision of Gravel ∑M
Coarse—passes 3-in. (75-mm) sieve and retained on
3⁄4-in. (19-mm) sieve Hydrometer Analysis
Fine—passes 3⁄4-in. (19-mm) sieve and retained on No. The hydrometer test uses Stokes law (for velocity of a
4 (4.75-mm) sieve. free-falling sphere in suspension) to determine the grain
size smaller than 0.075 mm (sieve No. 200). In
Sand hydrometer analysis, the soil passing the No. 200 sieve
Sand—particles of rock that will pass a is placed in suspension by use of stokes’ equation the
No. 4 (4.75- mm) sieve and be retained on a No. 200 equivalent particles size and percent of suspension are
(75-μm) U.S. standard sieve computed.
Subdivision of Sand A sphere falling freely through a liquid of infinite extent
Coarse—passes No. 4 (4.75-mm) sieve and retained on will accelerate rapidly to a certain maximum velocity and
No. 10 (2.00-mm) sieve, will continue at the velocity as long as conditions
Medium—passes No. 10 (2.00-mm) sieve and retained remains the same.
on No. 40 (425-μm) sieve, ρ S− ρ W 2
Fine—passes No. 40 (425-μm) sieve and retained on
v= (D )
18 ŋ
No. 200 (75-μm) sieve. Where: v = velocity of the particle
ρ S = density of soil particles
Silt
Silt—soil passing a No. 200 (75-μm) U.S. standard sieve ρw = density of water
that is nonplastic or very slightly plastic and that exhibits ŋ = viscosity of water
little or no strength when air dry. For classification, a silt D = diameter of soil particles
is a fine-grained soil, or the fine-grained portion of a soil, From the Stokes’ equation, rearranging the factors we
with a plasticity index less than 4 or if the plot of plasticity can get

√ √ √
index versus liquid limit falls below the “A” line 18 nv 18 n L
D= =
Clay ρ S −ρw ρ S− ρ w t
Clay—soil passing a No. 200 (75-μm) U.S. standard ρS γ S
sieve that can be made to exhibit plasticity (putty-like → ρS =GS ρW →G S= =
ρW γ W
properties) within a range of water contents and that
exhibits considerable strength when air dry. For Gs is the specific gravity of the soil particle and
classification, a clay is a fine-grained soil, or the fine defined as the ration of the unit weight of a given
grained portion of a soil, with a plasticity index equal to material to the unit weight of water. The expected value
or greater than 4, and the plot of plasticity index versus of Gs for different types of soils are:
liquid limit falls on or above the “A” line
Hydrometer Analysis
Types of tests Performed to Measure Table 1.4: Specific gravity of Soil.
Particle Size Type of Soil Gs Value
1. Mechanical Analysis (Sieve Analysis) - is the Sand 2.65 – 2.67
determination of the size range of particles present in Silty sand 2.67 – 2.70
soil expressed as percentage of the total dry weight. Inorganic clay 2.70 – 2.80
Consist of shaking the soil sample through a set of Soils with mica or iron 2.75 – 3.00
sieves that have progressively smaller openings. Organic soils < 2.00

2. Hydrometer Analysis – is based on the Stokes’ Law is applicable to spheres varying from
sedimentation of soil grains in water. When a soil 0.02mm to 0.0002mm in diameter.
specimen is dispersed in water, the soil particles settle a Inaccuracies for using the Stoke’s equation to determine
different velocities, depending on the shape and size of the particle size occur due to the following factors:
particles and the viscosity of water. Soil particles are not sphere
The fluid is not of infinite extent
Procedure for Sieve Analysis Turbulence caused by larger particles falling.
1. Determine the mass of soil retained on each sieve
(i.e., M1, M2, Mn) and in the pan (i.e., Mp). Gradation of Soil
2. Determine the total mass of the soil: M1+ M2+ Mi.. Gradation is a measure of the distribution of particle soil
+Mn +Mp=∑M sample.
Larger gradation means a wider particle size distribution
and soil can be classified as well graded, poorly graded
or ga[ graded.

Effective Size, D 10
D 10 represents a grain diameter for which 10% of the
sample will be finer than it. Using another word, 10% of
the sample by weight is smaller than diameter D 10 .

Hazen’s approximation (are empirical relation between

hydraulic conductivity with grain size). k ( cms )=c D 2

10

Where D 10 is in millimeters and c is constant varies from

1.0 – 1.5.

Uniformity Coefficient, Cu
D60
Cu=
D10
Where D 60 is the diameter for which 60% of the sample
is finer than D 60.
Apparently, larger Cu means the size distribution is wider
and vice versa. Cu = 1 means uniform, all grains are in
the same size, such as dune sands.

Coefficient of Curvature, Cc (Coefficient of

gradation, Cz)
2
D30
Cc=Cz=
D60 ( D10 )
All soil is to be well graded if the coefficient of gradation
Cc between 1 and 3 and Cu greater than 4 for gravel
and 6 for sands.

Sorting Coefficient, So
Another parameter for measuring uniformity used mostly
by geologists.

So=
√ D75
D25

The particle size distribution curve shows the type of

distribution of various sizes particles.
 This the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of
solids.
Vv
e=
Vs
Vv
Vv Vv V n
e= = = =
Vs V −Vv Vv 1−n
1−
V

WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP & RELATIVE

POROSITY (n)
DENSITY
This is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume
Phase Diagram Vv
n=
Soils are generally composed of three distinct phases. V
These are solids, water and air. The space occupied by Vv
water and air is defined as the void of the soil. The void Vv Vv Vs e
may be partially or wholly filled by water or air. A n= = = =
completely dry or completely saturated soil will have only V Vs+Vv Vv 1+ e
1+
two phases. Vs
Moisture Content or Water Content (ω)
The ratio of the mass of water to the mass of solids
Mw Ww
ω= =
Ms Ws
Degree of Saturation (S) – is the ratio of the volume of
water to the volume of the voids expressed as
percentage
Vw
S= (100)
Vv
V= Vs + Vv = Vs + Vw + Va
Definitions of Unit Weight types
It is convenient to assume the volume of to solid phase Unit Weight ( γ ) -the ratio of the total weight to the total
is unity (1) without lose generality. volume. It can also be called total unit weight, moist unit
weight, bulk unit weight, wet unit weight.

[ ]
M = Ms + Mw Ww
W= Ws + Ww Ws 1+
W Ws+ Ww Ws Ws (1+ ω )
γ= = = =
V V V V

Dry Unit weight( γ d ) – the ratio of the weight of solid to

the total volume (S=0%)
Ws γ
γd = =
V 1+ω

Total Unit weight ( γ t ) - the ratio of the

total weight of solid to the total volume of
solid.

γ=γ t =
W Ws+Ww
= =
[
Ws 1+
Ws ) ]
( Ww
V V V
RELATIONSHIP OF PHASES
Ws(1+ ω)
VOID RATIO (e) γ=γ t =
V
 Ww=ωWs=ω GS γ W
Solid Unit weight ( γ S ) - the ratio of the unit weight of
solid to the volume of solid.
W Ws+ Ww GS γ W +ω G S γ W
Ws γ= = =
γ S = =G S γ W V V 1+e
Vs
( 1+w ) G S γ W
Water Unit Weight ( γ W ) - the ratio of weight of water to γ=
the volume of water 1+e
Ww
γW =
Vw Ws GS γ W
γd = =
V 1+ e

Ww Ww ω G S γ W
γW = → Vw= = =GsW
Vw γW γW
Saturated Unit weight ( γ SAT ) - the ratio of the total
weight to the total volume when S=100% Vw ωGs
W Ws +Ww S= =
γ Sat = = Vv e
V V
S ∙ e=ω ∙Gs
Gs+ Se “Structural Engineers = Whacky Guys”
γ Sat = ( γW )
1+ e
Ws +Ww Gs γ W +ω G S γ W
γ moist =γ= =
Submerged unit weight ( γ ¿) V 1+e
or buoyant unit weight ( γ b)
γ ¿ =γ Sat −γ W Gs+ Se
γ moist = (γ W )
1+ e
Mass Density (ρ) – the ratio of the total mass to the

( 1+ω
100 )
total volume.
M γ moist = γ d
ρ=
V
Specific Gravity (Gs) – the ratio of the unit weight of
solids to the unit weight of water.
γ S ρS
GS = =
γ W ρW
Relationship Among unit weight, e, w & Gs

RELATIVE DENSITY
The term relative density is commonly used to indicate
the in situ denseness or looseness of granular soil. It is
defined as

γ S =G S γ W , Vs=1 →Ws =Gs γ W

 The water contents define arbitrarily the boundary
between the four states of consistency, are referred to as
consistency limits or Atterberg Limit

ATTERBERG LIMITS & SOIL CONSISTENCY

Consistency of Soil
Soil consistency describes the degree and kind of
cohesion and adhesion between the soil particles as
related to the resistance of the soil to deform or rupture.
➢Since the consistency varies with moisture content,
the consistency can be described as dry consistency and
moist consistency
➢Consistency largely depends on soil minerals and the
water content.

Cohesion & Adhesion ATTERBERG LIMITS

➢ Cohesion is the attraction if one water molecule to Atterberg’s Limits are the limits of water content and
another resulting from hydrogen bonding (water-water important to describe the consistency of fine textured
bond) soils.
➢Adhesion is the attraction of water molecule to a non- Liquid Limit (LL) is the water content at which soil
water molecule (water-solid bond) begins to behave as a liquid material and begins to flow
(normally below 100)
Consistency also refers to the relative ease with which a Plastic Limit (PL) is the water content a which soil
soil mass can be deformed and is used to describe the begins to behave as a plastic material (normally below
degree of firmness of fine-grained soils for which 40)
consistency relates to a large content to water content Shrinkage Limit (SL) is the maximum water content at
which there is no reduction in volume of soil mass
accompanying reduction in water content.

Determination of Liquid Limit (in the lab)

In the lab, the LL is defined as the water content required
closing 2 mm wide groove in a soil sample for a distance
of 1⁄2 in (13 mm) after 25 blows (ASTM D4318)
 FLOW CURVE

The slope of the flow line is defined as

the flow index ( I F )

Determination of Plastic Limit (in the lab)

In the lab, the plastic limit (PL) is defined as the water
content at which the soil when rolled into threads of
3.3mm (1/8”) in diameter, will crumble. (ASTM D-43-18)
ATTERBERG INDICES
Plasticity Index – is the difference between the liquid
limit and the plastic limit of soil.
PI= LL – PL

Indicator of Swelling Potential

If the soil has PI>20, a soil is prone to shrink/swell.
Atterberg Limits and indices are used for soil
identification and classification.

Determination of Shrinkage Limit (in the lab)

In the lab, the moisture content, in percent, at which the
volume of soil mass ceases to change. (ASTM D-427)
Procedure of the test:
1. Prepare the soil sample;
2. Prepare the shrinkage limit dish about 44 mm
(1.75 mm) in diameter and about 12.7 mm (0.5 in) high.
The inside of the dish is coated with petroleum jelly and
is then filled with wet soil.
3. The mass of the wet soil inside the dish is recorded.
4. The soil pat in the dish is then-oven dried.
5. The volume of the oven-dried soil pat is determined by
the displacement of mercury.
SL= ωi(%) - ∆ω (%)
ωi= initial water content when the soil is placed in the
Liquidity index (LI) – defined as the ratio of natural water
shrinkage dish
content minus Plastic limit to Plasticity Index
∆ω = change in water content (that is, between the initial
water content and the water content at the shrinkage ω−PL
LI =
limit ¿−PL
ω= in situ water content
Indication of Stress History
If LI≥ 1, then the soil is probably normally consolidated
(the soil is currently experiencing its maximum load)
If LI < 1, the load is probably over-consolidated (the soil
experienced its greatest load in the past)

Indicator of Sensitivity
If a fine-grained soil has LI>1, it can be a good indicator
that the soil is sensitive.
Sensitive Soil-the disturbed (or remolded) shear strength
is more than 8x less than the undisturbed shear strength.

Consistency Index (CI) - it is the ratio of the Liquid limit

minus natural water content to the Plasticity Index
¿−ω ¿−ω US Department of Agriculture (USDA)
CI = = This classification method is based on the particle-size
PI ¿−PL
limits as described under the
USDA system:
Activity- is the slope of the line correlating PI and % finer
• Sand size: 2.0 to 0.05 mm in diameter
than 2μm.
• Silt size: 0.05 to 0.002 mm in diameter
• Clay size: smaller than 0.002 mm in diameter
PI Note that this chart is based on only the fraction of soil
A=
%of clay ¿ by weight that passes through the No. 10 sieve.

Indicator of Clay type: The presence of gravel, a correction or modification is

Kaolinite ≅ 0.4 necessary:
Illite ≅ 0.5-1.0 % of sand
Modification % of Sand=
Montmorillonite ≅ 1 – 5 100−% of gravel

% of Silt
Modification % of Silt=
100−% of gravel

% of Clay
Modification % of Clay=
100−% of gravel
AASHTO Classification
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials system
Reasons for classifying soil (For road construction)
➢Group soils with similar properties ❖AASHTO system of soil classification was developed
➢Facilitate communication in 1929;
➢Shorthand notation ❖The present AASHTO (1978) system is (AASHTO
M145);
Major Classification of Soil ❖The system divided the soils into 8 major groups: A-
1. The textural classification is based on the particle-size 1~A-7 (with several subgroups) and organic soils A-8;
distribution of the percent of sand, silt, and clay-size ❖ Soils classified under groups A-1, A-2, and A-3 are
fractions present in a given soil granular materials.
2. The other major category is based on the engineering ❖ Soils classified under groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7
behavior of soil and takes into consideration the particle-
are silt and clay.
size distribution and the plasticity (i.e., liquid limit and
plasticity index
 ➢Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in
nature with less than 50% passing through the No. 200
sieve.
➢Fine-grained soils that are silty and clayey in nature
with 50% or more passing through the No. 200 sieve.

GROUP INDEX, GI

The first term of Eq. (5.1)—that is, (F200 35)

[0.2+0.005(LL 40)]—is the partial group index
determined from the liquid limit. The second term—that
is, 0.01(F200-15)(PI-10)—is the partial group index
determined from the plasticity index. Following are some
rules for determining the group index:
1. If Eq. (5.1) yields a negative value for GI, it is taken as
0.
2. The group index calculated from Eq. (5.1) is rounded
off to the nearest whole number (for example, GI 3.4 is
rounded off to 3; GI 3.5 is rounded off to 4).
3. There is no upper limit for the group index.
4. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-
1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 is always 0.
5. When calculating the group index for soils that belong
to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the partial group index
for PI, or
GI =0.001(F200 −15)( PI −10)
In general, the quality of performance of a soil as a
subgrade material is inversely proportional to the group
index.
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (USCS)
➢The system was first developed by Prof. A.
Casagrande (1948) for the
United States Armey Corps of Engineers.
➢The method is standardized in ASTM D-2487 as
“Unifies Soil Classification Systems (USCS)
SOIL COMPACTION

COMPACTION
Compaction is the densification of soil by rearrangement
of soil particles without the outflow of water.
➢Compaction-Densification of soil by removing air from
voids using mechanical equipment;
➢The degree of compaction is measured in terms of its
dry unit weight

Why do we want a denser soil?

➢Higher soil strength
➢Less settlement
➢Lower permeability
➢Reduces liquefaction potential
➢Reduce wear and erosion

Principle of Compaction
➢The dry unit weight (γd) increases as the moisture
content increase to a point
➢The maximum dry unit weight (MDD) is corresponding
to the optimum moisture content (OMC),
➢Beyond OMC, any increase in moisture content tends
to reduce the dry unit weight.

Standard Proctor Test

➢The standard Proctor test was developed to simulate
field compaction in the lab.
➢The purpose of the test is to find the optimum water
content (OMC) and the maximum dry density (MDD),
➢ASTM (D-698) and AASHTO (T-99)

For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction, γ is:

W
γ=
Vm
Where W= the weight of compacted soil in the mold
Vm = volume of the mold
Equipment: The values of determined γd can be plotted against the
➢Mold of volume 944 cm 3 (1/30 ft 3), the diameter of the corresponding moisture contents to obtain the maximum
mold is 101.6 mm (4”), the soil sample is placed in three dry unit weight and the optimum moisture content for the
layers soil.
➢Hammer of weight 5.5 lb (2.49 kg) and drop distance
of 12” (305 mm); with 25 blows per layer
➢The compaction effort (energy) is 600 kN-m/m 3 (12400
lb-ft/ ft 3).

Modified Proctor Test

➢The modified Procter test was developed to simulate
Standard Proctor Test Procedure larger compaction effort for more serious loads and
1. Obtain 10 lbs of soil passing sieve No. 4; bigger equipment.
2. Record the weight of the proctor mold without the ➢ ASTM (D-1557) and AASHTO (T-180).
base and the (collar) extension;
3. Assemble the compaction apparatus; Modified Proctor Test Equipment
4. Place the soil in the mold in 3 layers and compact 1) Mold of volume 944 cm3 (1/30 ft3); the soil sample
using 25 well distributed blows of the Proctor hammer placed in five layers;
5. Remove the collar and the base without disturbing the 2) Hammer of weight 4.54 kg (10 lbs) and drop distance
soil sample to determine the weight of 457 mm (18 inch); with 25 blows/layer.
6. Take a sample (20-30) grams of soil to find the 3) The compaction effort (energy) is 2700 kN-m/m3
moisture content; (56000 lb-ft/ft3).
7. Place the remainder of the molded soil into the pan, 4) The same procedure used in standard Procter test
break it down, and thoroughly remix it with the other soil, except placing soil in five layers instead of three layers.
plus 100 additional grams of water.
Distinction between Standard Proctor Test and
For each test, the moisture content of the compacted Modified Proctor Test
soil is determined in the Lab., the dry unit weight is Standard Proctor Test Modified Proctor Test
γ γ 305 mm height of drop 450 mm height of drop
γd = ∨ 25 N hammer 45 N hammer
1+ ω ω ( %)
1+ 25 blows layer 25 blows/layer
100 3 Layers 5 Layers
Mould Size: 945 ml Mould Size: 945 ml
Energy 605160 N-mm per m3 Energy 2726000 N-mm per m3
 To obtain the variation of γ zav with moisture content, use
the following procedure:
1. Determine the specific gravity of soil solids.
2. Assume several values of w, such as 5%, 10%, 15%,
and so on.
3. Calculate γ zav for various values of ω
❖The compaction curve should lie to the left of the zero-
air-void curve.
❖As the water content is larger than the optimum value,
the void spaces become filled with water so further
compaction is not possible because water is
Effects of compaction effort on compaction curve incompressible fluid.

Properties of the Zero Air Void Curve

1. Roughly parallels to the wet-side of the compaction
curve
2. Roughly parallels the line of optimum
3. All compaction curves must be to the left of this line.

There are three factors affect compaction:

1 Moisture content;
2. Compaction effort;
3. Soil type and gradation

Effect of Moisture Content

Adding water to the soil during compaction acts as a
softening agent on the soil particles. The soil particles
• Increasing the energy applied to the soil gives: slip over each other and move into a densely packed
• Higher MDD ( γ d ) position.
• Lower OMC ➢ Add water gets better compaction.
➢A little more water - a little better compaction.
Zero-air-void-unit weight ( γ zav) ➢Even more water – Soil begins to flow.
For a given moisture content w and degree of saturation
S, the dry unit weight of compaction is: Effect of Compaction Effort (CE)
Gsγw The compaction effort can be calculated as follows:
γd =
1+ e
CE=
( ¿
layer )
blows
( ¿layers )( weight of hammer ) ( height of drops )
S e=Gs ω volume of mold

GS γ d As the compaction effort increased, γ d max is increased

γd = and the optimum moisture content decreased to some
GS ω extent
1+
S

For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum

dry unit weight is obtained when no air is in the void
spaces, i.e S = 100%.

GS γW γW
γ zav= =
1+GS ω 1
ω+
Gs
-pounded out all of the air in the voids, so the soil
becomes saturated.
 ➢Rammers can be used for effective compaction of
granular soils over a limited area.
Effect of Soil Type and Gradation Measurement of field compaction
The type of soil (grain-size distribution, shape of grains, In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is
Gs and amount and type of clay minerals) has a great instructed to achieve a compacted field dry unit weight of
influence on γ d max (MDD) and OMC 90 to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight determined in
➢fine grain soil needs more water to reach OMC; and the laboratory by either the standard or modified Proctor
test (Relative Compaction) and Water Content
➢coarse grain soil needs less water to reach OMC.
Tolerance.
Effects of Compaction on Engineering Properties
γ dfield
Relative Compaction=R= (100)
❑ Effects on Permeability γ max proctor
✓ Increased moisture content leads to decrease
permeability Relative Compaction , R ≠ Relative Density , D r
✓Best if ω is within about -1% to+3% of OMC
❑ Effects on Strength and Stiffness
Relative Compaction R=80+0.2 ( Dr )
✓ Increase moisture content leads to decrease strength
and stiffness
RELATIVE DENSITY
❑ Effect on Compressibility
For the compaction of granular soils, specifications
✓At lower pressures, wet side (dispersive) compresses sometimes are written in terms of the required density Dr
more or the required relative compaction. Relative Density
✓At higher pressures, dry side (flocculated) compressive should not be confused with relative compaction. It
more indicates the in-situ denseness or looseness of granular
❑Effect on Shrink/Swell Potential soil.
✓Increased moisture content leads to decreased swell emax −e field
potential and increased shrink potentials Dr =
e max −e min
Types of Compaction Equipment

Smooth Wheel Rollers or Smooth

Drum Rollers
➢ Are suitable for thin layers and for finishing
operations;
➢ Suitable for sandy and clayey soils;
➢ Provide 100% coverage;
➢ Ground contact pressure range (310-380) kN/m2.

Pneumatic Rubber-Tired Rollers

➢ Have a series of rubber tires side-by-side instead of a
smooth drum.
➢Compaction is achieved by a combination of weight
and kneading action. Suitable for sandy and clayey soils;
➢ Provide (70-80) % coverage;
➢ Ground contact pressure range (600-700) kN/m2.

Sheep foot Rollers

➢ Are drums with a large number of "sheep foot"
projections. They are most effective in compacting
clayey soils.
➢Most effective in clayey soils;
➢Ground contact pressure range (1400-7000) kN/m2.

Vibratory Rollers
➢Vibratory rollers work well in compacting granular
soils.
➢Vibratory action can be attached to the all types of
rollers

Ramming or Handheld Compactors