Effective Supervision Rapid Evidence Assessment

Effective supervision
Rapid evidence assessment

Karen Moreton, Jenny Kodz, Helen Fitzhugh, Jitka Smith and Ella White
Effective supervision: Rapid evidence assessment college.police.uk
© – College of Policing Limited (2022)
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April 2022 Page 2 of 123

Contents
Figures and tables.................................................................................................... 4
Executive summary.................................................................................................. 5
Background ........................................................................................................... 5
Findings ................................................................................................................ 6
Organisational support ....................................................................................... 6
Effective supervision .......................................................................................... 8
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................. 13
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 14
1.1 Background................................................................................................. 14
2. Methods ............................................................................................................. 16
2.1. Overview ..................................................................................................... 16
2.2. Review process .......................................................................................... 16
2.3. Search strategy ........................................................................................... 17
2.4. Screening.................................................................................................... 18
2.5. Criteria for inclusion of studies in the review ............................................... 19
2.6. Data management and extraction ............................................................... 21
2.7. Quality assessment..................................................................................... 21
2.8. Synthesis .................................................................................................... 22
2.9. Limitations................................................................................................... 23
2.9.1. Policing study quality .......................................................................... 23
3. Overview of evidence ....................................................................................... 24
3.1. Evidence flow.............................................................................................. 24
3.2. Characteristics of studies ............................................................................ 25
3.2.1. Policing studies ................................................................................... 25
3.2.2. Non-policing studies ........................................................................... 25
4. Findings ............................................................................................................. 27
4.1. Organisational support ................................................................................ 27
4.1.1. Culture and capacity ........................................................................... 28
4.1.2. Capability ............................................................................................ 35
4.1.3. Organisational support and processes................................................ 40
4.2. Effective supervision ................................................................................... 41
4.2.1. Acting as a role model ........................................................................ 42
4.2.2. Building effective relationships............................................................ 48
4.2.3. Communicating effectively .................................................................. 52

4.2.4. Demonstrating fairness and respect ................................................... 56

4.2.5. Supporting wellbeing........................................................................... 63
4.2.6. Supporting the delivery of good service .............................................. 69
4.2.7. Supporting professional discretion in decision making ....................... 75
5. Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 80
Appendices ............................................................................................................. 81
Appendix A: Tables of included studies .............................................................. 81
Appendix B: Search protocol ............................................................................ 103
Appendix C: Search strategy ............................................................................ 114
Appendix D: Screening process plus inclusion and exclusion criteria ............... 119
Appendix E: Quality assessment criteria........................................................... 121
Figures and tables

Figure 1. Review process for the REA. .................................................................... 17
Figure 2. Evidence flow. ........................................................................................... 24
Table 1. Summary of references contributing to section 4.1.1. ................................ 28
Table 10. Summary of references contributing to section 4.2.7. .............................. 75
Table A1. Policing-focused individual study references. .......................................... 81
Table A2. Systematic review and rapid evidence assessment references. .............. 99
Table A3: Search string 1: Police-specific AND wellbeing...................................... 114
Table A4: Search string 2: Other high-risk profession AND wellbeing. .................. 115
Table A5: Search string 3: Police-specific AND any of: professional development,
performance, staff performance, staff engagement or staff absence. .................... 116
Table A6: Search string 4: Other high-risk profession AND any of: professional
development, performance, staff performance, staff engagement or staff absence.
............................................................................................................................... 117

Executive summary
Background
This report presents the findings of a rapid evidence assessment (REA) on effective
supervision. The REA was conducted to inform the development of the College of
Policing’s national guidelines on effective supervision, to support the wellbeing,
learning and performance of everyone working and volunteering in the police
service. For the purpose of the guidelines, a supervisor is defined as anyone who
has management responsibility for one or more members of staff.
Recent analysis undertaken by the College identified insufficient supervision as one

of ten recurring and systemic problems where improvement is required. The work
demonstrated some of the underlying factors found to be contributing to this
problem, many of which were related to organisational or individual support to
facilitate effective supervisory practices. The guidelines sought to set out what forces
and supervisors should do to deliver effective supervision in forces.
To help ensure that the guidelines were based on the best available evidence,
reviews of the empirical evidence were carried out to address the following
questions:
 What constitutes effective supervision that enables and supports employees’

(police officers, staff and volunteers) wellbeing, learning and performance?
 What are the organisational requirements that need to be in place for supervisors
to enable and support employees’ (police officers, staff and volunteers) wellbeing,
learning and performance?
A systematic search of a wide range of databases and websites retrieved 13,192

references, which were screened based on agreed inclusion criteria and assessed
for quality and relevance. Of these, 71 studies were included in the review. A further
seven studies were subsequently identified and included at the drafting and peer
review stages. This resulted in a total of 78 research studies being included in the
REA: 66 conducted on policing, and a further 12 systematic reviews or REAs on
supervision in other high-risk professions.

Supervision responsibilities can cover a number of components, including personal

and operational (professional) supervision. The REA focused on personal
supervision, which includes supporting, developing and leading individuals and
teams.
Findings
A number of different themes were identified in the review literature. Thematic
summaries were provided to the Guideline Committee,* alongside practitioner
evidence, to inform the development of guidelines.
There are three guidelines for chief constables, which set out the organisational
structures and processes required to support effective supervision, and seven
practical guidelines for supervisors.
The evidence is presented under each guideline heading below, to help the reader
identify which pieces of evidence informed the development of which guideline(s).
Some evidence will have been considered for multiple guidelines.
Organisational support
Culture and capacity
 Officer and staff perceptions of fairness and support – both from senior management
and from the wider organisation – and organisational culture are associated with
positive outcomes regarding staff wellbeing, learning and performance.
 Effective police leaders typically demonstrated five activities:
o creating a shared vision
o engendering organisational commitment
o demonstrating care for followers
o driving change rather than managing the status quo
o complex problem solving
* The Guideline Committee was made up of frontline practitioners, subject matter experts and
academics supported by a development team from the College of Policing.

 Evidence was mixed in relation to the most effective leadership style for
supervising officers and staff. There was evidence of positive outcomes linked to
situational and transformational leadership styles. Transactional leadership
generally showed fewer positive outcomes for officers and staff.
 Role modelling, being open and enforcing standards may encourage ethical
behaviour.
 Barriers to effective supervision in policing included:
o cultural constraints (resistance to change and innovation among senior

leaders)
o a general lack of support from leaders
o a lack of agreement as to what constituted effective leadership and

management practice
o capacity challenges for supervisors
Capability
The evidence on organisational capability to support employees’ wellbeing, learning
and performance identified a number of areas for potential improvement.
 Barriers were found to exist in relation to perceptions of fair and consistent

promotion practices, and to the provision of sufficient support to officers acting in
temporary roles at a higher level.
 There was a perceived absence of formal support, training and preparation for
supervisory roles and opportunities identified to improve management skills and
developing good management practice.
 Evidence from outside policing suggested that management and leadership

development programmes can have some effect in improving organisational and
individual performance outcomes
Organisational support and processes

The REA found a number of issues related to how organisations can use formal
processes to support employees’ wellbeing, learning and performance.
 The existence of clear policies relating to employees, as well as allowing

employee input to decisions, was found to be important in how organisations can

facilitate the effective provision of support from supervisors in relation to

wellbeing.
 Coaching and mentoring, including for acting and temporary officers, may have a
positive effect on supervisor behaviours and attitudes.
Effective supervision
The remaining sections of the REA focus on what supervisors can do to enable and
support employees’ (police officers, staff and volunteers) wellbeing, learning and
performance.
Acting as a role model

Acting as a role model can be an effective way of fostering team member behaviours
across a range of areas.
 Feedback on positive role modelling identified the benefits of a number of

supervisor behaviours, including being:
o ethical
o exemplary
o clear on expectations
o open in communication
o supportive
The evidence suggests these can have positive effects on job satisfaction and
performance.
 Evidence from supervisors demonstrated the importance of tailoring management

approaches to individual officers and members of staff. Important role modelling
strategies included:
o leading by example
o treating officers as people first
o offering support
o good communication
o acting with self-awareness
o using discipline strategically

o using informal rewards
o enabling discretion and empowerment
Building effective relationships

The REA found moderate evidence supporting the importance of effective and
trusting relationships between supervisors and their team members on a range of
employee outcomes.
 Supportive management practices identified in the evidence included:
o genuine interest in the employee
o being fair
o instilling trust
o being flexible
o recognising contribution and commitment
 Research on special constables and police service volunteers also found links
between supervisor support and morale and performance, although the quality of
the research was limited.
 Evidence outside of policing supported the link between role modelling and job
satisfaction and wellbeing, and also between negative supervisor behaviour and
presenteeism.
Communicating effectively
 The REA found moderate evidence on the importance of effective two-way
communication between supervisors and team members. Relationships built on
good two-way communication were associated with a range of positive outcomes,
including:
o lower work-family conflict
o feeling less bullied
o greater trust in, and commitment to, the organisation
o greater job satisfaction
o feelings of autonomy
o self-efficacy

 Good communication was seen as an essential attribute of an effective police

leader. Clear, open and honest communication also led to positive outcomes,
including reinforcing positive behaviours and challenging negative behaviours in
relation to diversity and inclusion.
 Shared expectations of support and working style were linked to greater job
satisfaction. Being approachable and people-focused was also considered to be
important by those being supervised.
Demonstrating fairness and respect

 Supervisors treating their staff with fairness and respect was linked to positive
outcomes, including:
o job satisfaction
o efficiency
o wellbeing, including reduced stress and anxiety
o commitment
o motivation
o empowerment
 Demonstrably ethical police leaders appeared to generate a sense of

trustworthiness among employees. Those who showed clarity and inclusivity in
decision making also secured legitimacy and respect from employees.
 Perceptions of being provided with constructive and supportive feedback, and not
using feedback to exert power, can positively influence employee job satisfaction.
 Perceptions of fairness were important when linked to diversity and inclusion.

Supervisor consideration of personal and family commitments and flexible
working was important to officers and staff. The REA found evidence of specific
considerations relating to part-time mothers working in policing, transgender
officers and police specials.
Supporting wellbeing
 The evidence suggested that supervisors who are supportive of their team
members’ health and emotional needs can contribute to a number of positive
wellbeing outcomes, including:

o lower job stress
o better self-esteem
o lower emotional exhaustion
o feeling less bullied
o less partner conflict at home
 Supportive supervisor behaviours can be particularly important in relation to

mental and physical health issues. Inadequate support can lead to damaging
effects in relation to morale, dedication and goodwill. Lack of disclosure by
officers may limit the support they receive in relation to mental health.
 Social support from supervisors and colleagues (such as feeling supported, the
existence of trust, and feeling that they ‘have their back’) played an important role
in managing burnout in officers and staff, and could buffer negative experiences
of the job, such as violence against officers.
Supporting the delivery of good service

 Supervisors providing support and assistance to help officers and staff do their
work led to positive outcomes, including:
o increased job satisfaction and wellbeing
o increased engagement and commitment
o feelings of self-efficacy
o ability to perform
 The evidence demonstrated a link between supportive, empowering and

transformational leadership approaches among supervisors and positive
employee performance outcomes, including:
o generating extra effort
o conscientiousness
o motivation
o engagement
o organisation commitment
 There was some evidence that compliance with rules and policies was linked to
supervisor willingness to educate officers and staff on key policies and enforcing

them. However, this did not relate to enforcement alone. The supervisor also
needed to develop supportive relationships to foster ‘buy in’ to compliance.
Supporting professional discretion in decision making

 Professional discretion in staff decision making was linked to a number of positive
outcomes, including:
o wellbeing
o job satisfaction
o commitment
o motivation
 Discretion was particularly important when job demands increased.
 People-focused approaches that enable empowerment of team members were

associated with higher levels of:
o wellbeing
o ethical behaviour
o discretionary effort
o engagement and commitment
o emotional energy
o job and life satisfaction
o lower emotional exhaustion
 Empowering approaches, such as supporting, recognising, delegating and

consulting, were also shown to result in positive outcomes, including:
o job satisfaction
o commitment
o performance
o conscientiousness
o employees feeling able to give constructive ideas and opinions

Acknowledgements
In recognition of Jenny Kodz who sadly passed away during completion of this
review. Jenny will be greatly missed by many at the College and throughout policing.
The authors would like to thank the following people.
 For recommending literature for inclusion in the review: Almuth McDowall, Claire
Davis, Jessica Woodhams, Les Graham, Fiona Meechan, Julia Morris, Paul
Quinton, Alexis Poole, Jim Colwell, Jonathan Houdmont.
 The remainder of the guideline development team, especially for their efforts in
undertaking screening of studies for the review: Laura Whitehead, Gill Sims,
Annabelle Buckland, Paul Bartolomeo, Sana Beg, Marlene Blackstock.
 For additional help screening studies for the review: Fiona Meechan, Wusu
Kargbo, Paul Quinton, Julia Morris, Matt Johnston.
 For carrying out an academic peer review of this report and the review process:
Victoria Herrington.

1. Introduction
This report presents the findings of a rapid evidence assessment (REA) conducted
to inform the development of the College of Policing’s national guidelines on effective
supervision.
1.1 Background
Recent analysis* undertaken by the College identified supervision as one of ten
recurring and systemic areas where improvement is possible. In general, it appeared
that individuals in policing might not be reaching their full potential owing to
insufficient supervision and leadership. Of the underlying factors that the analysis
suggested were contributing to this problem, many related to organisational or
individual support for effective supervisory practices. These findings suggested that it
would be beneficial to develop national guidance for effective supervisory practices.
The scope of the guidance focused on how to ensure that:
 police officers, staff and volunteers receive excellent support from their
supervisors in terms of wellbeing, learning and performance
 supervisors receive excellent support from their organisation
For the purpose of this REA, and in line with the guidelines, a supervisor is defined
as anyone who has management responsibility for one or more members of staff.
Supervision responsibilities are made up of the following two components, which are
equally important:
 operational or professional supervision – the supervision of people doing the

practical aspects of a specific role
 personal supervision – supporting, developing and leading individuals and teams
* The work involved:

 interviews with 16 chief constables
 focus groups with around 250 police officers and staff from 14 forces in England and Wales
 a review of four years’ worth of Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue
Services’ reports
 Independent Office of Police Conduct reports, Police and Crime Commissioner Plans and other
published material

The guidelines’ focus is on the second component, personal supervision, although

some of the learning is equally applicable to operational or professional supervision.
The College of Policing applies an evidence-based approach to developing its

guidelines. In this example, academic studies of relevance to staff supervision in
policing, other high-risk professions, and the strongest studies from outside these
areas were identified and used in the production of the guidelines and are
summarised in this report. The findings are presented under the guideline headings
to aid ease of cross-referencing to the guidelines themselves. This means that there
is some duplication where evidence was relevant to several guidelines.
The REA process also enabled the identification of specific areas where there are
gaps in the academic knowledge, to inform future research.

2. Methods
2.1. Overview
An REA uses transparent, structured and systematic processes to search for, screen
and synthesise research on a particular topic. An REA is not an exhaustive summary
of the literature, as limits are placed on the review process in order to deliver results
more rapidly than with a full systematic review. However, the systematic and
transparent nature of the REA process helps to reduce bias and enable others to
replicate the review. For further details regarding REA methods, see the Rapid
Evidence Assessment Toolkit Index.*
The questions asked by the review were:
 What constitutes effective supervision that enables and supports employees’

(police officers, staff and volunteers) wellbeing, learning and performance?
 What are the organisational requirements that need to be in place for supervisors
to enable and support employees’ (police officers, staff and volunteers) wellbeing,
2.2. Review process

The review followed the process outlined in Figure 1 below.
To ensure that the REA identified literature on areas of practical relevance, the
Guideline Committee † was consulted on the approach taken at key stages. ‡
Academic committee members and subject matter experts were also invited to put
forward key citations for consideration in the REA.
The protocol for the REA was developed after exploratory searches and discussions
with academic Guideline Committee members, and prior to beginning the systematic
search and screening (see Appendix B for the protocol).
* Government Social Research Service. (2013). Rapid Evidence Assessment Toolkit index
[internet]. [Accessed 22 December 2021]
† The Guideline Committee was made up of frontline practitioners, subject matter experts and
academics supported by a development team from the College of Policing.

‡ The beginning of the process, to agree the scope of the review. Prior to commencing systematic
searches, to agree the search protocols.

The Guideline Committee was provided with a thematic summary of evidence from
the REA, including a quality assessment, to inform the development of the
guidelines.
Figure 1. Review process for the REA.
2.3. Search strategy

The search terms focused on two population groups:
 police and law enforcement
 other high-risk and emergency professions (including paramedics, doctors,

nurses, aviation, prison service, rescue service, armed forces, social work and
border force)
The search terms used also included outcomes related to key areas of supervision
within the scope of the guideline, such as:
 professional development and learning
 wellbeing
 performance
 attitude and behaviour
 engagement

 absence
 turnover
Appendix C provides a summary of the search strategy. The searches were

conducted between 1 July and 5 July 2019.
2.4. Screening
Citations were initially screened by title and abstract based on agreed inclusion and
exclusion criteria (see Appendix D). Research quality criteria differed slightly
between policing and non-policing citations. It was agreed that any kind of research
should be considered at this stage for inclusion if related to policing, as we were not
expecting to find many policing-specific studies.
Full texts of studies were retrieved if:
 the primary focus of the abstract was on supervision or management and was
clearly related to the direct line management of workers, or if the focus was on
organisational support for supervisors
 there was information missing against any of the key inclusion criteria
Duplicate citations were removed and only studies published in English were
considered. Citation abstracts were uploaded and screened in Covidence.* All
citations were independently screened by at least two reviewers to ensure that the
inclusion criteria were applied consistently and no possibly relevant studies were
overlooked. Any conflicts were resolved by a third reviewer.
Online and grey literature were dealt with slightly differently. Searches were
conducted on identified websites, using search tools for publications where possible,
applying the keywords ‘supervisor’ and ‘supervision’. When a large number of
references was returned, the first 100 were screened on the agreed criteria. If there
were few or no studies of relevance, subsequent references were not screened. Any
studies deemed relevant were logged and progressed to full-text screening.
* A web-based software platform that streamlines the production of systematic reviews

(covidence.org/).

2.5. Criteria for inclusion of studies in the review

Following the title and abstract screening, the full text of all included studies was
reviewed a second time against the inclusion and exclusion criteria. (See Appendix
D for full details of the screening process, as well as inclusion and exclusion criteria.)
Studies were included if they met the criteria below:
 the study was published between 2009 and 2019
 the study was conducted in at least one of the following countries or areas:
o UK
o Europe*
o Canada
o USA
o Australia
o New Zealand
 The study related to the police or policing as an occupation, or one of the

following blue light or high-risk occupations:
o ambulance
o fire service
o coastguard
o prison service
o armed forces
o social work
o medicine (surgeons, nurses, mental health)
o aviation (pilots)
o immigration and border force
* This included any country geographically located in the continent of Europe.

 the research applied reasonable rigour* or, for policing studies only, the paper
drew on research findings (non-policing studies had to be systematic reviews,
meta-analyses or REAs)
 the primary focus of the study was on supervision or management and was
clearly related to the direct line management of workers, or the focus was on
organisational support for supervisors
 the study reported on at least one of the following outcomes:
o resilience
o wellbeing
o welfare
o satisfaction
o dissatisfaction
o performance (individual and organisational)
o individual learning
A date period of 10 years was initially selected, as the authors were unsure how
many studies of relevance would be found. However, as the search terms resulted in
a large number of citations, it was decided to keep the original parameters and not
extend them. The above countries and areas were selected because they were most
likely to have studies written in English that were of relevance to a UK policing or
high-risk profession context.
After full-text screening was completed, the search identified a total of 71 references.
A further seven references were included in the REA at the drafting and peer review
stages. Four of these additional references were identified by the authors as not
having been found during the initial searches of grey literature. They were assessed
to meet the inclusion criteria but were not subject to the same level of screening as
the studies that were included originally. Two had initially been excluded but were
* Studies and reviews had to state the methods used clearly in order to be included. Those assessed
using agreed criteria as having ‘minor limitations’ in terms of risk of bias were included in the review.
Those identified as having ‘potentially serious limitations’ were discussed by the REA team and were
included where they were deemed to be of ‘medium’ or ‘high’ relevance to the REA. Only one policing
study rated as having ‘very serious limitations’ was included in the REA, as it was the only study found
on police specials.

deemed to be particularly relevant in terms of contributing to the evidence for the

guidelines once the draft guidelines had been agreed by the Committee. One of the
added studies was published in 2020. Four were unpublished summaries of findings
from an internally conducted piece of research on police sergeants. Although these
studies fall outside of the original inclusion date criteria, they were included due to
their relevance to the REA.
The final number of studies included was 78. Of these, 66 were studies conducted in
policing, four of which were systematic reviews or REAs relating to policing (one of
these also included other professions), and 12 were systematic reviews or REAs
relating to healthcare or social care, or were generic reviews where the findings were
assessed as being (potentially) applicable to a policing context. Where evidence
from outside of policing has been included, it typically reinforced what had been
found in policing studies or added further insight for consideration.
2.6. Data management and extraction

Policing and non-policing citations were separated and a detailed coding protocol
was used to extract as much pertinent information as possible for analysis from each
study. Researchers coded all eligible studies and any uncertainty was resolved
through discussion with a senior research team member.
2.7. Quality assessment

Several Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) research assessment tools*
were adapted to form criteria for quality assessment of studies included in the REA.
CASP is part of the work of the Oxford Centre for Triple Healthcare Ltd (3V) and is
well regarded for the tools it has developed for use in healthcare settings. These
tools were selected for their ease of use, clarity and robust approach to assessing
key issues, including validity, relevance and usefulness. Full details of the quality
assessment criteria used in the REA can be found in Appendix E.
For primary research studies, the CASP qualitative checklist was used as the basis
of a process to allow the review team to consider the validity, content and relevance
* The qualitative and systematic review CASP checklists are available here: casp-uk.net/casp-tools-
checklists/

of the identified literature in a consistent manner. A limited number of independently

determined criteria relating to quantitative research quality were added to the
process on the advice of colleagues with statistical expertise. These additional
criteria supported basic quality checks, but were also used to identify which
quantitative studies should be checked by a colleague with specialist expertise in this
area (for example, when they used less common statistical approaches). The
systematic review checklist was adapted in a similar way for the non-policing
literature. Academic Guideline Committee members supported this approach. An
overall quality assessment of ‘strong’, ‘fair’ and ‘weak’ was given to each included
study, taking the quality assessment into account. An evidence rating (good,
moderate, limited) that represents the review team’s judgement about the strength of
the research evidence is provided for each guideline.
2.8. Synthesis
A narrative synthesis of the evidence was produced for the Guideline Committee to
consider. The synthesis covered five themes that emerged from the evidence. The
themes were:
 supervisor behaviours
 leadership approaches
 supervising for wellbeing and inclusion
 performance
 organisational support for supervision
Evidence was synthesised under discrete subheadings, with a description of

identified supervisor or organisational behaviours, relevant outcome measures, and
clear labelling to enable identification of policing-specific and non-policing evidence.
Each behaviour or outcome included the reference and indication of study quality.
Some studies featured under multiple themes where there was evidence of
crosscutting relevance.

2.9. Limitations
2.9.1. Policing study quality
There was a lack of robust and relevant intervention studies identified, where
particular approaches were tried and evaluated. Weaker policing intervention studies
were largely screened out. Three weaker studies were included due to the general
lack of evidence around police special constables and volunteers. The studies were
conducted in a range of countries. There may be limitations in terms of applicability
of some findings to policing in the UK, due to policing models used in different
countries. However, they are still likely to be useful in the context of supervision. The
four systematic reviews or REAs all covered multiple countries and included
evidence from the UK.

3. Overview of evidence
3.1. Evidence flow
Figure 2 shows the flow of references through the different phases of the review. In
total, 24,194 references were identified through systematic, manual searches and
recommendations. After screening, data was extracted and synthesised from 78
unique studies.*
Figure 2. Evidence flow.
^ Several references were based on the same study and were therefore only
counted once.
SRs = systematic reviews.
* The number of studies included incorporates the six studies added after the initial screening and
evidence synthesis.

3.2. Characteristics of studies

3.2.1. Policing studies
The 66 policing studies that were included were conducted in a range of countries,
with the largest number being undertaken in the USA (n=25) and the UK (n=19). The
remainder of the studies were conducted in Australia (n=5), Germany (n=4), the
Netherlands (n=3), Canada (n=2), multiple countries (n=2), Slovenia (n=1) and
Sweden (n=1). All four systematic reviews and REAs covered multiple countries and
included evidence from the UK. The majority of studies (n=50) were conducted
between 2014 and 2019, with 14 conducted between 2009 and 2013. The remaining
two were conducted in 2020.
The majority of studies (n=40) were quantitative studies, 32 of which were surveys
(some of these included multiple surveys). In all, 32 studies included regression or
correlation analysis. Many of the quantitative studies were cross-sectional surveys
(carried out at a single point in time), where it was not possible to claim cause and
effect.
Around a quarter of the studies (n=16) were qualitative. All of these studies included
interviews of some kind (for example, face-to-face, telephone, individual or group).
Some also included focus groups, case study research, observations and diaries.
Most of these studies were based on team members’ and supervisors’ own
perceptions rather than measures that are more objective. Some studies included
colleagues reporting on colleagues.
Of the remaining eight studies, four used a mixture of research methods, one was a
systematic review and three were REAs.
3.2.2. Non-policing studies

In all, 12 systematic reviews not specific to policing were included in the REA, three
of which included meta-analyses. The studies were largely conducted in developed
countries (OECD member countries or advanced industrial democracies) that met at
least one of the country criteria for the REA. Most studies included multiple countries
in the protocol.

The majority of the systematic reviews were generic subject area studies relevant to
supervision and did not cover a specific employment sector. Three related to
healthcare settings, and two related to child and social care.
The majority of these systematic reviews (n=9) received a quality rating of ‘fair’, in
recognition of some of the limitations identified during the quality rating process,
including how the methods used in the review were reported. The remaining three
reviews received a quality rating of ‘strong’.

4. Findings
This section summarises the main findings of the REA. To assist those using this
report to understand what evidence was used to inform each guideline, the REA
evidence has been summarised under the ten supervision guideline headings. This
report is split into two main sections:
 organisational support
 effective supervision
For presentational reasons, references have been numbered rather than presented
within the text with the author and date of publication. To find full details of a
particular reference, refer to Appendix A.
The evidence presented in the REA may relate to more than one guideline area, but
is generally not repeated across the report.
4.1. Organisational support

This section reports on the findings from the REA in relation to the question: What
are the organisational requirements that need to be in place for supervisors to
enable and support employees’ (police officers, staff and volunteers) wellbeing,

Effective supervision: Rapid evidence assessment
Organisational support – Culture and capacity college.police.uk
4.1.1. Culture and capacity

Table 1 below provides a brief summary of the evidence used to contribute to this section of the REA.
Further details of references can be found in Appendix A.
Table 1. Summary of references contributing to section 4.1.1.
ID Authors Country Method Sample population Sample size Quality

rating
2 Biggs A, Brough P and Barbour JP Australia Quantitative Police officers and staff 1,196 Strong ++
(2014)
3 Biggs BA (2011) USA Quantitative Police officers 56 Fair +
22 Davis C and Bailey D (2018) UK Qualitative Police officers 38 Strong ++
26 Duran F (2018) UK Quantitative Police officers 126 Strong ++
27 Duran F, Woodhams J and Bishopp D UK Qualitative Police officers 18 Fair +

(2019)
36 Haake U, Rantatalo O and Lindberg O Sweden Qualitative Police supervisors and 28 Strong ++
(2017) middle managers
54 Noblet AJ and Rodwell JJ (2009) Australia Quantitative Police officers 479 Strong ++
56 Panter H (2015) Multiple Qualitative Police officers 20 US, 19 UK Strong ++

ID Authors Country Method Sample population Sample size Quality

rating
59 Quinton P and others (2015) UK Quantitative Police officers Survey 1 = Strong ++
479, Survey 2
= 438
61 Schafer JA (2009) USA Quantitative Police supervisors 769 Strong ++
70 Campbell I and Kodz J (2010) Multiple Rapid Police officers of all n/a Strong ++
evidence ranks with leadership
assessment responsibilities
79 McDowall A and others (2015) Multiple Rapid Policing and other n/a Strong ++
evidence professions
assessment
82 Pearson-Goff M and Herrington V Multiple Systematic Police leadership n/a Strong ++
(2014) review

Overall, there was a good level of research evidence identified through the REA on
organisational culture that could enable or support effective supervision (see
Appendix E for a summary of the quality rating).
The evidence presented here draws on several systematic reviews and an REA
conducted on police leadership. The main focus of the guidelines, and hence the
REA, is on supervision and supervisory practice, as opposed to strategic leadership.
However, evidence on leadership has been included to help forces create the right
environment for change. It is important for senior leaders to model positive
behaviours, which in turn influence culture in their organisation.
Outside of leadership, the evidence draws primarily on studies focusing on barriers

to effective supervision relating to organisational culture and capacity, and on
researcher recommendations from these studies.
4.1.1.1. Leadership and supportive organisational culture

The evidence described effective police leadership styles and behaviours. These
were not always linked to distinct staff outcomes but have been included in the REA
due to their relevance and influence on how organisations can support supervisors.
A systematic review on police leadership identified five activities in which effective

police leaders engaged:
 setting, developing and sharing a vision for the organisation that creates a sense
of purpose
 engendering organisational commitment, by:
o supporting employees
o providing feedback
o promoting collaboration
o ensuring that employees have a voice in the decision-making process
 demonstrating care for employees, by:

o seeking out and providing development opportunities for staff
o taking responsibility for staff wellbeing
o engaging in coaching and mentoring

 driving and managing change, through achieving change or reform rather than
managing the status quo
 problem solving, specifically in relation to addressing complex, interdependent

and unforeseen problems82
A slightly older systematic review, primarily based on studies from the US, looked at
the effectiveness of different police leadership styles, competencies and behaviours.
Most studies focused on leaders’ impact on employees and employee perceptions of
their leaders’ effectiveness. The review indicated that situational leadership, where
leaders modify their behaviours to suit the context, might be most effective. A
transformational leadership style – offering inspiration, vision, intellectual stimulation
and desire to fulfil potential – could have a positive impact on employees’
organisational commitment and willingness to exert extra effort. A transactional
leadership style, relying heavily on rewards and punishment, may have less positive
impacts on employees. However, there was evidence that this style was respected
when dealing with poor standards or performance, and that certain types of officer
(lower-ranking and less self-motivated) may prefer a transactional approach.
Depending on the context, a mixture of both transformational and transactional
leadership styles may be more effective than a purely transformational approach.
Inactive leadership (failure to lead) was almost universally viewed as being less
effective.70
An REA, based on 57 studies carried out in policing and other professions, explored
the interventions, mechanisms and levers that might encourage ethical behaviour
and prevent wrongdoing in organisations. Strong and effective leadership – including
behaviours such as being open, acting as role models, and being firm in terms of
setting and enforcing standards – was highlighted as encouraging ethical behaviour.
Leadership, and the organisational environment it helped create, were found to be
strong influences on the attitudes and behaviours of employees. Ethical leadership
and organisational justice, in the form of fair decision making and treatment, were
seen to be key.79
A number of positive outcomes – such as employee engagement and wellbeing,

which have been associated with effective supervision – have been found to be

mediated by aspects of organisational culture and perceptions of wider

organisational support. These include:
 the perception of organisational fairness
 the extent to which employees feel their organisation cares and values them
 perceptions of support from the wider organisation and senior management3, 26, 27
Survey research in policing showed that fairness at a supervisory and senior

leadership level was associated with officers ‘going the extra mile’, following rules,
valuing the public, feeling empowered and supporting ethical policing.59
One study based on a survey of officers and staff within an Australian state police
service found that employee engagement was more strongly associated with
perceptions of a supportive wider work culture than perceived support from their
immediate supervisor. However, work culture support was found to be predictive of
higher supervisor support over time. It suggested that supportive work cultures
increase perceived support from supervisors and colleagues.2
Another study, a survey of police supervisors, noted the importance of developing an

organisational culture that is conducive to self-development and learning in order to
develop leadership skills. Features of supportive organisational culture described in
the study are good leadership behaviours that are role modelled by supervisors
(such as professionalism, integrity, dedication) and the replacement of blame culture
with a willingness to accept mistakes made in good faith, so that developing leaders
have more confidence and chance to learn.61
A qualitative study of supervisor interactions with transgender officers and

constables in the US and in England and Wales found that positive proactive
leadership using the leader-member exchange approach* can impact social
acceptance, and lead to fewer reported complaints of trans bias in the working
environment. Having a transition policy in place could help supervisors support trans
officers negotiating gender-reassignment and may facilitate a more supportive work
* This approach includes clear communication, the nurturing of internal and external relationships, and
an appreciation of individual differences and diversity.

environment. Positive proactive leadership relates both to the leadership of

supervisors and more widely within the organisation.56
4.1.1.2. Challenges relating to organisational culture

Evidence from the UK and internationally suggests that aspects of police culture can
present challenges for changing supervisor practices and approaches (resistance to
change, belief in the value of hierarchical traditional leadership).22, 61
A survey of police supervisors in the US identified a number of obstacles that were

perceived to work against the development of effective leadership and supervisory
practices. Cultural constraints were identified by one third of the respondents as
impeding effective leadership in policing. Respondents saw a resistance to change
practices and a passive avoidance of new ideas and innovations among their senior
leaders, and encountered differing views within their organisations on what makes
effective leadership or supervisory practice. The study suggests that the most
common obstacle identified by the supervisors who responded to the survey was a
lack of support from senior leaders. Some respondents indicated that top executives
often interfered with, or prevented their efforts to be, effective leaders.61
A mismatch between what senior, lower and middle managers see as important in
good management was identified in a study of two policing organisations in Sweden.
The study examined expectations of police managers and was based on policy
analysis and 28 interviews with middle and senior managers. The findings indicated
that there was a discrepancy between leadership policy and practice within the
organisations, and that these differences created an effective barrier to change.
Different interpretations of what is seen as effective supervision in men and women,
based on gendered assumptions, were also found in this study to be a barrier to
change.36
Not all issues can be mitigated by a change in leadership style at the individual level.
Evidence from survey research with police officers in Australia found that high
workloads due to organisational pressures were seen to undermine employee
wellbeing and satisfaction, irrespective of the level of control or support available to
employees.54

4.1.1.3. Capacity challenges

The REA found evidence from the UK in relation to capacity challenges. These
challenges for supervisors were considered to be high, with increases in both
personal operational workloads and a process- and task-driven environment
affecting the time available to support and develop staff. The research also
suggested that material circumstances (limited resources and time for training)
presented barriers to changing the skills and attitudes of supervisors.22, 61 The
demands of the job, staff shortages and lack of time were mentioned as impeding
effectiveness by a quarter of the respondents to one survey of police supervisors.61
A qualitative study based on 38 interviews with senior and middle-ranking officers

within a UK police force provides insights into why police leaders may be resistant to
changes in leadership style. The study acknowledges that the high-risk, highly visible
situations encountered in policing have traditionally encouraged directive leadership
approaches. In this context, the research suggests that enabling supervisors to
develop people-focused approaches would require them to have the capacity to try
new approaches in particular situations first: low-risk environments and safe spaces,
rather than emergency situations.22

Organisational support – Capability college.police.uk
4.1.2. Capability
ID Author Country Method Sample Sample Quality

population size rating
14 Campbell I and Colover S (2020) UK Mixed methods Police officers 62 Strong ++
15 Campeau H (2019) Canada Mixed methods Police officers 100 Fair +

and staff
18 College of Policing (Unpublished) UK Qualitative Police sergeants 46 Fair +
23 Dick GP (2011) UK Quantitative Uniform officers 670 Strong ++
38 Hesketh I, Cooper C and Ivy J UK Quantitative Police officers 350 Strong ++

(2019) and staff
61 Schafer JA (2009) USA Quantitative Police 769 Strong ++
supervisors
73 Gunawan J, Aungsuroch Y and Multiple Systematic First-line nurse n/a Strong ++
Fisher ML (2018) review managers

ID Author Country Method Sample Sample Quality

77 Kodz J and Campbell I (2010) Multiple Rapid evidence Policing and n/a Fair +
assessment other professions
82 Pearson-Goff M and Herrington V Multiple Systematic Police leadership n/a Strong ++
(2014) review

The REA found good evidence in relation to effective recruitment, promotion and
professional development of supervisors.
4.1.2.1. Preparing for promotion and temporary promotion

Drawing on qualitative research with police officers in Canada, one study identified
barriers in relation to capability in terms of unconscious bias in the promotion
process. Participants held certain perceptions of what the particular path to
promotion was in their organisation, which seemed to be linked to being offered
particular roles or opportunities, and described an overwhelming sense of nepotism
and favouritism linked to gaining promotion.15
Barriers to effective supervision reported by acting sergeants who were interviewed

across five forces in the UK included:
 having their authority challenged
 difficulties in making a mark on the team
 issues with managing their peers
 the need to balance their additional responsibilities with their existing workload
Reported barriers to effective supervision once promoted included:
 knowledge and skills gaps
 limited support or induction into new roles (compounded by a lack of support

networks if they transferred to new areas)
 having little understanding of, or access to, relevant systems, policies and
procedures
 having to manage demand and high pressure
 having to balance expectations from above and below
 lacking confidence and feeling unprepared going into the role18
4.1.2.2. Professional development for supervisors

Some policing studies highlighted a perceived absence of formal support, training
and preparation for supervisory roles,18 as well as an association between poor
management skills and behaviours and lower commitment levels, suggesting
considerable scope for development around good management practice.23

An REA exploring what works in leadership development found a limited evidence

base specific to police leadership. Evidence largely constituted perception-based
research focused on the views of programme participants. One meta-analysis
included in the review focused on effectiveness of managerial development
programmes (not specific to policing). The analysis found that such programmes can
be moderately effective at improving organisational performance outcomes, as well
as behaviour change and expertise. The review found that leadership development
programmes can also improve participants’ knowledge, and can indicate other
beneficial outcomes related to career progression, performance of employees and
some stress-related symptoms.77
Evidence from a systematic review suggested that competency-based development

approaches in policing might not be being applied effectively to develop leaders.82
A survey measuring sources of workplace stress in a UK police force found that

resilience training was highly effective and could contribute towards positive
wellbeing outcomes. As such, the authors recommend that resilience training be
incorporated into leadership inputs, with the aim to better prepare managers for the
pressures and challenges of the modern working environment.38
4.1.2.3. Support for supervisors

Limitations were identified in relation to the provision of support to police
supervisors.14, 19, 23, 61, 73 Findings indicated the need for greater supervisor support
(in the form of feedback, coaching and mentoring, and resilience training) and scope
for development around good management practice.19, 23, 61, 73 There was evidence
from one study that supervision quality could be improved by organisations offering a
programme of ‘education, experience, and mentorship’ to new and existing
supervisors.61
Evaluation research in the UK recently found that some officers on the Fast Track
Inspector programme felt that they were often not given sufficient time, support and
opportunities for development. The level of support varied between forces.14
A systematic review conducted outside of policing found a number of organisational

factors that were important in the development of nurse manager competence.
These included coaching, mentoring, empowerment and other types of training. The

review also noted benefits for supervisors, in terms of performance, from being
appraised on their leadership competencies and receiving feedback.73

Organisational support – Organisational support and processes college.police.uk
4.1.3. Organisational support and processes

ID Full reference details Country Method Sample population Sample Quality

size rating
6 Brunetto Y and others (2014) Australia Quantitative Police officers 193 Fair +
30 Evans G (2011) UK Qualitative Scientific Services 11 Fair +

Unit (managers,
supervisors,
technicians)
46 Jones J (2018) UK Qualitative Police mentors and 300+ Fair +
mentees
53 Nix J and Wolfe SE (2016) USA Quantitative Police officers 510 Strong ++

Organisational support – Organisational support and processes college.police.uk
The REA identified a moderate level of research evidence on the importance of

providing advice and support to facilitating wellbeing, learning and performance.
Evidence in this section is based on five studies only.*
Policing evidence relating to wellbeing found that support from the wider organisation
was required in order for supervisors to support staff wellbeing effectively.6 Various
policing studies suggested that organisations can support supervisors by:
 developing clear policies, for example on pay and flexible working
 ensuring people are treated with respect
 explaining how decisions are open to employee input53
 support and information on human resource processes
 using systems in a supervisory capacity
 carrying out performance development reviews19
Policing research studies suggested that there may be positive links between
supervisors being coached or mentored and the supervisor’s subsequent behaviours
and attitudes.30, 46 However, if the supervisor being coached or mentored was
blocked from spending time with their coach or mentor because their own supervisor
did not support or make time for the scheme, it limited the usefulness of the offer.46
There may also be potential value in acting or temporary police sergeants having
access to mentors and shadowing opportunities.19
4.2. Effective supervision

This section reports on the findings from the REA in relation to the question: What
constitutes effective supervision that enables and supports employees’ (police
officers, staff and volunteers) wellbeing, learning and performance?’
* The limited amount of evidence identified at the organisational level could be due to the focus of the
REA on supervision and supervisors.

Effective supervision – Acting as a role model college.police.uk
4.2.1. Acting as a role model


size rating
9 Bullock K and Garland J UK Qualitative Police officers, staff 59 Strong ++
(2018) and volunteers
20 College of Policing UK Qualitative Police sergeants 46 Fair +
(Unpublished)
32 Fenwick T (2015) UK Qualitative Police officers 34 Strong ++
33 Gaither BR (2017) USA Mixed methods Police officers 238 Strong ++
41 Jackson JD (2016) USA Qualitative Police officers 13 Fair +
43 Johnson RR (2015) USA Other Police officers 320 shifts Fair +
49 Masal D (2015) Germany Quantitative Police officers and 1,165 Strong ++

staff
52 McGlon TN (2016) USA Quantitative Police officers 310 Strong ++


size rating
55 Pallas E (2015) USA Quantitative Police officers and 439 Fair +
staff
56 Panter H (2015) Multiple Qualitative Police officers 20 US, 19 Strong ++
UK
62 Smith EN (2012) USA Quantitative Police officers 109 Strong ++
68 Ward S (2017) USA Qualitative Police officers 10 Fair +
70 Campbell I and Kodz J (2010) Multiple Rapid evidence Police officers of all n/a Strong ++
assessment ranks with
leadership
responsibilities
82 Pearson-Goff M and Multiple Systematic Police leadership n/a Strong ++
Herrington V (2014) review

Role modelling involves a supervisor demonstrating the behaviour they would like
their team members to display.
Overall, the REA found a good level of evidence demonstrating the positive impacts
of leadership styles and role modelling behaviour.49, 55, 62, 70, 82 The evidence
indicated that acting as a role model can be an effective way of fostering positive
team member behaviours across a range of areas. These included ethics and
integrity,33, 52 challenging mental health stereotypes,9 and proactive investigations.43
4.2.1.1. Leadership style

There was mixed evidence around which leadership style might be most effective at
positively influencing employees’ behaviours and outcomes including job satisfaction
and wellbeing.
An REA on the effectiveness of police leadership styles, competencies and

behaviours found that active leadership (where leaders are typically out in the field,
setting a good example and employing role-modelling behaviours) and role
modelling may be more effective at influencing employees’ behaviour than
transformational approaches that rely too heavily on inspirational motivation and
approaches such as mentoring. Transformational leadership was found to have a
positive impact on employees’ organisational commitment, willingness to exert extra
effort, and compliance with rules and regulations. Role-modelling strategies may
have a greater influence on behaviours including integrity and ethical culture.70
Other research on leadership styles suggested that acting as a role model is a

component of transformational leadership and is associated with a range of positive
outcomes, in particular job satisfaction and motivation.49, 55, 62 One of these studies, a
large online survey of a police force in one German state, found that transformational
leadership had a substantial effect on goal clarity and employees’ job satisfaction.49
This was further supported by a systematic review on police leadership, which found
that effective police leaders were perceived by others to understand their
responsibility to be a role model, leading by example and emulating behaviour
expected by followers.82 Qualitative research from the USA found that supervisors

believed* that emphasising morality, communication and concern (authentic

leadership, rather than transformational leadership) would foster a positive work
environment.41
A systematic review looking at other professions found a positive association

between an authentic leadership style (role modelling organisational values), job
satisfaction and wellbeing.76
4.2.1.2. Officer and staff perceptions of supervisor role modelling

Qualitative research with police officers in the US described participants’ views on
how supervisors set the tone for their departments by demonstrating ethical
behaviour, establishing expectations and role modelling exemplary behaviour. Those
who thought their supervisors had a positive impact on their working environment
mentioned specific leadership traits, including open communication, ability to ask
questions and demonstrating ethical behaviour. Supervisor behaviour was described
as affecting participants’ job performance, with some reporting wanting to live up to
supervisor expectations. Being a good listener, open to feedback and having an
open-door policy were favoured behaviours.33 There is some crossover with this
evidence and the evidence presented in section 4.2.2 on building effective
relationships.
Transgender police officers interviewed in England, Wales and the US reported that
a supervisor’s influence and role-modelled behaviour could affect perceptions of
acceptable behaviour towards trans employees. The research identified the
importance of challenging misbehaviour of employees when heterosexist † and/or
genderist ‡ behaviour was observed. Trans officers reported that the willingness to
challenge could have a marked effect on their workplace experiences, particularly in
relation to verbal and physical bullying.56
A number of participants in a qualitative study of police officer mental health in the

UK suggested that where police leaders who had experienced mental ill health
showcased their experiences, it was valued by employees, as it raised awareness,
* Supervisor self-perceptions may not be as valid a measure of the effectiveness of their approaches
as the perceptions of the employees themselves.
† Attitudes or bias favouring male-female relationships.
‡ Discrimination based on gender.

challenged stereotypes and made officers feel like they were not alone. This was felt
to go some way in counteracting entrenched stereotypes, attitudes and beliefs
relating to mental ill health in police organisations.9
Evidence from one interview study with officers in a Scottish constabulary suggested
that supervisor role modelling (in the form of well-timed visibility, providing an
exemplary model and dealing with problem behaviour in a timely way) could help
officers understand the specific skills and attitudes required for effective policing.32
A systematic review found evidence from one study of employees in the Australian
health sector that reported negative supervisor behaviour was a significant predictor
of presenteeism.* Negative behaviours included failing to properly monitor and
manage group dynamics, not seeking input from employees on issues that affect
them, and showing no interest in employees’ ideas.76
4.2.1.3. Supervisor perceptions on role modelling

A qualitative study with police officers in the US outlined behaviours that supervisors
themselves believed to be useful in motivating followers. Supervisors identified a
range of different behaviours, which implied that a ‘one size fits all’ approach might
not work. Strategies suggested by supervisor participants included:
 leading by example (not asking the officer to do anything you wouldn’t be willing
to do yourself)
 treating officers as people first (and therefore considering work-life balance)
 acting with self-awareness, strategic use of discipline (avoiding formal discipline if

possible because of its potential to damage relationships)
 using informal rewards (eg, taking them to lunch during a shift)68
A study of police sergeants in the UK found that there was no consistent way
sergeants described motivating their team members. The strategies they discussed
overlapped with the behaviours covered elsewhere in this report, for example,
around:
 support (looking after and supporting them)
* Defined as ‘when employees are at work, but their cognitive energy is not devoted to their work’.

 good communication (having conversations and chatting, giving team members

clear areas of focus)
 enabling discretion and empowerment (involving them in decision making)
 creating a good atmosphere in the office20

Effective supervision – Building effective relationships college.police.uk
4.2.2. Building effective relationships

ID Authors Country Method Sample Sample Quality

4 Britton I and others (2019) UK Mixed Special Not given Weak -

methods constables
8 Brunetto Y and others (2016) USA Quantitative Police officers 588 Strong ++
11 Callender M and others (2018a) UK Quantitative Special 1,829 Weak -

constables
12 Callender M and others (2018b) UK Quantitative Police support 1,205 Weak -
volunteers
13 Callender M and others (2019) UK Quantitative Police support 1,002 Strong ++
volunteers


27 Duran F, Woodhams J and UK Qualitative Police officers 18 Fair +
Bishopp D (2019)
28 Ellrich K (2016) Germany Quantitative Police officers 1,931 Strong ++
29 Engel S and others (2018) Germany Quantitative Police officers 570 Fair +
48 Graham L and others (2019) UK Quantitative Police officers 48,508 Fair +

and staff
66 van Gelderen BR and Bik LW The Quantitative Victims and 250 crime Strong ++
(2016) Netherlands police officers victims,
114 police
officers
74 Hillage J and others (2014a) Multiple Systematic Generic – OECD n/a Fair +
review countries
76 Hillage J and others (2014c) Multiple Systematic Generic – OECD n/a Strong++
review countries
83 Skakon J and others (2010) Multiple Systematic Generic – leaders n/a Fair +
review and employees

The REA found a moderate level of evidence supporting the importance of

supervisors building effective and trusting relationships with their team members.
Leadership approaches that enable supportive relationships between supervisors
and employees were found to be related to a range of positive outcomes, including:
 increased job satisfaction3, 76
 engagement and commitment to the organisation6, 8, 28, 66, 76
 feelings of self-efficacy (belief in one’s own ability to succeed)8
 employee wellbeing3, 6, 28, 29, 74, 76, 83
 increased self-rated performance76
Supportive management practices were defined in several studies as having a

genuine interest in the employee and being fair, flexible and willing to recognise and
value the employee’s contribution and commitment.26, 27
Frontline police officers interviewed as part of a qualitative study in one English

police force cited ‘valuing your staff’ and provision of support as obligations they
expected from their employer. Participating officers reported that they expected to be
valued by senior leaders and their employer, and that feeling valued had an impact
on their job satisfaction and wellbeing. Participants also described wanting to feel
supported by their employer when they made a mistake. Social support was
perceived by some participants as an effective method for dealing with stressors and
breach of psychological contract.* This included behaviours such as speaking to
seniors and colleagues when there was a stressful event.26
A survey of uniformed patrol officers in Germany found that officers were more
committed to their organisation when they reported higher levels of support from
their supervisor.28 A survey of US police officers also found that the extent to which
employees felt their organisation cared about and valued them was linked to job
satisfaction, as well as job stress and wellbeing. Access to support was reported to
* ‘Psychological contract' refers to individuals' expectations, beliefs, ambitions and obligations, as

perceived by the employer and the worker. Definition taken from: Wong W. (2021). The
psychological contract [internet]. CIPD. [Accessed 16 March 2021]

be central to how cared for and valued they felt, and included employees receiving
feedback and guidance from superiors, peers and followers.3
There was also some (generally weaker) evidence that suggested the morale of
special constables and police volunteers was affected by supervisor support in a
similar way to officers and staff.4, 11, 12, 13 The one stronger study, a national survey of
just over 1,000 police service volunteers in England and Wales, found a strong
association between factors relating to management and supervision, and
respondents’ morale as volunteers. This included their satisfaction with personal and
professional support, feedback on performance, and a more general sense of how
good the force was at managing volunteers.13

Effective supervision – Communicating effectively college.police.uk
4.2.3. Communicating effectively

ID Full reference details Country Method Sample Sample Quality

7 Brunetto Y and others (2017) USA Quantitative Police officers 588 Fair +
31 Farr-Wharton B and others (2017) Australia Quantitative Police officers 193 Fair +
35 Gerspacher K (2014) USA Quantitative Police officers 43 Strong ++


39 Ingram JR and Lee SU (2015) USA Quantitative Police officers 765 pairs Fair +
of officers
and
sergeants
47 King GF (2015) USA Qualitative Former police 12 Strong ++
officers
67 van Hulst M (2017) The Qualitative Police officers 53 Fair +
Netherlands and staff
76 Hillage J and others (2014c) Multiple Systematic Generic – n/a Strong ++
review OECD countries
80 Mor Barak ME and others (2009) Multiple Systematic Workers in child n/a Fair +
review welfare, social
work and mental
health settings
81 O'Connor K, Muller Neff D and Pitman Multiple Systematic Mental health n/a Fair +
S (2018) review professionals
82 Pearson-Goff M and Herrington V. Multiple Systematic Police n/a Strong ++
(2014) review leadership

The REA found a moderate level of evidence that highlighted the importance of
effective two-way communication between supervisors and team members.
Research suggests that effective communication is characterised by the supervisor

providing information, feedback and clear reasons for decisions, and team members
feeling able to ask for feedback and support as necessary.82
Relationships built on good two-way communication were associated with a range of

positive outcomes, including:
 lower work-family conflict5
 feeling less bullied at work31
 greater trust in, and commitment to, the organisation23, 35
 greater job satisfaction31, 39
 perceptions of autonomy at work7
 greater self-efficacy (belief in one’s own ability to succeed)8
Enabling employees to input into organisational decision-making may contribute to

better employee wellbeing.29 Dissatisfaction with supervisor support and
communication contributed to intentions to leave the service.47
4.2.3.1. Clarity of communication

Police sergeants interviewed as part of one study indicated that a good sergeant
would communicate well by giving clear explanations for decisions, clear directions
and expectation setting, adjusting their communication style and promoting two-way
communication.20
In a review focused on mental health professionals, unclear communication of role

expectations was linked to greater burnout.81
Clear, open and honest communication was also part of leadership styles, such as
supportive and authentic leadership, which the research evidence suggested were
associated with a range of positive outcomes, including reinforcing positive
behaviours and challenging negative behaviours in relation to diversity and inclusion.
See section 4.1.1 for further details of the evidence on leadership styles.

4.2.3.2. People-focused communication

After observing informal interactions between supervisors and team members
(friendly conversations in breaks), a study conducted in the Netherlands described a
number of different ways that supervisors were able to use these opportunities to:
 offer learning and guidance
 build rapport with their teams (through storytelling and reflecting on experiences)
 engender organisational commitment (through showing they care and are part of
the team)
 emphasise a shared policy vision (by contributing to, and also steering,
conversations)
The study also found that some supervisors recognised that it might not be
appropriate for them to join in with conversations at all break times, and that a
balance should be struck in order for followers to not feel that they always had to talk
about work during their breaks.67
The research with sergeants in the UK also suggested that a good sergeant would
be seen as more human (approachable, friendly and people-focused). Many
respondents mentioned the importance of acting as a bridge or buffer between their
staff and the organisation. This required them to communicate any expectations,
directions and changes from senior leaders, managing demands from above and
from other departments, and protecting the interests of their teams.20, 21
Building two-way relationships between supervisors and team members was

highlighted as important for job satisfaction and wellbeing in a systematic review of
evidence covering management in different occupational settings and countries,76
and in a review focused on social care settings.80

Effective supervision – Demonstrating fairness and respect college.police.uk
4.2.4. Demonstrating fairness and respect

ID Authors Country Method Sample Sample size Quality

population rating
1 Badger JK (2017) USA Qualitative Police officers 15 Strong ++
and staff
16 Can HS, Holt W and Hendy HM (2016) Multiple Quantitative Police officers 231 US, 195 Fair +
Turkey
20 College of Policing (Unpublished) UK Qualitative Police 46 Fair +
sergeants
24 Dick P (2010) UK Other Police officers 75 individual Strong ++
interviews
and 6 focus
groups
25 Dijkstra M, Beersma B and van The Quantitative Police officers 97 Strong ++
Leeuwen J (2014) Netherlands


population rating

(2019)
42 Jacobs G, Belschak FD and Hartog Germany Quantitative Police officers 332 pairs of Fair +
DN (2014) officers
44 Johnson RR (2015) USA Quantitative Police officers 292 Fair +
50 Masal D and Vogel R (2016) Germany Quantitative Police officers 1,165 Strong ++
and staff
53 Nix J and Wolfe SE (2016) USA Quantitative Police officers 510 Strong ++
56 Panter H (2015) Multiple Qualitative Police officers 20 US, 19 UK Strong ++
59 Quinton P and others (2015) UK Quantitative Police officers Survey 1 = Strong ++

479, Survey 2
= 438
60 Sachau DA and others (2012) USA Quantitative Military police 1185 Strong ++
officers


population rating
65 Tremblay D, Genin É and di Loreto M Canada Qualitative Police officers 254 Strong ++
(2011)
76 Hillage J and others (2014c) Multiple Systematic Generic – n/a Strong ++
review OECD countries
81 O'Connor K, Muller Neff D and Pitman Multiple Systematic Mental health n/a Fair +
S (2018) review professionals
82 Pearson-Goff M and Herrington V Multiple Systematic Police n/a Strong ++
(2014) review leadership

Overall, the REA found a good level of evidence on the importance of supervisors
treating their staff with fairness and respect.
The studies included in the REA described being fair as involving transparency about
and explaining the making of work decisions (for example, allocation of workload,
access to opportunities, promotions, agreement of leave and working hours). It also
involved treating team members with respect and politeness, and conducting
appraisals in a supportive rather than punitive manner. Behaviours were interlinked
with perceptions of organisational* and interactional justice.
Policing evidence linked supervisor fairness to positive outcomes, such as:
 increased job satisfaction16
 wellbeing26, 27
 commitment82
 discretionary effort59
 trust82
 motivation82
 feeling empowered82
It also linked supervisor fairness to a reduction in negative outcomes, including:
 destructive gossip25
 intentionally working slowly or obstructively42
 stress and anxiety26
 lack of motivation53
Fairness in an organisation has been found to promote the self-worth and

empowerment of employees.
* Organisational justice involves being fair about who gets what, how they get it and the manner in
which people are treated.

4.2.4.1. Demonstrating fairness

The findings from one study suggested that forces might lessen psychological
contract violation (PCV)* if they explain failure to fulfil obligations to employees.
Managers could play their part in fostering realistic job expectations at the
recruitment stage to lessen the likelihood of unmet obligations and unrealistic
expectations. Organisations can promote fairness by ensuring that allocation of
internal opportunities is fair (such as postings and promotion), by explaining decision
making, and by taking a balanced approach to resolving disputes.26
A systematic review of police leadership described being ethical as one of the key
characteristics attributed to effective police leaders. This was defined as showing a
sense of integrity and honesty, and in doing so, generating a sense of
trustworthiness among followers. The review also found that the way leaders made
their decisions played an important role in securing legitimacy and respect from
followers, with potential positive impacts on organisational commitment.82
The evidence that focused on the importance of fairness, consistency and

transparency of support in relation to diversity and inclusion mostly related to
combining personal and family commitments with work and being clear on the rights
and responsibilities of workers, particularly around flexible working.
Qualitative research conducted with transgender police officers indicated the

importance of supervisors providing continual support for trans employees who ask
for assistance (or were observed to need help) and also to demonstrate empathy (ie,
show that they care). Supervisors’ role modelling positive behaviours towards trans
employees was also perceived to be important.56 This is covered in more detail in
section 4.2.1.
4.2.4.2. Outcomes associated with supervisor fairness

Providing information, feedback and clear reasons for decisions are types of
supervisor communication associated with positive outcomes. Several policing
studies suggested that it was important for employee satisfaction that team members
*When employees believe their employer is not fulfilling their obligations, intense negative emotions
can be invoked, known as psychological contract violation. This in turn can result in negative
behavioural reactions and workplace attitudes.

feel feedback is fair and is being used to support (praising, encouraging, offering
help), rather than exert control (judging compliance, removing autonomy, justifying
autocratic commands).44, 50
One of these studies, a large-scale survey in a German state police department,

found that the perception of employees of how their leaders use performance
information had a greater influence on their job satisfaction than the extent to which
such information was used.50
Another study found that if supervisors were perceived as fair, their team members
were less likely to feel unmotivated, in danger or negatively affected as a workforce
in the wake of critical publicity. The study authors suggested that this was because
fair supervisors communicate their trust in officers and a willingness to back them up
in difficult situations.53 Survey research has shown that fairness at supervisory and
senior leadership level was associated with officers ‘going the extra mile’* without
personal gain, feeling empowered, following rules, valuing the public and supporting
ethical policing.59
Supervisor attitudes appeared to play the decisive role in whether work-life balance
was regulated or managed within teams to support wellbeing and minimise work-
family conflict. 5, 60, 65 There was further evidence suggesting that decision making
that was open to employee input may contribute to positive outcomes, such as
improved wellbeing and motivation.20, 29, 53, 81 Team member perceptions of their own
resilience have been found to be positively influenced by supervisors leading
ethically, acting to empower and working collaboratively.1
An online survey of police officers in one English force explored the relationships
between PCV, occupational stress and wellbeing. The analysis found that fairness
and self-efficacy mediated the relationship between PCV and occupational stress,
and between PCV and anxiety. This implies that officers who felt their force was not
fulfilling its obligations may be less efficient, leading to stress and anxiety. Analysis
* This can also be referred to as ‘discretionary effort’.

found that fairness did not mediate for depression, but self-efficacy did.26 These
findings held true for both male and female officers.*
A survey of Dutch police officers explored leaders’ conflict management behaviours

as assessed by ‘followers’ (the people they manage). The research included
exploring how followers’ perceptions of how fairly they have been treated by
decision-makers, or their view on how they were treated by their supervisors (known
as interactional justice), affected their propensity to be involved in gossip about their
leader. The study found that positive or negative experience of interactional justice,
via supervisor conflict management behaviours, was associated with positive or
negative gossiping about their leader. The authors link perceptions of procedural
fairness to how concerned supervisors appeared to be about their staff when
managing conflicts. When leaders were perceived to demonstrate low concern for
others when managing conflicts, it was related to more negative and less positive
gossip on the part of employees.25
This evidence from policing was supported by a large body of evidence from other
sectors that demonstrated the importance of organisational justice (the perception of
being treated fairly and with respect, both by supervisors and senior leaders).
Supportive leadership, of which honesty and fairness is one element, was also
associated in the literature with a range of positive outcomes, including supporting
diversity and inclusion.
A systematic review of workplace factors that facilitate or constrain the ability of line
managers to enhance the wellbeing of people they manage included two studies
reporting that a higher level of perceived organisational justice and fairness was
positively associated with employee wellbeing. These studies were conducted in UK
local authority and US care sectors. Two other included studies (both USA – generic)
found that the effects of organisational justice were mediated by other workplace
factors, including the existence of organisational support and trust in supervisors.76
* Qualitative interview research included in the same report mentioned that female officers reported
wanting to be treated fairly in terms of the same treatment as men. This was reported by two of five
female interviewees.

Effective supervision – Supporting wellbeing college.police.uk
4.2.5. Supporting wellbeing


9 Bullock K and Garland J (2018) UK Qualitative Police officers, 59 Strong ++

staff and
volunteers
10 Bullock K and Garland J (2019) UK Other Police officers 59 Strong ++
17 Can HS, Hendy H and Can BM (2017) USA Quantitative Police officers 152 Fair +

(2019)
28 Ellrich K (2016) Germany Quantitative Police officers 1,931 Strong ++


31 Farr-Wharton B and others (2017) Australia Quantitative Police officers 193 Fair +
51 McCarty WP and Skogan WG (2012) USA Quantitative Police officers 2564 Fair +
and staff
64 Stuart H (2017) USA Quantitative Police officers 133 Fair +
71 Daniels K and others (2017) Multiple Systematic Generic – working n/a Fair +
review population in
advanced
industrial
democracies
74 Hillage J and others (2014a) Multiple Systematic Generic – OECD n/a Fair +
review countries
75 Hillage J and others (2014b) Multiple Systematic Generic – OECD n/a Fair +
review countries
76 Hillage J and others (2014c) Multiple Systematic Generic – OECD n/a Strong ++
review countries


78 Kuehnl A and others (2019) Multiple Systematic Generic – any n/a Fair +
review type of paid
supervisor
83 Skakon J and others (2010) Multiple Systematic Generic – leaders n/a Fair +
review and employees
84 Watson D and others (2018) Multiple Systematic Generic – studies n/a Strong ++
review on links between
wellbeing and
learning
processes and
outcomes in UK
or other similar
economic
contexts

Overall, the REA found a moderate level of evidence on the importance of

supervisors supporting the wellbeing of their staff.
The evidence suggested that supervisors who are supportive of their team members’
health and emotional needs contribute to the wellbeing of their staff. Positive
wellbeing outcomes included:
 lower emotional exhaustion29
 lower job stress3
 better self-esteem17
 feeling less bullied31
 less partner conflict at home17, 74, 76, 83
Aspects of supportive supervision for wellbeing were identified as:
 having a genuine interest in the employee
 being fair and flexible
 being willing to recognise and value the employee’s contribution and

commitment26, 27
An online survey of police officers from one English police force found that
perceptions of fairness and self-efficacy were directly linked to officers’ levels of
stress and anxiety, with fairness being the largest mediator. Self-efficacy was the
strongest mediator for depression. The author suggests that officers’ feelings of self-
efficacy could be managed through workload and activities being evenly distributed,
and by ensuring that they take annual leave and do not work too many hours.
Employees could also be instructed on self-regulatory mechanisms that foster a
greater sense of self-efficacy, such as exposure to positive experiences of success,
verbal persuasion and social influences that reinforce appropriate behaviour.26
The evidence suggests that supportive behaviours and attitude are particularly
important in relation to mental and physical health issues.9, 10 Effective supervision
was found to pay attention to, and destigmatise, mental health issues and illnesses.9
It also involved early and regular contact with the supervisee, an awareness of
individuals’ circumstances and timely referrals to sources of support.10 Inadequate

support or insensitive responses from supervisors were found to damage morale,

dedication and goodwill. These negative outcomes also resulted from:
 supervisors not believing psychological injuries, or not taking them seriously
 perceived lack of understanding of the nature of injuries, especially psychological

injuries
 lack of knowledge with how to deal with psychological injury
 lack of awareness and understanding of a force’s sickness policy or its

application10
The evidence also indicates that officers may avoid disclosure of mental illness to
their supervisor or manager for fear of being discriminated against at work, and
officers not wanting to be managed by someone with mental health issues.64
Social support from supervisors and colleagues (such as feeling supported, the
existence of trust and feeling that they ‘have their back’) was associated with
decreased burnout in both officers and staff,51 and buffered the negative effects of
violence against officers by the public.28 However, there was also evidence from
survey research in an Australian state-based law enforcement agency that
supervisor support cannot fully mitigate against the negative effects of continual high
job demands. The authors conclude that supervisory personnel need to manage the
pace, volume and complexity of demands faced by employees carefully, taking
action when excessive levels are reached.54
Evidence from outside of policing generally supported these findings. As already

mentioned in section 4.2.2, on building effective relationships, supportive leadership
approaches were positively related to employee wellbeing.74, 76, 83 Organisational
justice (being fair about who gets what, how they get it and the manner in which
people are treated) was also linked to employee wellbeing.76 Supervisor pressure to
return to work was also reported to be associated with presenteeism (working when
sick), and supervisor pressure in general was associated with the need for sickness
absence.76
The REA found a small amount of evidence regarding the benefits associated with
supervisors understanding and acting on their own health and emotional needs. One
review performed across multiple sectors found a link between the wellbeing of a

supervisor and the wellbeing of their staff, although it was not clear how these
influenced each other.83
There was mixed and insufficient evidence across three different systematic reviews
from multiple sectors on whether training supervisors (in a variety of different ways)
could improve employee wellbeing,71, 75, 78 while one other high-quality review
suggested that group-based, interactive leadership training was effective in
improving team member wellbeing.84

Effective supervision – Supporting the delivery of good service college.police.uk
4.2.6. Supporting the delivery of good service


13 Callender M and others (2019) UK Quantitative Police support 1002 Strong ++

volunteers
28 Ellrich K (2016) Germany Quantitative Police officers 1931 Strong ++
34 Gau JM and Gaines DC (2012) USA Quantitative Police officers 268 Strong ++
and staff
37 Hansen AJ and others (2015) USA Quantitative Police officers 425 Fair +


40 Ingram JR and others (2014) USA Quantitative Police officers 765 pairs Fair +
of officers
and
sergeants
42 Jacobs G, Belschak FD and Hartog DN Germany Quantitative Police officers 332 pairs Fair +
(2014) of officers

and staff
58 Perez NM, Bromley M and Cochran J USA Quantitative Police officers 214 Strong ++
(2017)
66 van Gelderen BR and Bik LW (2016) The Quantitative Victims and 250 Strong ++
Netherlands police officers victims,
114 police
officers


69 Carpenter J, Webb CM and Bostock L Multiple Systematic Social workers n/a Fair +
(2013) review and child welfare
workers
72 Domalaga A and others (2018) Multiple Systematic Physicians n/a Fair +
review working in EU
hospitals
73 Gunawan J, Aungsuroch Y and Fisher Multiple Systematic First-line nurse n/a Strong ++
ML (2018) review managers
review countries
80 Mor Barak ME and others (2009) Multiple Systematic Workers in child n/a Fair +
review welfare, social
work and mental
health settings

Overall, the REA found a moderate level of evidence on the importance of

supervisors supporting their staff to deliver good service (see also section 4.2.2 on
building effective relationships). Supervisor support, as described in the evidence,
involved giving access to information and resources, recognising and acknowledging
good work, offering opportunities and being seen to care.
4.2.6.1. Providing support

The evidence from policing included the importance of supervisors providing support
and assistance to officers and staff to help them do their work, demonstrated by a
range of positive employee outcomes, including:
 increased employee job satisfaction3
 wellbeing6, 28
 engagement and commitment to the organisation6, 8, 28, 66
 feelings of self-efficacy (belief in one’s own ability to succeed)3, 8
 team members’ ability to perform21
Evidence from other sectors was consistent with policing evidence. According to a
meta-analysis of 27 studies on workers in child welfare, social work and mental
health settings, the wellbeing, organisational commitment and job satisfaction of
these workers improved (among other benefits) when they received task assistance
(tangible, work-related advice and instruction) and support for their emotional needs
from supervisors.80
A further systematic review on the supervision of child welfare and social workers
suggested that supervision worked best when attention was paid to task assistance,
social and emotional support, and positive interpersonal relationships between
supervisors and supervisees.69 This review and another that looked at supervision in
businesses also suggested positive outcomes resulting from supportive supervision
for both workers (for example, job satisfaction) and organisations (for example, job
retention).76 It was suggested that the support provided was greater when senior
managers and human resource managers were in frequent communication.76

4.2.6.2. Positive leadership

Both police research and research in other sectors linked supportive, empowering
and transformational leadership approaches among supervisors with positive
employee performance outcomes, including:
 generating extra effort
 conscientiousness
 motivation
 engagement
 organisational commitment
This contrasted with authoritarian leaders, who were characterised as concerned

with discipline, tasks and giving orders, and associated with employees feeling less
able to switch off and enjoy quality time away from work.48
4.2.6.3. The importance of providing feedback

Evidence identified in the REA also linked supervisory feedback with positive
performance outcomes, such as organisational commitment, with higher-quality
feedback being linked to higher organisational commitment, and some evidence of a
long-term effect.42, 44, 58 Analysis of questionnaire survey data in two US county
sheriff districts found that positive supervisor feedback was a significant predictor of
organisational commitment. Deputies who were found to be more committed to the
organisation reported a number of influencing factors, including supervisor support,
higher peer cohesion, higher job variety and autonomy, and lower job-related stress.
As a result, the study authors recommended that supervisors strive to provide clear
and specific feedback to their employees.58
In contrast, another study suggested that perceptions of supervisor feedback were

not important predictors of job satisfaction, when compared to the greater effect of
employee perceptions of fairness, peer support and chances for autonomy.45
For police volunteers, a combined feeling of supervisor support and adequate

feedback on performance has been linked with better morale.13
Some limited evidence from the health sector in Europe suggested that satisfaction
can increase significantly if people receive feedback about the work that they do,

alongside having opportunities for professional development.72 Evidence from

businesses and the public sector in Canada suggested that offering praise for good
performance was a more effective way of promoting positive attitudes at work than
reprimanding people.76 Evidence from nursing highlighted that supervisors
themselves benefited, in terms of performance, from being appraised on their
leadership competencies and receiving feedback.73
4.2.6.4. Role modelling compliance

The evidence on how supervisor behaviours ensure their team members’
compliance with key rules of relevance to policing found that being willing to educate
employees and enforce policies, while developing supportive relationships with team
members, was associated with positive outcomes.
One study found that if team members believed their supervisor was likely to enforce
driving safety rules, they were involved in fewer collisions.37 Officers working under
supportive sergeants were more likely to believe that non-lethal ‘use of force’ policies
were clear and fair.40
An online survey of officers and staff in a US municipal police department found that
those with ‘good’ relationships with their supervisors were more likely to support
force policies on order maintenance, with the implication that this may lead to greater
compliance with the policy. Supervisors may play an important role in ‘selling’ order
maintenance. However, this leadership behaviour is likely to need to be encouraged
throughout the organisation.34
Another study on police sergeants found that approximately a third of sergeants

interviewed perceived that checking compliance and quality assurance was an
important part of effective supervision. This was done either through dedicated IT
systems or by attending incidents in person, but there was not clear evidence
whether these approaches were successful at fostering compliance.21
Evidence outside of policing, from three studies covering a range of sectors (in
Japan, USA and Spain), suggested that managers played a key role in promoting
safer working environments (compliance with health and safety rules), by prioritising
safety issues, correcting unsafe working practices and empowering employees to
raise safety concerns.76

Effective supervision – Supporting professional discretion in decision making college.police.uk
4.2.7. Supporting professional discretion in decision making


1 Badger JK (2017) USA Qualitative Police officers 15 Strong ++
and staff
32 Fenwick T (2015) UK Qualitative Police officers 34 Strong ++

and staff

Effective supervision – Supporting professional discretion in decision making college.police.uk

57 Park J (2017) USA Quantitative Police managers, 101 Fair +

supervisors and
followers
58 Perez NM, Bromley M and Cochran J USA Quantitative Police officers 214 Strong ++
(2017)
63 Smolej D (2017) Slovenia Quantitative Police officers 160 Fair +
72 Domalaga A and others (2018) Multiple Systematic Physicians n/a Fair +

review working in EU
hospitals
review countries
81 O'Connor K, Muller Neff D and Pitman S Multiple Systematic Mental health n/a Fair +
(2018) review professionals

Effective supervision – Supporting professional discretion in decision making
college.police.uk
Overall, there was moderate evidence in relation to encouraging professional

discretion in staff decision making. Encouraging discretion was seen as involving
supervisors allowing team members input into decision making and affording them a
reasonable level of control over their own work (ie, not being micro-managed).
4.2.7.1. Outcomes associated with job discretion

Policing research evidence suggested a positive association between allowing
discretion and wellbeing,54 job satisfaction,3, 45, 54 commitment54, 58 and motivation.20
The authors of a report exploring the Demand-Control-Support model* in public-

sector organisations reflected on other research, which showed when an increase in
job demands was not met with commensurate increases in decision-making
influence and/or skill discretion, employees felt under more strain. Unresolved stress
was more likely to occur when there was insufficient support and/or control to meet
the demands faced by employees.54
Analysis of police survey data from the US showed that job autonomy was positively
correlated with organisational commitment. The authors found an association
between the move to community policing and officers being afforded greater
autonomy and discretion in their work, as well as a greater variety of day-to-day
activities when compared to officers not working for organisations following a
community policing approach.58
Research reviewed from other sectors was consistent with the policing research. Job
control and autonomy positively predicted job satisfaction in nurses in Australia.
Perceptions of low autonomy reported in a national survey of working conditions in
the Netherlands were associated with more sick leave. The report authors concluded
that supportive line management would include providing an element of autonomy to
employees in terms of how they carry out their work.76 Another review identified
better levels of satisfaction being reported among European physicians who felt that
they had professional autonomy.72 A review covering studies from 33 countries also
* The Demand-Control-Support model hypothesises that job strain (unresolved stress) results from
the demands of the job, the degree of control and discretion that employees have over their work, and
the level of social support provided to meet these demands.

college.police.uk
found that the capacity of mental health professionals to influence decisions at work
was linked to lower risk of burnout.81
4.2.7.2. Empowering staff

Empowering approaches, involving supporting, recognising, delegating and
consulting, were also shown to be positively associated with:
 wellbeing
 job satisfaction
 commitment
 performance
 conscientiousness
 employees feeling able to give constructive ideas and opinions54, 57
Team member perceptions of their own resilience were positively influenced by

supervisors acting to empower.1
Enabling empowerment of team members was highlighted as a feature of supportive

leadership in one policing study, and was associated with positive outcomes
including:
 higher levels of wellbeing
 ethical behaviour
 discretionary effort
 engagement
 emotional energy
 job and life satisfaction48
Other similarly people-focused leadership approaches were associated with lower

emotional exhaustion in police officers,29 greater organisational commitment23 and
engagement.63
The findings from a survey of police officers from a UK force suggested that attention
should be paid to improving participation and encouraging a supportive culture
where mistakes are considered a learning opportunity. The majority of officers who
took part in the research reported limited opportunities for them to contribute to

college.police.uk
decisions affecting their work and to be involved in broader, department-level

decisions that shaped objectives. Officers at lower ranks often did not feel they could
make suggestions to officers above them. This was also linked to a culture of ‘rank
mentality’, which was perceived to go against encouraging an open and honest
working environment.23
One qualitative study of policing in a rural setting found that officers considered
empowerment of others to use their discretion as an important leadership skill. Many
mentioned the effectiveness of a devolved leadership style, where managers
provided guidance but generally avoided micromanagement. Many referred to
policing ‘by the book’ as being too rigid and unhelpful in a rural setting, and some
spoke of the need for relationship-based policing, as opposed to transaction-based
policing.32

5. Conclusions
The evidence presented in this report was used, alongside practitioner evidence and
experience, to develop 10 guidelines related to effective supervision. The guidelines,
and more detail about the process by which these were reached, can be found in the
published guidance.
Research evidence from the policing sector, and more widely across a range of high-
risk professions, has demonstrated that practical actions can be taken to improve
effective supervision. This, in turn, will lead to improvements in outcomes for
employees and at the organisational level.
The challenge lies in the implementation of the guidelines, and ensuring that the
evidence is used to influence implementation.

Appendices
Appendix A: Tables of included studies
Table A1. Policing-focused individual study references.

1 Badger JK. (2017). The influence of servant USA Qualitative Police 15 Strong ++
leadership on subordinate resilience in law officers and
enforcement. [internet] PhD thesis, Creighton staff
University. [Accessed 24 January 2020]
2 Biggs A, Brough P and Barbour JP. (2014). Australia Quantitative Police 1,196 Strong ++
Relationships of individual and organizational officers and
support with engagement: Examining various staff
types of causality in a three-wave study. Work &
Stress, 28(3), pp 236-254.
3 Biggs BA. (2011). Examining the antecedents and USA Quantitative Police 56 Fair +
consequences of empowerment in a traditional officers
police agency. MSc dissertation, Purdue University.


4 Britton I, Borland-Jones C, Cahalin K and Knight L. UK Mixed Special Not given Weak -
(2019). Leading the Special Constabulary methods constables
[internet]. Northampton: Citizens in Policing.
[Accessed 27 January 2020]
5 Brunetto Y, Farr-Wharton R, Ramsay S and Australia Quantitative Police 180 Fair +
Shacklock K. (2010). Supervisor relationships officers
and perceptions of work—family conflict. Asia
Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 48(2), pp
212–232.
6 Brunetto Y, Shacklock K, Teo S and Farr-Wharton Australia Quantitative Police 193 Fair +
R. (2014). The impact of management on the officers
engagement and well-being of high emotional
labour employees. The International Journal of
Human Resource Management, 25(17), pp 2345–
2363.


7 Brunetto Y, Teo S, Farr-Wharton R, Shacklock K USA Quantitative Police 588 Fair +
and Shriberg A. (2017). Individual and officers
organizational support: Does it affect red tape,
stress and work outcomes of police officers in
the USA? Personnel Review, 46(4), pp 750–766.
8 Brunetto Y, Teo S, Shacklock K, Farr-Wharton R USA Quantitative Police 588 Strong ++
and Shriberg A. (2016). The impact of supervisor- officers
subordinate relationships and a trainee
characteristic upon police officer work
outcomes. Journal of Management &
Organization, 23(3), pp 423–436.
9 Bullock K and Garland J. (2018). Police officers, UK Qualitative Police 59 Strong ++
mental (ill-)health and spoiled identity. officers,
Criminology & Criminal Justice, 18(2), pp 173–189. staff and
volunteers


10 Bullock K and Garland J. (2019). ‘The UK Other Police 59 Strong ++
organisation doesn't particularly consider itself officers
responsible for you’: organisational support for
officers injured in the line of duty and
organisational (in)justice. Policing and Society,
30(7), pp 818–834.
11 Callender M, Cahalin K, Britton I and Knight L. UK Quantitative Special 1,829 Weak -
(2018a). National Survey of Special Constables constables
[internet]. Northampton: Citizens in Policing.
12 Callender M, Cahalin K, Britton I and Knight L. UK Quantitative Police 1,205 Weak -
(2018b). National Survey of Police Support support
Volunteers [internet]. Northampton: Citizens in volunteers
Policing. [Accessed 27 January 2020]
13 Callender M, Pepper M, Cahalin K and Britton I. UK Quantitative Police 1,002 Strong ++
(2019). Exploring the police support volunteer support
experience: Findings from a national survey. volunteers
Policing and Society, 29(4), pp 392–406.


14 Campbell I and Colover S. (2020). Fast Track UK Mixed Police 62 Strong ++
Inspector (internal and external) programme. methods officers
Five-year evaluation report, 2014-2019 [internet].
College of Policing. [Accessed 24 January 2021]
15 Campeau H. (2019). Institutional myths and Canada Mixed Police 100 Fair +
generational boundaries: Cultural inertia in the methods officers and
police organisation. Policing and Society, 29(1), staff
pp 69–84.
16 Can HS, Holt W and Hendy HM. (2016). Patrol Multiple Quantitative Police 231 US, Fair +
Officer Job Satisfaction Scale (POJSS). Policing: officers 195 Turkey
An International Journal of Police Strategies &
Management, 39(4), pp 710–722.
17 Can HS, Hendy H and Can BM. (2017). A pilot USA Quantitative Police 152 Fair +
study to develop the Police Transformational officers
Leadership Scale (PTLS) and examine its
associations with psychosocial well-Being of
officers. Journal of Police & Criminal Psychology,
32(2), pp 105–113.


18 College of Policing. (2020). ‘Sergeants research UK Qualitative Police 46 Fair +
summary – Experiences of being promoted and sergeants
becoming a sergeant’. London: College of Policing.
[Unpublished]
summary – Development opportunities and sergeants
perceived development needs’. London: College of
Policing. [Unpublished]
summary – The perceived qualities and behaviours sergeants
of ‘good’ sergeants’. London: College of Policing.
[Unpublished]
summary – The perceived value of sergeants’ sergeants
activities and role expectations’. London: College of
Policing. [Unpublished]


22 Davis C and Bailey D. (2018). Police leadership: UK Qualitative Police 38 Strong ++
the challenges for developing contemporary officers
practice. International Journal of Emergency
Services, 7(1), pp 13–23.
23 Dick GP. (2011). The influence of managerial UK Quantitative Uniform 670 Strong ++
and job variables on organizational officers
commitment in the police. Public Administration,
89(2), pp 557–576.
24 Dick P. (2010). The transition to motherhood and UK Other Police 75 Strong ++
part-time working: Mutuality and incongruence officers individual
in the psychological contracts existing between interviews
managers and employees. Work, Employment and 6 focus
and Society, 24(3), pp 508–525. groups
25 Dijkstra M, Beersma B and van Leeuwen J. (2014). The Quantitative Police 97 Strong ++
Gossiping as a response to conflict with the Netherlands officers
boss: Alternative conflict management
behavior? International Journal of Conflict


26 Duran F. (2018). Analysis of police officers' and UK Quantitative Police 126 Strong ++
firefighters' psychological contracts, and its officers
influence on their occupational stressors and
wellbeing. [internet] PhD thesis, University of
Birmingham. [Accessed 27 January 2020]
27 Duran F, Woodhams J and Bishopp D. (2019). An UK Qualitative Police 18 Fair +
interview study of the experiences of police officers
officers in regard to psychological contract and
wellbeing. [internet] Journal of Police and Criminal
Psychology, 34, pp 184–198. [Accessed 27
January 2020]
28 Ellrich K. (2016). The influence of violent Germany Quantitative Police 1,931 Strong ++
victimisation on police officers' organisational officers
commitment. Journal of Police and Criminal
Psychology, 31(2), pp 96–107.


29 Engel S, Wörfel F, Maria AS, Wolter C, Kleiber D Germany Quantitative Police 570 Fair +
and Renneberg B. (2018). Leadership climate officers
prevents emotional exhaustion in German
police officers. International Journal of Police
Science & Management, 20(3), pp 217–224.
30 Evans G. (2011). Second order observations on UK Qualitative Scientific 11 Fair +
a coaching programme: The changes in Services
organisational culture. International Journal of Unit
Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, S5, pp (managers,
70–87. supervisors,
technicians)
31 Farr-Wharton B, Shacklock K, Brunetto Y, Teo ST Australia Quantitative Police 193 Fair +
and Farr-Wharton R. (2017). Workplace bullying, officers
workplace relationships and job outcomes for
police officers in Australia. Public Money &
32 Fenwick T. (2015). Learning policing in rural UK Qualitative Police 34 Strong ++
spaces: 'Covering 12 foot rooms with 8 foot officers
carpets'. Policing, 9(3), pp 234–241.


33 Gaither BR. (2017). ‘Ethical leadership and its USA Mixed Police 238 Strong ++
impact on role modeling, strictness, openness, and methods officers
job satisfaction of law enforcement officers’. PhD
thesis, Keiser University.
34 Gau JM and Gaines DC. (2012). Top-down USA Quantitative Police 268 Strong ++
management and patrol officers’ attitudes about officers and
the importance of public order maintenance: A staff
research note. Police Quarterly, 15(1), pp 45–61.
35 Gerspacher K. (2014). Communication culture USA Quantitative Police 43 Strong ++
within law enforcement: Perceptions from officers
officers and supervisors. MSc dissertation,
Wright State University.
36 Haake U, Rantatalo O and Lindberg O. (2017). Sweden Qualitative Police 28 Strong ++
Police leaders make poor change agents: supervisors
Leadership practice in the face of a major and middle
organisational reform. Policing and Society, managers
27(7), pp 764–778.


37 Hansen AJ, Rojek J, Wolfe SE and Alpert GP. USA Quantitative Police 425 Fair +
(2015). The influence of department policy and officers
accountability on officer-involved collisions.
Policing, 38(3), pp 578–594.
38 Hesketh I, Cooper C and Ivy J. (2019). Leading UK Quantitative Police 350 Strong ++
the asset: Resilience training efficacy in UK officers and
policing. The Police Journal, 92(1), pp 56–71. staff
39 Ingram JR and Lee SU. (2015). The effect of first- USA Quantitative Police 765 pairs of Fair +
line supervision on patrol officer job officers officers and
satisfaction. Police Quarterly, 18(2), pp 193–219. sergeants
40 Ingram JR, Weidner RR, Eugene III PA and Terrill USA Quantitative Police 765 pairs of Fair +
W. (2014). Supervisory influences on officers' officers officers and
perceptions of less lethal force policy: a sergeants
multilevel analysis. Policing, 37(2), pp 355–372.
41 Jackson JD. (2016). ‘Police supervisors' authentic USA Qualitative Police 13 Fair +
leadership influence on employee work officers
engagement: A phenomenological examination’.
PhD thesis, Capella University.


42 Jacobs G, Belschak FD and Hartog DN. (2014). Germany Quantitative Police 332 pairs of Fair +
(Un)ethical behavior and performance officers officers
appraisal: The role of affect, support, and
organizational justice. Journal of Business Ethics,
121(1), pp 63–76.
43 Johnson RR. (2015). Leading by example: USA Other Police 320 shifts Fair +
Supervisor modeling and officer-initiated officers
activities. Police Quarterly, 18(3), pp 223–243.
44 Johnson RR. (2015). Police organizational USA Quantitative Police 292 Fair +
commitment: The influence of supervisor officers
feedback and support. Crime & Delinquency,
61(9), pp 1155–1180.
45 Johnson RR. (2012). Police officer job USA Quantitative Police 292 Fair +
satisfaction: A multidimensional analysis. Police officers
Quarterly, 15(2), pp 157–176.


46 Jones J. (2018). How can leaders and managers UK Qualitative Police 300+ Fair +
in the police support the learning of others and mentors
at the same time, support their own? and
International Journal of Emergency Services, 7(3), mentees
pp 228–247.
47 King GF. (2015). ‘A qualitative case study of USA Qualitative Former 12 Strong ++
voluntary employee turnover in law enforcement police
agencies and financial costs to Florida taxpayers’. officers
PhD thesis, Northcentral University.
48 Graham L, Plater M, Brown N, Zheng Y and UK Quantitative Police 48,508 Fair +
Gracey, S. (2019). Research into workplace officers and
factors, well-being, attitudes and behaviour in staff
policing [internet]. Durham: ICLF Policing
Research Unit. [Accessed 27 January 2020]
49 Masal D. (2015). Shared and transformational Germany Quantitative Police 1,165 Strong ++
leadership in the police. Policing: An international officers and
journal of police strategies and management, 38(1), staff
pp 40–55.


50 Masal D and Vogel R. (2016). Leadership, use of Germany Quantitative Police 1,165 Strong ++
performance information, and job satisfaction: officers and
Evidence from police services. International staff
Public Management Journal, 19(2), pp 208–234.
51 McCarty WP and Skogan WG. (2012). Job-related USA Quantitative Police 2,564 Fair +
burnout among civilian and sworn police officers and
personnel. Police Quarterly, 16(1), pp 66–84. staff
52 McGlon TN. (2016). ‘Police integrity, leadership, USA Quantitative Police 310 Strong ++
and job satisfaction: A secondary dataset analysis’. officers
PhD thesis, Capella University.
53 Nix J and Wolfe SE. (2016). Sensitivity to the USA Quantitative Police 510 Strong ++
Ferguson Effect: The role of managerial officers
organizational justice. Journal of Criminal Justice,
47, pp 12–20.
54 Noblet AJ and Rodwell JJ. (2009). Identifying the Australia Quantitative Police 479 Strong ++
predictors of employee health and satisfaction officers
in an Npm environment. Public Management
Review, 11(5), pp 663–683.


55 Pallas E. (2015). ‘The relationship between USA Quantitative Police 439 Fair +
emotional intelligence, transformational leadership officers and
style, and effectiveness among police supervisors’. staff
PhD thesis, Wilmington University.
56 Panter H. (2015). Heterosexism and genderism Multiple Qualitative Police 20 US, 19 Strong ++
within policing: A study of police culture in the officers UK
US and the UK. [internet] PhD thesis, Cardiff
University. [Accessed 28 January 2020]
57 Park J. (2017). How does employee USA Quantitative Police 101 Fair +
empowerment contribute to higher individual managers,
and workgroup performance? An empirical supervisors
assessment of a trickle-down model in law and
enforcement agencies in Ohio. [internet] PhD followers
thesis, Ohio State University. [Accessed 28
January 2020]
58 Perez NM, Bromley M and Cochran J. (2017). USA Quantitative Police 214 Strong ++
Organizational commitment among sheriffs' officers
deputies during the shift to community-oriented
policing. Policing, 40(2), pp 321–335.


59 Quinton P, Myhill A, Bradford B, Fildes A and UK Quantitative Police Survey 1 = Strong ++
Porter G. (2015). Fair cop 2: Organisation officers 479, Survey
justice, behaviour and ethical policing. An 2 = 438
interpretative evidence commentary [internet].
College of Policing. [Accessed 24 January 2021]
60 Sachau DA, Gertz J, Matsch M, Palmer A J and USA Quantitative Military 1185 Strong ++
Englert D. (2012). Work-life conflict and police
organizational support in a military law officers
enforcement agency. Journal of Police & Criminal
Psychology, 27(1), pp 63–72.
61 Schafer JA. (2009). Developing effective USA Quantitative Police 769 Strong ++
leadership in policing: Perils, pitfalls, and paths supervisors
forward. Policing, 32(2), pp 238–260. (officer/staff
unknown)
62 Smith EN. (2012). ‘Fluctuating leadership styles USA Quantitative Police 109 Strong ++
and the impact on motivation of police officers’. officers
PhD thesis, University of Phoenix.


63 Smolej D. (2017). How to strengthen employee Slovenia Quantitative Police 160 Fair +
engagement among Slovenian criminal officers
investigators? Journal of Criminal Justice and
Security, 19(2), pp 120–137.
64 Stuart H. (2017). Mental illness stigma USA Quantitative Police 133 Fair +
expressed by police to police. The Israel Journal officers
Of Psychiatry And Related Sciences, 54(1), pp 18–
23.
65 Tremblay D, Genin É and di Loreto M. (2011). Canada Qualitative Police 254 Strong ++
Advances and ambivalences: Organisational officers
support to work-life balance in a police service.
Employment Relations Record, 11(2), pp 75–93.
66 van Gelderen BR and Bik LW. (2016). Affective The Quantitative Victims and 250 crime Strong ++
organizational commitment, work engagement Netherlands police victims, 114
and service performance among police officers. officers police
Policing: An International Journal of Police officers
Strategies & Management, 39(1), pp 206–221.


67 van Hulst M. (2017). Backstage storytelling and The Qualitative Police 53 Fair +
leadership. Policing: A journal of policy and Netherlands officers and
practice, 11(3), pp 356–368. staff
68 Ward S. (2017). ‘Leadership and motivation of law USA Qualitative Police 10 Fair +
enforcement supervisors: A phenomenological officers
study.’ PhD thesis, University of Phoenix.

Table A2. Systematic review and rapid evidence assessment references.
Full reference details Sample Quality

population rating
69 Carpenter J, Webb CM and Bostock L. (2013). The surprisingly weak evidence base Social workers and Fair +
for supervision: Findings from a systematic review of research in child welfare child welfare
practice (2000-2012). Children and Youth Services Review, 35(11), pp 1843–1853. workers
70 Campbell I and Kodz J. (2010). What makes great police leadership? What Police officers of all Strong ++
research can tell us about the effectiveness of different leadership styles, ranks with
competencies and behaviours. A rapid evidence review [internet]. National Police leadership
Improvement Agency. [Accessed 24 January 2021] responsibilities
71 Daniels K, Gedikli C, Watson D, Semkina A and Vaughn O. (2017). Job design, Generic – working Fair +
employment practices and well-being: A systematic review of intervention population in
studies. Ergonomics, 60(9), pp 1–52. advanced industrial
democracies
72 Domalaga A, Bala MM, Storman D, Peña- Sáchez JN, Świerz MJ, Kaczmarcyzyk M Physicians working Fair +
and Storman M. (2018). Factors associated with satisfaction of hospital in EU hospitals
physicians: A systematic review on European data. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(11), pp 1–21.
73 Gunawan J, Aungsuroch Y and Fisher ML. (2018). Factors contributing to First-line nurse Strong ++
managerial competence of first-line nurse managers: A systematic review. managers
International Journal of Nursing Practice, 24(e12611).


population rating
74 Hillage J, Holmes J, Rickard C, Marvel R, Taskila T, Bajorek Z, Bevan S and Brine J. Generic – OECD Fair +
(2014a). Workplace policy and management practices to improve the health of countries
employees: Evidence review 1 [internet]. Brighton: Institute for Employment Studies.
[Accessed 27 January 2020]. Available from:
nice.org.uk/guidance/ng13/evidence/evidence-review-1-workplace-policy-and-
management-practices-to-improve-the-health-of-employees-pdf-75821149
75 Hillage J, Holmes J, Rickard C, Marvel R, Taskila T, Bajorek Z, Bevan S and Brine J. Generic – OECD Fair +
(2014b). Workplace policy and management practices to improve the health of countries
76 Hillage J, Holmes J, Rickard C, Marvel R, Taskila T, Bajorek Z, Bevan S and Brine J. Generic – OECD Strong ++
(2014c). Workplace policy and management practices to improve the health of countries


population rating
77 Kodz J and Campbell I. (2010). What works in leadership development? A rapid Policing and other Fair +
evidence review [internet]. National Police Improvement Agency. [Accessed 24 professions
January 2021]
78 Kuehnl A, Seubert C, Rehfuess E, von Elm E, Nowak D and Glaser J. (2019). Human Generic – any type Fair +
resource management training of supervisors for improving health and well- of paid supervisor
being of employees (Review) [internet]. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews,
2019(9) Art. No.: CD010905 [Accessed 27 January 2020]. Available
from:.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD010905.pub2/epdf/full
79 McDowall A, Quinton P, Brown D, Carr I, Glorney E, Russell S, Bharj N, Nash R and Policing and other Strong ++
Coyle A. (2015). Promoting ethical behaviour and preventing wrongdoing in professions
organisations. A rapid evidence assessment [internet]. College of Policing.
80 Mor Barak ME, Travis DJ, Pyun H and Xie B. (2009). The impact of supervision on Workers in child Fair +
worker outcomes: a meta-analysis. Social Service Review, 83(1), pp 3–32. welfare, social work
and mental health
settings
81 O'Connor K, Muller Neff D and Pitman S. (2018). Burnout in mental health Mental health Fair +
professionals: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence and professionals
determinants. European Psychiatry, 53, pp 74–99.


population rating
82 Pearson-Goff M and Herrington V. (2014). Police leadership: A systematic review of Police leadership Strong ++
the literature. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 8(1), pp 14–26.
83 Skakon J, Nielsen K, Borg V, and Guzman J. (2010). Are leaders' well-being, Generic – leaders Fair +
behaviours and style associated with the affective well-being of their employees? and employees
A systematic review of three decades of research. Work & Stress, 24(2), pp 107–
139.
84 Watson D, Tregaskis O, Gedikli C, Vaughn O and Semkina A. (2018). Well-being Generic – studies Strong ++
through learning: a systematic review of learning interventions in the workplace on links between
and their impact on well-being. European Journal of Work and Organizational wellbeing and
Psychology, 27(2), pp 247–268. learning processes
and outcomes in
UK or other similar
economic contexts

Appendix B: Search protocol

College of Policing – Development of Practice Guidelines
Supervision: Supporting Wellbeing, Learning and Performance
Rapid Evidence Review Protocol
Component Description
Context and objectives The scoping document 23 of the development of these practice
guidelines summarises the College of Policing’s recent
‘Capability Improvement Areas’ analysis which identified ten
recurring and systemic problems considered to be
undermining capability to deliver good outcomes for the public.
One of the ‘perennial challenges’ identified was that, in
general, individuals are not reaching their full potential owing
to insufficient supervision and leadership.
As set out in the scoping document 24, the guidelines will seek
to answer the following questions:
Q1. What constitutes great supervision to enable and support

our people’s wellbeing, learning and performance?
Q2. What support do supervisors need from their

organisations to deliver this?
Accordingly, this work will focus on a broad definition of

supervision which recognises that supervisors exist at all
levels of the organisation, rather than supervision of frontline
staff only. The guidelines will have a particular focus on
23 College of Policing. (2019). Effective supervision: Guideline scope can be found in Effective
supervision/Related reports and information [internet].
24 College of Policing. (2019). Effective supervision: Guideline scope can be found in Effective
supervision/Related reports and information [internet].

supervision and supervisory practices as opposed to

(strategic) leadership 25.
The guidelines will be informed by evidence drawn from rapid

evidence assessments and practice evidence. Findings will be
presented to the Guideline Committee, who will develop the
guidelines.
Review question(s) The questions for the rapid evidence assessments to explore
are:
Q1. What constitutes effective supervision that enables and

supports employees’ (police officers, staff and volunteers)
wellbeing, learning and performance?
Q2. What are the organisational requirements that need to be

in place for supervisors to enable and support employees’
(police officers, staff and volunteers) wellbeing, learning and
performance?
Resources and The rapid evidence assessment is due to be conducted

timescales between June and October 2019. Within these timescales and
the capacity of staff available to work on this the review, it is
estimated that approximately 10,000 references could be
sifted and then sifted studies reviewed, data extracted and
results synthesised.
Searches We anticipate searching the following databases (title and

abstract):
 Proquest (including PTSDPubs, Criminal Justice Database,

National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS),
25 While there is conceptual overlap, this work distinguishes between ‘supervision’ and ‘leadership’.
Supervision is broadly defined as ‘an intervention provided by a more senior member of a profession
to more junior member or members of that same profession’ (Bernard JM and Goodyear RK. (2004).
‘Fundamentals of Clinical Supervision’. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. p 8). ‘Leadership’
can be defined as ‘the quality which connects an understanding of what must be done with the
capability to achieve it’ (College of Policing. (2015). Leadership Review [internet]. p 6).

Education Database, Education Resources Information

Centre (ERIC), International Bibliography of Social
Sciences (IBSS), PAIS Index, Policy File, Political Science
Database, World Political Science Database, Social
Science Database, Sociology Collection, Applied Social
Sciences Index and Abstracts (ASSIA))
 Web of Science Core Collection (including Social Science

Citation Index)
 EBSCO (including PsycINFO, Psychology and Behavioural

Sciences Collection, Criminal Justice Abstracts, Medline,
OpenDissertations and Business Source Index)
 Emerald Insight
 National Police Library Classic Catalogue
 Turning research into Practice (TRIP)
 Social Science Research Unit (SSRU), Inst of Education
 Global Policing Database
 Cochrane Controlled Register of Trials (CENTRAL)
 Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR)
 Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effectiveness (DARE)
 Electronic Theses Online Service (ETHOS)
The following websites will also be searched:
 College of Policing What Works
 The Campbell Collaboration
 Tavistock Institute
 NICE
 SCIE
 University of York Centre for Reviews and Dissemination
 3ie impact
 Gov.uk

 The Scottish Institute for Policing Research
 National Institute of Justice
 ESRC
 Police Executive Research Forum
 Centre for Evidence Based Management
 Australian Institute for Police Management
 HMICFRS (particular attention to Thematic Reviews,

including Frontline Supervision Thematic Review)
 The Police Foundation
 British Society of Criminology Policing Network blog
 Institute for Employment Studies
 The Work Foundation
 Institute for Work Psychology (University of Sheffield)
 Business School websites eg Warwick Business School,

Said Business School, Lancaster Management School
 CORE (open access research papers)
 In addition, key stakeholders, including the academics

represented on the Guideline Committee and College
Evidence and Evaluation Advisors will be approached for
additional citations, including police force and government
reports.
Only those studies written in English, or already translated into

English, will be included in the review. We will restrict searches
to studies conducted in the UK, Europe, USA, Canada,
Australia and New Zealand. Test searches will be restricted to
the time period 1999 – 2019 however if these yield significantly
more than the targeted 10,000 hits, dates will be restricted
further, for example studies published later than the focused

searching of evidence conducted in 2012 to inform SCIE

supervision guidelines.26
Additional, specific searches may be run to supplement the

evidence identified if, when the included papers are mapped,
there is a significant gap in the literature based on this topic.
Types of study to be It is expected that there will be few studies such as systematic
included reviews and RCTs providing evidence that addresses the
review questions. There will also be studies on leadership that
are theoretically based but draw on research evidence.
For this reason, the types of study designs to be included will

be wide ranging and include surveys as well as qualitative
research methods such as case study research and
ethnographies. Also for studies that are directly relevant to
policing, other types of studies will be included (see in
brackets below).
Types of studies to be included are:
 Reviews of evidence: systematic reviews, meta-analyses

and rapid evidence assessments, (for policing studies: also
non-systematic literature reviews and theoretical studies
that draw on research literature will be considered if they
are published in peer reviewed journals)
 Primary studies: cross sectional studies, surveys (including

perception based surveys), pre and post studies,
randomised control trials and primary studies that show a
statistical association between one or more variables and
the outcomes of interest including regression or
correlational analysis
26 SCIE 2013 Effective Supervision in a Variety of Settings SCIE Guide 50

 Qualitative research: case studies, ethnographies,

interview based studies
The wide range of studies and the variation in the strength of

conclusions that can be drawn from them will need to be
considered carefully at the data extraction and synthesis
stages (see below).
Participants/population The participants or population for the review are the sectors or
occupations of the supervisees and their supervisors. The
sectors and occupations to be included are officers, staff,
employees, and volunteers in:
 policing,
 other emergency services, including ambulance and fire

service
 and other high risk occupations including prison service,

armed services, social work, medicine (including
surgeons), aviation (pilots).
Depending on number of studies identified through the

searches, other high risk occupations involving critical decision
making that will be considered are workers on nuclear plants
and oil rigs and occupations under high scrutiny or regulation
such as barristers, courts and probation officers.
Intervention(s), For the purposes of the searches the intervention is defined

exposure(s) as:
Q1. Supervision:
Supervisory practices, behaviours and leadership style of

supervisor, team leader or line manager.
Interaction and relationship between supervisee and their

supervisor, team leader or line manager.
Q2. Organisational support for effective supervision:

Organisational support and processes including performance

monitoring/review, CPD, review/planning, organisational
structures and processes, workloads and training for
managers, wellbeing/health services, organisational learning,
and corporate communications on these.
Comparator(s)/control Factors and contextual factors associated with ineffective

supervision or barriers to effective supervision are important to
explore in this review.
Negative outcomes such as work stress and dissatisfaction

and poor performance will be included as well as positive
outcomes listed below.
It is important to note that how outcomes are measured will

differ according to the research methods of the studies and
this will need to be reflected at the data extraction and
synthesis stages.
Outcome(s) Improved/increased:
 Resilience, wellbeing (both physical and psychological)
 Individual learning and personal development
 Productivity, work performance and organisational

outcomes
 Job satisfaction and morale
Other related outcomes to be included are:
 Staff turnover and sickness absence
 Indicators or perceptions of organisational culture
As noted above, different methods of measuring outcomes, eg

perception based measures as well as measurable indicators,
will need to be reflected in the data extraction and synthesis
stages.

Search terms Search terms will be devised to search for studies relevant to
question 1 with tiers for the population, intervention, outcome
and type of research study (see draft search terms and other
information on inclusion criterion at the bottom of this table).
Studies relevant to question 2 will be identified at the sifting
and data extraction stages.
Selection of studies – The review team will perform initial trials of screening on
sifting on abstracts title/abstract based on studies returned from database/web
and secondary searches.
screening on full text
Following these trials, a tick list and decision tree will be
created in order to provide clarity and consistency on studies
to include and exclude, for example:
1. Relevance: firstly to a definition of supervision (see other

information on inclusion/exclusion at the bottom of this
table below) and secondly to the research question;
2. Study sector and the types of studies in terms of research

methods. Types of studies relevant to the policing sector to
be included are likely to differ and may for example include
theoretically based studies that draw on research evidence,
depending on numbers of studies identified through the
searches.
3. Empirical material contained in the study, as noted above

the study methods to be included may differ for policing
relevant studies.
The included studies will also be coded according to whether

they are relevant to review question 1 and/or question 2.
An agreed proportion of studies will be screened by all

members of the review team and inter-rater reliability will be
assessed. Full text copies of all potentially relevant studies will
be obtained and then assessed through secondary screening.

An agreed proportion of studies will be independently sifted by

two reviewers, depending on the volume of studies. Any
uncertainty will be discussed and resolved. If uncertainty
persists, a 3rd reviewer will make the final decision. All
excluded studies and reasons for their exclusion will be
documented. We will include a PRISMA flowchart in the review
showing details of the search.
Data extraction and In the first instance, for a small sample of studies, two
quality assessment of reviewers will independently extract data from and quality
full texts assess relevant studies. Tools for quality assessing the
studies will need to be selected (tbc) and different tools may
need to be used depending on the research methods of the
study. If so a further decision tree will be devised for this
stage.
Any disagreement will be resolved through discussion with a

third reviewer. The remainder of the studies will then be
allocated to the reviewers to extract the data.
Data will be extracted and coded using a data extraction form.

This will include: bibliographic details; study aims; study
design including sample size and design, location; population
(sector/occupation); type of supervisory practice or behaviour,
contextual factors such as organisational culture/barriers to
effective supervision, analysis methodology; outcomes; key
findings relevant to review question 1 – including factors
contributing to (in)effective supervisory practice and positive
outcomes and question 2 organisational requirements for
effective supervisory practice.
Strategy for data A narrative summary of the evidence will be produced.

synthesis Evidence will be coded according to factor or predictor of focus
and synthesised to form evidence statements for each factor.
(Excel or NVIVO will be used for this stage – tbc)

This is a key stage of the review and an important aspect for

this review will be to explore contextual factors and
overcoming barriers to effective supervision. At the synthesis
stage other outcomes of positive supervisory practices will be
explored as well as those specified in the searches, eg
contributory outcomes or broader outcomes that may
contribute to a move towards a more collaborative
organisational culture.
Analysis of subgroups Depending on the results of the searches and focus/content of

or subsets specific studies, we will consider exploring any differences in
experiences of supervision or perception of supervision
amongst different groups such as different ranks/grades,
officers/staff/volunteers and groups with protected
characteristics.
Any other information There are likely to be difficulties selecting terms to use when
or criteria for searching academic databases that will identify literature that
inclusion/exclusion addresses the broad definition of supervision for this review,
recognising that supervisors exist at all levels within an
organisation, but excludes literature focusing on strategic
leadership.
At the searching stage, broad terms such as ‘supervision’ and

‘supervisor*’, ‘manager*’ and ‘leader*’ will be trialled for
searching academic databases to ensure relevant literature is
not missed. If these terms yield too many references, the
leadership and manager terms will be refined to terms such as
team-leader* and line-manage* and effective near to leader* or
manager*
At the screening stage, exclusion/inclusion criteria will be

devised to ensure all literature relevant to the broad definition
of supervision detailed above is included (ie direct supervision
of officers and staff at all levels) and literature relating only to

strategic leadership is excluded. A precise definition of

supervision will inform the decision of whether to include or
exclude a study. The definition of supervision will draw from
definitions in the research literature will provide a description
of the role of the supervisor and specific functions of the
supervisor for example:
‘an intervention provided by a more senior member of a

profession to more junior member or members of that
same profession’ (Bernard and Goodyear, 2004, p. 8)
‘Supervision: is a process by which one worker is given

responsibility by the organisation to work with another
worker in order to meet certain organisational,
professional and personal objectives which together
promote the best outcomes for service users.’
Lambley, S. and Marrable, T. (2013) ‘Practice enquiry

into supervision in a variety of adult care settings where
there are health and social care practitioners working
togetherlink 1’, London: SCIE.
‘The primary functions of supervision are:
 administrative case management
 reﬂecting on and learning from practice
 personal support
 mediation, in which the supervisor acts as a bridge

between the individual staff member and the
organisation
 professional development.’
SCIE Research Briefing 43

https://www.scie.org.uk/publications/briefings/briefing43/

Appendix C: Search strategy

Systematic searches were conducted on a range of research databases (see full list
at Appendix B). Reference lists of included studies were reviewed to identify any
further studies for inclusion. Academic Guideline Committee members and subject
matter experts were also asked to suggest any key studies that fell within the criteria
of the search that had not been identified.
Searches were carried out using two populations of interest: policing and law
enforcement, and other high-risk professions. Wellbeing searches were conducted
separately to other searches in order to facilitate screening by internal wellbeing
experts at the College. Database searches were carried out between 1 July and 5
July 2019. The structure of each search and the exact terms used differed
depending on the database being searched. Some example search strings are
provided below.
Table A3: Search string 1: Police-specific AND wellbeing.
Domain Search terms
Population police OR policing OR “law enforcement” OR “law

enforcer”
AND
supervis* OR “manager” OR “managers” OR “leader”

OR “leaders”
Intervention, comparator well-being OR “well being” OR wellbeing OR wellness

or outcome OR coping OR happy OR happiness OR “mental
toughness” OR “mental fitness” OR resilien* OR
stress* OR “job satisfaction” OR “employee
satisfaction” OR hardiness OR hardy OR “self effic*”
OR dissatisfaction OR morale
Research methods “systematic* review*” OR “rapid evidence” OR “REA”

OR “meta*analys*” OR evaluat* OR trial* OR “RCT”
OR “experiment*” OR “regression analys*” OR

“correlation* analys*” OR interview* OR survey* OR

“focus group*” OR ethnograph* OR observation* OR
“case stud*” OR qualitative* OR “time series”
Table A4: Search string 2: Other high-risk profession AND wellbeing.
Domain Search terms
Population “high risk profession*” OR “high risk occupation*” OR

“bluelight organi?ation*” OR ”bluelight service*” OR
“emergency service*” OR ambulance OR fire OR
“emergency medical service*” OR “EMS” OR “health
emergenc*” OR hospital OR aviation OR “prison
service*” OR “correction* service*” OR “rescue
service” OR army OR “armed forces” OR military OR
navy OR marine OR “social work” OR “child welfare”
OR “border force*” OR “border service*” OR “border
protection” OR “border patrol”
AND

OR “leaders”
Intervention, comparator well-being OR “well being” OR wellbeing OR wellness

or outcome OR coping OR happy OR happiness OR “mental
toughness” OR “mental fitness” OR resilien* OR
stress* OR “job satisfaction” OR “employee
satisfaction” OR hardiness OR hardy OR “self effic*”
OR dissatisfaction OR morale



Table A5: Search string 3: Police-specific AND any of: professional development,
performance, staff performance, staff engagement or staff absence.
Domain Search terms
Population police OR policing OR “law enforcement” OR “law

enforcer”
AND

OR “leaders”
Intervention, comparator learning OR “professional development” OR “personal

or outcome development” OR training OR education OR
knowledge OR skill* OR competenc* OR performance
OR productiv* OR “employee attitude” OR “officer
attitude” OR “staff attitude” OR “employee behavio?r”
OR “officer behavio?r” OR “staff behavio?r” OR
“employee engag*” OR “officer engag*” OR “staff
engag*” OR “employee absence” OR “officer absence”
OR “staff absence” OR absenteeism OR presenteeism
OR leavism OR “officer turnover” OR “employee
turnover” OR “staff turnover”


Table A6: Search string 4: Other high-risk profession AND any of: professional
development, performance, staff performance, staff engagement or staff absence.
Domain Search terms
Population “high risk profession*” OR “high risk occupation*” OR

“bluelight organi?ation*” OR ”bluelight service*” OR
“emergency service*” OR ambulance OR fire OR
“emergency medical service*” OR “EMS” OR “health
emergenc*” OR hospital OR aviation OR “prison
service*” OR “correction* service*” OR “rescue
service” OR army OR “armed forces” OR military OR
navy OR marine OR “social work” OR “child welfare”
OR “border force*” OR “border service*” OR “border
protection” OR “border patrol”
AND

OR “leaders”
Intervention, comparator learning OR “professional development” OR “personal

or outcome development” OR training OR education OR
knowledge OR skill* OR competenc* OR performance
OR productiv* OR “employee attitude” OR “officer
attitude” OR “staff attitude” OR “employee behavio?r”
OR “officer behavio?r” OR “staff behavio?r” OR
“employee engag*” OR “officer engag*” OR “staff
engag*” OR “employee absence” OR “officer
absence” OR “staff absence” OR absenteeism OR
presenteeism OR leavism OR “officer turnover” OR
“employee turnover” OR “staff turnover”




Appendix D: Screening process plus inclusion and

exclusion criteria


Appendix E: Quality assessment criteria

Several Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) research assessment tools27
were adapted to form criteria for quality assessment of studies included in the REA.
CASP is part of the work of the Oxford Centre for Triple Healthcare Ltd (3V) and is
well regarded for the tools it has developed for use in healthcare settings.
For primary research studies, the CASP qualitative checklist was adapted to
include items considered most relevant to the identified literature. The CASP tool
focuses its questions on three broad issues:
 Are the results of the study valid?
 What are the results?
 Will the results help locally?
Quantitative criteria were added following consultation of colleagues with statistical

expertise. These covered whether:
 the sample was likely to representative of the target population
 the authors explicitly stated that assumptions of the statistical test were met
 the authors reported that had tested for collinearity or interactions between
variables
 the overall fit of the model was reported
The CASP systematic review checklist was adapted for use with systematic
reviews, meta-analyses and rapid evidence assessments.
Three quality levels were established using the CASP checklist: ‘strong’ (++), ‘fair’
(+) and ‘weak’ (-). These are reflected in the reference tables in Appendix A.
 A strong (++) study was assessed as having minor limitations. The study met all
quality criteria or failed to meet one or more quality criteria, but this was unlikely
to change the conclusions.
27The qualitative and systematic review CASP checklists are available here: casp-uk.net/casp-
tools-checklists/

 A fair (+) study was assessed as having potentially serious limitations. The study
failed to meet one or more quality criteria, and this could change the conclusions.
 A weak (-) study was assessed as having very serious limitations. The study
failed to meet one or more quality criteria, and this was highly likely to change the
conclusions. Most of these studies were screened out due to the quality
assessment. Only those conducted on issues or themes where there was a
serious lack of other (higher-quality) evidence were kept in the review.
An overall evidence rating that represents the review team’s judgement about the
strength of the combined research evidence is provided for each guideline. These
are meant to guide the reader in relation to the strength of the evidence presented in
each section. The ratings are ‘good’, ‘moderate’, and ‘limited’.
A good level of evidence was indicated by the majority of the evidence used to
inform the guideline being rated as ++. All of the guidelines that received a rating of
‘good’ also met the following criteria:
 relevance – at least one study in the policing sector
 consistency – was supported by at least five primary studies or included at least

one systematic review based on evidence from multiple studies and the review is
rated as ++
 risk of bias – the supporting evidence included at least two studies rated ++
A moderate level of evidence was indicated by the majority of the evidence used to
inform the guideline being rated as +. All but one of the guidelines that received a
rating of ‘moderate’ also met the three criteria outlined above.
A limited level of evidence was indicated by the majority of the evidence used to
inform the guideline being rated as +.

About the College
We’re the professional body for the police service in

England and Wales.
Working together with everyone in policing, we share

the skills and knowledge officers and staff need to
prevent crime and keep people safe.
We set the standards in policing to build and

preserve public trust and we help those in policing
develop the expertise needed to meet the demands
of today and prepare for the challenges of the future.
college.police.uk
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4.2.4. Demonstrating fairness and respect ................................................... 56

Figures and tables

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Recent analysis undertaken by the College identified insufficient supervision as one

 What constitutes effective supervision that enables and supports employees’

A systematic search of a wide range of databases and websites retrieved 13,192

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Supervision responsibilities can cover a number of components, including personal

 Effective police leaders typically demonstrated five activities:

o creating a shared vision

o engendering organisational commitment

o demonstrating care for followers

o driving change rather than managing the status quo

o complex problem solving

April 2022 Page 6 of 123

 Barriers to effective supervision in policing included:

o cultural constraints (resistance to change and innovation among senior

o a general lack of support from leaders

o a lack of agreement as to what constituted effective leadership and

o capacity challenges for supervisors

 Barriers were found to exist in relation to perceptions of fair and consistent

 Evidence from outside policing suggested that management and leadership

Organisational support and processes

 The existence of clear policies relating to employees, as well as allowing

April 2022 Page 7 of 123

facilitate the effective provision of support from supervisors in relation to

Acting as a role model

 Feedback on positive role modelling identified the benefits of a number of

 Evidence from supervisors demonstrated the importance of tailoring management

o treating officers as people first

o acting with self-awareness

o using discipline strategically

April 2022 Page 8 of 123

o using informal rewards

o enabling discretion and empowerment

Building effective relationships

 Supportive management practices identified in the evidence included:

o genuine interest in the employee

o recognising contribution and commitment

o lower work-family conflict

o feeling less bullied

o greater trust in, and commitment to, the organisation

o greater job satisfaction

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 Good communication was seen as an essential attribute of an effective police

Demonstrating fairness and respect

o wellbeing, including reduced stress and anxiety

 Demonstrably ethical police leaders appeared to generate a sense of

 Perceptions of fairness were important when linked to diversity and inclusion.

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o lower job stress

o lower emotional exhaustion

o feeling less bullied