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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
21 viewsDspaa
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3hat ables nt ot oYa a lhs
Count Wich we
Uahles
gLall call bes
9nstesad kounding Mefers w res y eh
htma ch andya dounkol mee»s kaviired duyhon.
eat SL,Ls, Sss3 ben 3 mekrs
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1MS17TE068 AmoghCopyright
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/ 14
1.2 The general system
An optical fiber communication system is similar in basic concept to any type of communi-
cation system. A block schematic of a general communication system is shown in Figure
1.2(a), the function of which is to convey the signal from the information source over
the transmission medium to the destination. The communication system therefore consists
of a transmitter or modulator linked (o the information source, the transmission medium,
and a receiver or demodulator at the destination point. In electrical communications the
information source provides an electrical signal, usually derived from a message signal
which is not electrical (e.g. sound), to a transmitter comprising electrical and electronic
components which converts the signal into a suitable form for propagation over the trans-
mission medium. This is often achieved by modulating a carrier, which, as mentioned pre-
viously, may be an electromagnetic wave. The transmission medium can consist of a pair
of wires, a coaxial cable or a radio link through free space down which the signal is trans-
mitted to the receiver, where it is transformed into the original electrical information
signal (demodulated) before being passed to the destination. However, it must be noted
that in any transmission medium the signal is attenuated, or suffers loss, and is subject to
degradations due to contamination by random signals and noise, as well as possible distor-
tions imposed by mechanisms within the medium itself. Therefore, in any communication
system there is a maximum permitted distance between the transmitter and the receiver
beyond which the system effectively ceases to give intelligible communication. For long-
haul applications these factors necessitate the installation of repeaters or line amplifiers
6 Introduction Chapter 1
Information Transmitter Transmission Receiver |}
source *) (modulator) medium (demodulator) [F] Destination
tar Commurication system
Information Electrical Optical Optica! fiber
source [—*] transmit source cable
Optical Electrical
! detector receive Destination
{b)
Figure 1.2 (a) The general communication system. (b) The optical fiber
commurication system 6 Introduction Chapter 1
Information |__| Transmitter
source [—*] modulator)
Information |__| Electrical
source transmit
(b)
Figure 1.2 (a) The general communication system. (b) The optical fiber
communication system
(see Sections 12.4 and 12.10) at intervals, both to remove signal distortion and to increase
signal level before transmission is continued down the link.
For optical fiber communications the system shown in Figure 1.2(a) may be considered
in slightly greater detail, as given in Figure 1.2(b). In this case the information source pro-
vides an electrical signal to transmitter comprising an electrical stage which drives an
optical source to give modulation of the lightwave carrier. The optical source which pro-
vides the electrical-optical conversion may be either a semiconductor laser or light-emitting
le (LED). The transmission medium consists of an optical fiber cable and the receiver
consists of an optical detector which drives a further electrical stage and hence provides
demodulation of the optical carrier, Phatodiodes (p-n, p-i-n or avalanche) and, in some
instances, phototrunsistors and photoconductors are utilized for the detection of the optical
signal and the optical-electrical conversion. Thus there is a requirement for electrical
interfacing at either end of the optical link and at present the signal processing is usually
performed electrically.*
‘The optical currier may be modulated using either an analog or digital information
signal. In the system shown in Figure 1.2(b) analog modulation involves the variation of
the Light emitted from the optical source in a continuous manner. With digital modulation,
however, discrete changes in the light intensity are obtained (i.e. on-off pulses). Although
often simpler to implement, analog modulation with an optical fiber communication sys-
tem is less efficient, requiring a far higher signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver than digital
modulation. Also, the linearity needed for analog modulation is not always provided by
semiconductor optical sources, especially at high modulation frequencies. For these reasons,
analog optical fiber communication links are generally limited to shorter distances and
Jower bunidwidth operation than digital links.
* Signiticunt developments huve taken place in devices for optical signal processing which are start=
ing to alter this situation (see Chupter 11), 2.3| Optical Fiber Modes and Configurations
Before going into detals un optical fiber characteristics, this scetion fist presents a bricf averview of
the underlying concepts of optical fiber modes and optical fiber cunfigunaions. The discussions in See.
2.3 through 2.7 address conventional optical fibers, which conelst of solid dielectric structures, Section
2.8 describes the structure of photonic crystal fibers, which can be created to have a varicly of internal
microstructures. Chapter 3 describes the operational characteristics of uth extegories of fibers,
Fiber
‘An optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide that operates at optical frequencies. This fiber wavepuide is
‘normally cylindrical in form. Itconfines clectromagnctic energy in the fori of light to within its surfaces
‘and gules the light ina direction parallel to its axis. The ransmission properiis of an optical waveguide
cal Fibers: Structures, Waveguidiny. and Fabrication 4
are dictated by its structoral characteristics, which have major effect in determining bow an optical
signal is affected as it propagates along the fiber. The structure basically establishes the information=
canying capocity of the fiber and also influences the tesponse of the waveguide to environmental
perturbations.
The propagation of light along a waveguide con be describedin terms of asc of guided clectromagnetic
‘waves called the modes of the waveguide, These guided modes are refered 028 the Bounu! or trapped
modes of the waveguide. Each guided mode isa pattem of electric and magnetic field distributions that
is repeated along the fiber t equal intervals, Only a certain discrete number af modes are capable of
propagating along the guide. As wil be seen In Sec. 2.4, hese modes are those electromagnetic waves
that saisfy the homogencous wave cquation in the fiber and the boundary condition at the waveguide
surfaces,
‘Although many differentconfigurations ofthe optical waveguide have been discussed in the literature?
the most widely accepted strictures the single solid dielectric eylinder of radiusa and index of refraction
1, shown in Fig. 2.14, This cylinder is known asthe core of ie fiber. The core Is surrounded by a solid
dielectric cladding which has a refractive index that is fess than ny. Abhough. in principle, a cladding
snot necessary For light to propagate along the core ofthe fiber, it serves several purposes. The cladding
reciuces scaitering los that results from dielectie discontinuities a1 the core surface, it adds mechanical
strength tothe fiber, and it protects the core from absorbing surface contaminants with which it could
‘come in contact.
“Ue Js) ()
Fig. 2.14 Schematic ofa conventtonal sila flber structure. A elrcular sold core of refractive
Index n, (5 surrounded by a claclding having a refractive index na < n,. Anelastic
Plastic buffer encapsulates the fiber
In standard optical fibers the core material is highly pure sii
lass cladding. Higher-loss plastic-core fibres with plastic cladding’ are alsa widely in se. In alton,
Iiost fibers are encapsulate in an elastic, abrasion-resistant plastic material. This material adds further
0 the fiber and mechanically isolates or btfers the fibers from small geometrical irregularities,
distortions, or roughneases of adjacent surfuces. These perturbations could otherwise cause acaltering
losses induced by random microscopic bens thit can arise when the fiers nne Incorporated into cables
‘or supported by other structures.
Variations in the material composition of the core give rise to the two commonly used fiber types
shown in Fig. 2.15. Inthe fir ease, the refractive index of the care is uniform throughout and undergoes
‘an chrupt change (or step) at the cladding bourdary. This is called a step-index fiber. Inthe second case,
the core refractive index In made to vary uw a function of the redial distance from the center of the fiber.
‘This type isa graded: indes fiber.
Both the step- and the graded-index fibers can be further divided into single-mode and multimode
classes, As the name implies. a single-mode fiber sustains only one mode of propagation, whereas
multimode fibers contain many hundreds of riodes. A few typical sizes of single- und multimode fibers Variations in the material composition of the core give rise to the two commonly used fiber types
shown in Fig. 2.15. Inthe first case, the refractive index of the core is uniform throughout and undergoes
an abrupt change (or step) at the cladding boundary. This is called a step-index fiber. In the second case,
the core refractive index is made to vary as a function of the radial distance from the center of the fiber.
‘This type is a graded-index fiber.
Both the step- and the graded-index fibers can be further divided into single-mode and multimode
classes, As the name implies, a single-mode fiber sustains only one mode of propagation, whereas
multimode fibers contain many hundreds of modes. A few typical sizes of single- and multimode fibers
Optical Fiber Conmnuunications:
are given in Fig. 2.15 to provide an idea of the dimensional scale. Multimode fibers offer several
advantages compared with single-mode fibers. As we shall see in Chapter 5, the larger core radii of
multimode fibers make It easier to launch optical power into the fiber and facilitate the connecting
together of similar fibers, Another advantage is thal light can be launched into a multimode fiber using
a lightemitting-diode (LED) source, whereas single-mode fibers must generally be excited with laser
diodes. Although LEDs have lexs optical output power than laser diodes (as we shall discussin Chapter 4),
they are easier to make, are fess expensive, require less complex circuitry, and have longer lifetimes
than laser diodks, thus making them more desirable in ce“ain applications.
Index profile Fiber Cross Section and Ray Paths Typical dimensions:
tn yh tb sum
' * 0 (cladding)
day: | ¢ =
¥
‘Monomods siep-index fiber a
—b 23-00pm
0 (claddiog)
6 TT ape
(core)
“Multimode sicp-index fiber a
—b 125-140pm
0) > (cladding)
- > S0-100 pit
+ (eorey
Tr
Multimode praded-index titer
Fig. 2.15 Comparison of conventional single-mode and multimode step-index and graded-
index optical sibers
A disadvantage of multimode fibers is that they suffer from intermodal dispersion. We shall describe
this effect in detail in Chapter 3. Briefly, intermodal dispersion cun be deveribed as follows. When an
optical pulse is Launched into a fiber, the optical power in the pulse is distributed over all (or most) of the
modes of the fiber, Each of the modes that can propagate in a multimode fiber travels at a slightly
ferent velocity, This means that the modes in a given optical pulse arrive at the fiber end at slightly
fifferent times, thus causing the pulse to spread out in time as it travels along the fiber. This effect,
which is Lnown as ftermodal dispersion or intermodal distortion, can be reduced by using a graded-
index profile in fiber core. This allows graded-index fibers to have much larger bandwidths (data rate
transmission capabilities) then step-indes fibers. Even higher band-widths are possible in single-mode
fibers, where intermodal dispersion effects are not present. ae PRCA eG P54
OQ @ tutorialspoint.com/prin @© :
Types of Optical Fibers
Depending upon the material
composition of the core, there are two
types of fibers used commonly. They are
5 Step-index fiber - The refractive
index of the core is uniform
throughout and undergoes an
abrupt change (or step) at the
cladding boundary.
5 Graded-index fiber - The core
refractive index is made to vary
as a function of the radial
distance from the center of the
fiber.
Both of these are further divided into -
58 Single-mode fiber - These are
excited with laser.
5 Multi-mode fiber - These are
excited with LED.
Show simplified view
Ls ) oe enn Mahi aden” tostshe od ip cane’ «..., Whe 1 coke Th snaad Gir otd ta apkahad on tan Fac.mamnege tema’
space alight wave travels ata spec = 3x 1s The sped ight is eat to the frequency Wand
‘the wavelength Lby c= VL Upon entering ile or noncondting madiom the wave now tare
‘La spec v which Is curaceriste ofthe maieil and isles than c. The ratio of the speed of Fight ina
‘acu to than mae Ie ds of refraction w oft metal and seven by
219)
“Typeal valves of wee 1.09 for ale, 133 fox. water 148 for silica gla, and 2.42 for diamond.
2.2.2 Reflection and Refraction
‘The concep of reflection ad refraction can be inerpreted most easily by consiering the behavior of
Tigh rays anointed with plane waves traveling ina dielectie material. When aight ray encomters
‘boundary separating two deret media, part te ray ie refece back it the fir medio and the
‘remade iv bent (oe eeracted) a enter the second materia. Ths Is chown in ig. 2.6 where my <
“The bending or eration of the igh ray atthe interface fa resol of the uifference in the speed of Hight
Jn two materials hat have different refractive Ines. The reatloneip at ve iteface Is hewn a8
‘Shel's law and is given by
sings =
in 219)
0% equvalenly. a
co, en
Where the angles ae fined In Fip. 26. The angle 6 etwcem the Hiden ray and the normal 10 the
surface Is known a8 the angle of incidence.
‘Acconfing 1s the lw of refiecton the angle Oat which the Incident ray trikes dh fterface fs
‘actly exon lo the angle thatthe reece ray rhahes with the same Irae In ado, the cident
‘ay, the neal to the Inerace sul he reflected ray al ic In the same plane, which fs perpeaicl
the Interface plane between the (wo material. This plane I cae the plane of icidence. When ight
traveling Ina cersin modium is refiectd aT an ocally demer material (one witha higher refractive
Inder, the process refered wo ex extemal reflection, Conversely, the rection of light off of less
‘opiicaly dense mate (auch alight aveling In glave Bing eee at a plive-al Icface) I called
ermal reflection.
nm 7
ig. 2.6 Refraction and reflection ofa light ray at a material boundary
‘As the angle of incidence 6; in an optically denser material hecomes lamer, the refracted anele
approaches 72. Beyond this pont no refraction is possible and the ight rays become ally berry
‘flecied. The conditions require for total internal reflection can be determined by using Snell's Iw
{fq €2-16)]. Consider Fig. 27, which shows a glass surface ina. A light ray ges heat woward the glass
surfoe a leaves the pss accordance with Sri’ awe. Ihe angle of feidence Qs cessed
pint wil eventally be reached where the Hight ay insti parallel wo the lass surface. This points
Known asthe crtical angle of incidence @ When the incidence angle 6 Is greater than the cris!
angle, the condition or wal inurl reflection is safe; hati, the igh is tually elected back nto
the glass with mo light escaping (rom the glass srface. (This isan idealized situation. I proce, there
is always some tunneling of optical energy throogh the interface. Ths ean he explained in terms ofthe
ceewomagretic wave theory of ight, which Ie presented in See. 24)
mem Relies 1 Relacet
ig. 2.7 Representation of the erteal angle and! tla ermal reflection ata giass.at mierface
‘Asan example, consider the glss-ar interface shown i Fig. 2.7. When the light xy in ai i parallel
to the glass surface, then gy = 90° so tht sin f= HT crtad angle in he gis i thas
singe es) 2.2.8 Polarization Components of Light
‘An ontinary lightwave consists of many transverse electromagnetic waves that vibrate in a variety of
Uirections (in more than one plane) and is called unpolarized light However, one can represent any
arbitrary direction of vibration asa combination of a parallel vibration and a perpendicular vibration, as
ight 2s consisting of two orthogonal plane
Muatinade of Parallel
polarization polarization
‘ommponents ‘compenent
Perpenicular
‘polarization
‘component
@ o
8 Polartzation represented as a combxnation ofa parallel etbration and a perpendicular
vibration
368
Polarization components, one that lies in the plane of incidence (the plane containing the incident and
‘eflected rays) and the other of which fies ina plane perpendicular to the plane of incidence. These are
‘the paralfel polarization and the perpendicular polarization components, respectively. Inthe case when
all tho electtic fick planes of the different transverse waves are aligned! parallel 10 each other, then the
lightwave iy linearly polariced. This i the simplevt type oF polarization, ay Sec, 2.1.1 describes
Unpotarized fight can be split into separate polarization components cither by reflection off of a
wtmetallic nutface ve by refraction when the light passes from one material io another, As nxxed in
Fig, 26, wher an umputarised light hear traveling in air impinges 0 a noernctallic surface such as glass,
{MUL ofthe team is reflected und part iv refracted into the laws. A circle dod and an arm designate the
[Revalfetand perpensicular polarization components, respectively. in Fig. 2.10. The refkected beams partially
flarized and at w specific angle (known as the Brewster's angte) the reflected light is completely
Perpendiculatly polarized, The parallel eomponcat of the refracted beam is transmitted entirely into the
‘liss, whereay the perpendicular component is only partially refracted, How much of the refracted light is
[Polarized depends on the angle at which the light approaches the surface and oa the material compesition.
Ineidet ray
Maral imtertace
© repent: ptarration
= Pet poainton
© Panially retracted porembcular polarization
Behavior of on unpolarized light beam at the interface between alr andl a
nonmetal surface 1:23 PM Rel (C4: LY
OQ @ brilliantorg/wiki/disper @
€® BRILLIANT
Dispersion of Light “A
Dispersion of light is defined as follows:
DEFINITION
Dispersion of light is the splitting of white
light into its constituent colors due to the
refractive index of the surface and the
wavelength of the light.
If the light entering the prism is not of a single
colour then the emergent beam also has differ-
ent colours arranged in a definite order. It is be-
cause the light of different colours have differ-
ent speeds in a medium expect air. The speed of
light in a transparent medium decreases with
decrease in the wavelength of light.
DEFINITION ee Checks are not present. -
2.3.2 Rays and Modes
AS and Modes
‘The electromagnetic light fickd that is guided along an|
‘of bound oF trapped modes. Each of these guided
‘optical fiber ean be represented by a superposition
‘modes consists of a set of simple electromagnetic field
configurations. For monochromatic light fickls of radian frequency «a mode traveling inthe positive x
direction (i.e, along the fiber axis) has a time and : Ucpendence given by
fms
The factor Ais the z component of the wave propagation constant k = 2.f2.and isthe main parameter
of interest in describing fiber modes. For guided modes, can assume only certain discrete values,
Which are determined from the requirement that the mode licld must saisfy Maxwell's equations and
the electric and magnetic field boundary conditions a the core-cladkling interface, This ix described in
detail in See. 24,
Another method for theoretically studying the propagation characteristics of light in an optical fiber
is the peomettical optics or ray-tracing appriach. This method provides a good approvimuation 10 the
light acceptance and guiding properties of optical fibers when th: rativof the fiber radius tothe wavelength
is large. This is known ax the smail-wavelength limit, Although the Fay approach is strictly valid only in
the ero-waveleuth limit, it iy sil relatively sccurate and extrem Juable for nonzero wavelengths
when the number of guided oak is Lange; that is, for wiuhtimenke fibers, The advange uf the ray
approach is that, compared with the exact electromagnetic Wave (mods) analysis, it gives amore direct
Physical interpretation of the light propagation characteristics in an optical fiber,
Since the concept of a light ray is very Uifferent from that of a mode, let us see qualitatively what the
telationship is between them. (The mathernatical details of this relationship are beyond the scupe of |
ook bat can be tound in the literature.* ®) A zuided mode traveling in the ¢ direction (along the
axis) ean be decompored into a family of superimposed plane waves that collectively form a standing-
‘wave patter in the direction transverse to the fiber axis. That is, the phases of the plane waves are such
that the envelope of the collective set of waves remains stationary. Since with any plane wave we can
associate a light ray that is perpendicular tw the phase front of the wave. the family of plane waves
surresponding twa particular mode Tommy a set ol tays.ealled a ray congitience. Each ray of this particular
set travels in the fiber at the same angle relative tw the fiber avis. We note here that, since only a certain
number Mf of discrete guided modes exist in 2 fiber, the possible angles of the ray congnicnees
corresponaling to these modes are also limited to the same aumber M. Although a simple ray picture
appears to allow rays at any angle greater than the critical angle to propagate in a fiber. the allowable
quantized propagation angles resull when the phase condition for standing waves is introduced into the
ay picture, Thiy is discussed further in 5.
Despite the usefulness of the approximate geometrical opticy method. a number of limitations and
discrepancies exist between it and the evact modal analysis. An important cave is the analysis of single-
mode or Few-mouk fibers, Which must be dealt with hy using electromagnetic theory. Problems involving
coherence or interference phenomena must alo be solved with an electromagnetic appeeach, In addition,
8 modal analysis ix necessary when a knowledge of the field distribution of individual modes is required,
‘This arises, for example, when analyzing the excitation of an individual mode or when analyzing the
coupling of power between modes at waveguide imperfections (which we shall discuss in Chapter 3).
Another discrepancy between the ray optics approach and the modal analysis occurs when an optical
fiber is uniformly bent with a constant radius of curvature. As shown in Chapter 3, wave optics correctly
Predicts that every mode of the curved fiber expericnces some radiation loss. Ray optics, on the other
hand, crroncously predicts that some ray congruences can undergo total internal reflection at the curve
and, consequently, can remuiin guided without Loss. 2.2.3 Numerical aperture
‘The acceptance angle for an optical fiber was defined in the preceding setion. However,
i is possible to continue the ray theory analysis to obtain a relationship between the
fcceplance angle and the refractive imices ofthe three media involved, namely the core,
lading and air. This leads tothe definition of a mare generally used term, the numerical
aperture of the thet. It must be noted that within this analysis, as with the preceding is
‘cussion of acceptance angle, we are concemed with meridional rays within the fiber.
Figure 2.5 shows alight ay iocident on the fker core at am angle @, to the fiber axis
which is fess than the acceptance angle for the fiber 8, The ray enters the fher from a
Figure 25 The ray path for a meridional ray launched into an optical fiber in air at an
Input angle less than the acceptance angle for the fiber
1B Optical fiber waveguides Chapter 2
medium (ait) of refractive index m,, and the flber core has a refractive index m, which is
slighily greatcr than the cladding refractive index me. Assuming the entrance face at the
fiber core to be normal to the axis, then considering the refraction a the ait-core imerface
and sing Stell’ law given by Eq. C1)
nysin @ =n, sin 0, en
‘Considering the right-angled triangle ABC indicated in Figure 25, the
ea
where 9 is greater than the critical angle at the core-cladding interface. Hence Eq. (2.3)
becomes
ny sin =n C089 es
Using the trigonometical relationship sit @-+ |. Bg. (2.5) may be wrinen in
the form:
uit sin® 8 eo
‘When the limiting ease for total internal election is considered, @ becomes equal to the
critical angle for the core-clalng interface and i gen by Eq, 2.2). Alo in this Limiting
case 0, becomes the acceptance angle fo the fiter @, Combining these limiting eases imo
Eq. 2.69 gives:
en
ny sin 0, = (n=
Equation (2.7), apart from relating the acceptance angle to the refractive indices, serves as
the basis forthe definition ofthe important optical fiber puramete, the numerical aperture
(A), Hence the NA is defined as:
sin 0,= (nf =) ex
Since the NA isften used with the fiber in ae where ms unity. itis simply equal a sin 8,
Te aay alo be noted that incident meritional rays over the range 0 < 8, & 0, will be pro-
ppagated within the tber
“The NA may also be given in terms of the roa
the core an the cluding which is defined a:*
refractive index difference A between critical angle for the core-cladding interface and is given by Eq. (2.2). Als:
case 6, becomes the acceptance angle for the fiber 8, Combining these limiting cases into
Eq. (2.6) gives:
Ny Qn
Equation (2.7), apart from relating the acceptance angle to the refractive indices, serves as
the basis for the definition of the important optical fiber parameter, the numerical aperture
(NA). Hence the NVA is defined as:
NA=ngsin 0,= (nt — (2.8)
Since the NA is often used with the fiber in air where 1) is unity, itis simply equal to sin @,.
It may also be noted that incident meridional rays over the range 0 < 8, < @, will be pro-
pagated within the fiber.
The NA may also be given in terms of the relative refractive index difference A between
the core and the cladding which is defined as:*
* Sometimes another parameter An = n, — 1; is referred to as the index difference and Anin, as the
fractional index difference, Hence A also approximates to the fractional index difference.
Ray theory transmission
forA <1
Hence combining Eq. (2.8) with Eq. (2.9) we can write:
NA
‘The relationships given in Eqs (2.8) and (2.10) for the numerical aperture are a very useful
measure of the light-collecting ability of a fiber. They are independent of the fiber core
diameter and will hold for diameters as small as 81m. However, for smaller diameters
they break down as the geometric opties approach is invalid. This is because the ray theory
model is only a partial description of the character of light. It describes the direction
a plane wave component takes in the fiber but does not take into account interference
between such components, When interference phenomena are considered it is found that
only rays with ceriain discrete characteristics propagate in the fiber core. Thus the fiber
will only support a discrete number of guided modes, This becomes critical in small-
core-diameter fibers which only support one or a few modes, Hence electromagnetic mode
theory must be applied in these cases (see Section 2.3).
(2a) 2.10) [2.4] Mode Theory for Circular Waveguides
To attain a more detailed understanding of the optical power propagation mechanism in a fiber, it is
necessary to solve Maxwell's equations subject to the cylindrical boundary conditions at the interface
between the core and the cladding of the fiber. This has been done in extensive detail ina number of
works.” +18 Since a complete treatment is beyond the scope of this book, only a general outline of a
simplified (but still complex) analysis will be given here.
Before presenting the basic mode theory in circular optical fibers, in Soc. 2.4.1 we first give a qualitative
overview of the concepts of modes in a waveguide. Next, Scc. 2.4.2 presents a brief summary of the
fundamental results obtained from the analyses in Secs. 2.4.3 through 2.4.9. so that those who are not
familiar with Maxwell's equations can skip over those sections designated by a star (*) without loss of
continuity.
as. Optical Fiber Communications _
When solving Maxwell's equations for hollow metallic waveguides, only transverse electric (TE)
modes and transverse magnetic (TM) modes are found. However, in optical fibers the core-cladding
boundary conditions lead to a coupling between the electric and magnetic field components. This gives
rise to hybrid modes, which makes optical waveguide analysis more complex than metallic waveguide
analysis. The hybrid modes ure designated as HE or EH modes, depending on whether the transverse
electric field (the E field) or the transverse magnetic field (the H field) is larger for that mode. The two
lowest-order modes are designated by HE,, and TE), where the subscripts refer to possible modes of
propagation of the optical field.
Although the theory of light propagation in optical fibers is well understood, a complete description
of the guided and radiation modes is rather complex since it involves six-component hybrid
electromagnetic fields that have very involved mathematical expressions. A simplification'? > of these
expressions can be carried out, in practice, since fibers usually are constructed so that the difference in
the core and cladding indices of refraction is very small; that is, n) ~n2 « 1. With this assumption, only
four field components need to be considered and their expressions become significantly simpler. The
ficld components are called linearly polarized (LP) modes and are labeled LP,,, where j and m are
integers designating mode solutions. In this scheme for the lowest-order modes, each LP, mode is
derived from an HE,,, mode and cach LP,,, mode comes from TEy,, TMg,. and HE,,, modes. Thus, the
fundamental LP), mode corresponds to an HE,, mode.
Although the analysis required for even these simplifications is still fairly involved, this material is
key to understanding the principles of optical fiber operation. In Secs. 2.4.3 through 2.4.9 we first will
solve Maxwell's equations for a circular step-index waveguide and then will describe the resulting
solutions for some of the lower-order modes. ‘To analyze the optical waveguide we need to consider Maxwell's
between the electric and magnetic fields. Assuming a Tineat, is
‘currents and free charges, these equations take the form?
‘cations that give the relationships
isotropic dielectric material having no
(2.300)
2308)
(2.30)
2304)
where D = CE and 1 = sH, The parameter € is the permittivity (oF diclectric constant) and jt is
Permeability of the medium.
A relationship defining the wave phenomena of the electromagnetic fickls can be derived from
Max’ equatns Taking the cr Ey (2) a aking eo ho aa
a
Vat xBe yp 2c =— 236
Haye 2310
Using the vector dentty (68 App. Bi
VxIVxE) =0(V- EB) VE
Optica Pers: Sowers, Wavepuiding. and Fabrication BE
and using Eq. (2.30¢) (ie., V- E = 0), Eg, (23ta) becomes
e a3)
Silay, by taking the curt of Ba. 2.30), can be sown hat
ven tt eto
Equations (2.310) and (2.31) are the standard wave equations.
2.4.4 Waveguide Equations’
Consider electromagnetic waves propagating along the cylindrical fiber shown in Fig. 2.20. For this.
fiver. a eylincical eoondinate sytem (7, ¢.:] i defined withthe