The respiratory system

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Figure 22.2 The major respiratory organs in relation to surrounding structures
 Video of swallowing
Opening of pharyngotympanic tubes

Adenoids : infection can block air passage Soft palate:

Uvula:closes
Nasopharynx * When you swallow

• Air only

Oropharynx
• Air and food
Laryngopharynx Larynx (coughing reflex)
• Epiglottis: cartilage
• Air and food • Vocal fold: vibrate
Esophagus: Trachea: air only 3
Food only
Carina: Very sensitive mucosa
• Irritation causes coughing but other areas can activate the Cough Reflex
Arc

Cough reflex video

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mh3ffHe8GBU
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 Alveoli and the Respiratory Membrane
Type I
pneumocyte

secretes surfactant

Type I pneumocytes
Gas exchange

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 Anatomical Relationships of Organs in the thoracic cavity

Pleura produce pleural 1. Esophagus

Vertebra Posterior
fluid: lubricates, lungs glide
in thorax Root of lung at hilum

Parietal pleura: Right lung • 2 Left main bronchus

• covers cavity that holds 1. Parietal pleura • 4. Left pulmonary artery
the lungs • 5. Left pulmonary vein
3. Visceral pleura
Left lung
• L and R are separate 2. Pleural cavity
Thoracic wall

3 .Pulmonary trunk
Pericardial
membranes Heart (in mediastinum)
Anterior mediastinum
Sternum
Anterior
(c) Transverse section through the thorax, viewed from above. Lungs, pleural
membranes, and major organs in the mediastinum are shown.

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 Figure 22.1 Respiration consists of four processes. Atmosphere
Four Processes of Respiration:

Pulmonary ventilation (breathing)

• Respiration involves four processes
Lungs

• Respiratory system CO2 O2

• Pulmonary ventilation (breathing): movement of air External respiration

into and out of lungs Pulmonary
circulation
• External respiration: exchange of O2 and CO2
between lungs and blood
Transport of respiratory gases
• Circulatory system
• Transport of O2 and CO2 in blood Systemic
circulation
• Internal respiration: exchange of O2 and
CO2 between systemic blood vessels and tissues
Internal respiration
CO2 O2

Tissue cells use O2 and produce

CO2 during cellular respiration.

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 Mechanics of Breathing

• Pulmonary ventilation consists of two phases

• Inspiration: gases flow into lungs
• Expiration: gases exit lungs

Flow of air from external env’t happens due to pressure changes in the
lungs and contraction/relaxation of muscles

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 What is atmospheric pressure (Patm) ?

Atmospheric pressure (Patm)

• Pressure exerted by air surrounding the body
• 760 mm Hg at sea level = 1 atmosphere

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Intrapulmonary and Intrapleural Pressure Relationships
Respiratory pressures described relative to Patm
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)
0 mm Hg (760 mm Hg) Negative respiratory pressure: less than Patm
Positive respiratory pressure: greater than Patm
Parietal pleura
Zero respiratory pressure: equal to Patm
Thoracic Visceral pleura
wall
Pleural cavity
3. Transpulmonary. Pressure: 4 mm Hg (the difference
between 0 mm Hg and -4 mm Hg)
• Keeps lungs inflated, prevents collapse

-4

0 2. Intrapleural pressure (Pip) -4 mm Hg. (756 mm Hg)

• Fluctuates with breathing.
• Must stay negative to keep lungs inflated
Lung
Diaphragm 1. Intrapulmonary pressure (Ppul) 0 mm Hg (760 mm Hg)
• Fluctuates with breathing

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Pneumothorax: presence of air in the pleural cavity
Punctured parietal pleura Ruptured visceral pleura
(e.g., knife wound) (often spontaneous)

Parietal pleura
Visceral pleura
Pleural cavity
(Intrapleural pressure
= -4 mm Hg)
0 -4 0 0 0
Intrapulmonary -4
-4 pressure (0 mm Hg) -4

Atmospheric pressure
0 mm Hg (760 mm Hg)

Treatment:
Pneumothorax (air in pleural • Chest tube to allow air in
cavity): causes intrapleural Intrapleural
pressure to become equal to pressure
pleural cavity to leak out
intrapulmonary pressure. 0 ( -4 mm Hg) • Syringe used to remove air
As a result, the lungs collapse. 0
0 Intrapulmonary
Collapsed lung -4 pressure (0 mm Hg)
(atelectasis) 13
Muscles involved in breathing: diaphragm and intercostal muscles

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Fig 22.16 Changes in thoracic volume and sequence of events during inspiration

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Inspiration is an active process bc muscles contract and gases
follow their concentration gradient

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Figure 22.16 Changes in thoracic volume and sequence of events during expiration

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Expiration is a passive process bc muscles relax: gasses follow their concentration
gradient

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QkYwILfITaQ

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Summary of process: add in pressures

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 Assessing Ventilation
• Respiratory volumes can be measured using electronic measuring
devices
• Several respiratory volumes can be used to assess respiratory status
• Respiratory volumes can be combined to calculate respiratory
capacities, which can give information on a person’s respiratory status
• Respiratory volumes and capacities are usually abnormal in people with
pulmonary disorders

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Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

Figure 22.19a 21
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 Respiratory volumes and capacities can give us an indication of the
disease
• Spirometry can distinguish between obstructive and restrictive diseases
• Obstructive pulmonary disease: in general , higher “residuals”
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, bronchitis
• Airway inflammation, mucus = narrows airway
• Alveoli are also damaged = non-stretchy, less recoil
• Airway resistance increases = lungs can’t empty as well

FRC

RV
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• Restrictive disease: result of processes that restrict pulmonary expansion: in general lower
everything
• Tuberculosis, fibrosis, obesity
• reduced TLC due to disease (example: tuberculosis) or exposure to environmental agents
(example: fibrosis)
• VC, TLC, FRC, RV decline because lung expansion is compromised

VC TLC

RV FRC

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The respiratory system :
external and internal
respiration

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 Four Processes of Respiration:
Atmosphere

Pulmonary
ventilation
(breathing) External respiration: exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide across the alveoli
Lungs

External CO2 O2

respiration
Pulmonary
circulation

Systemic
circulation

CO2 O2

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External respiration
Alveoli contain
• Less O2 bc
• constant uptake by pulmonary capillaries
PO2= 160
PCO2 = 0.03

• more CO2 than atmospheric air because :

• CO2 diffuses into lung
• Mixing of alveolar gas with each breath
Newly inspired air mixes with air that was
left in passageways between breaths

• More water than atmospheric air because:

• Upper airway humidified the air that enter in
the nose before getting to the lungs

A key factor in the amount of gas exchange is the partial pressure DIFFERENCE across the gas exchange barrier
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(ie the driving pressure)
Internal respiration:
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide btw blood and tissues

GASES will move from high to low pressure area in

tissues as well

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Neural and Chemical Influences on Brain Stem Respiratory Centers

Brain stem

• Respiratory center in brain stem

• Is activated/inhibited by receptors
that sense change in CO2, O2, H+,
stretch, chemicals etc..
• sends impulse to diaphragm and
intercoastal muscles to affect
ventilation
1. Chemical Receptors (chemoreceptors) Higher brain centers
• Central chemoreceptors are in brain stem (cerebral cortex—voluntary
control over breathing)
• Peripheral chemoreceptors are in aortic arch
and carotid arteries ±
• Sense changes in CO2, H+ and O2
• Send impulse (afferent) to respiratory center
• Respiratory center sends impulse to Respiratory centers
diaphragm and intercoastal muscles , (brain stem)
increased ventilation
Peripheral
chemoreceptors +
¯O2,­CO2,­H +
+ -
Central
chemoreceptors
­CO2,­H + ±

Figure 22.27 Neural and chemical influences on brain

stem respiratory centers. 30
2. Hypothalamic controls:
Other receptors (e.g., pain) and emotional stimuli
acting through the hypothalamus

3. Higher brain centers Respiratory centers

• the cerebral cortex sends signals to motor neurons chemoreceptors (brain stem)
that stimulate our respiratory muscles ¯O2,­CO2,­H +
• Can hold our breath voluntarily (cortex) , bypass the
respiratory centre, but temporary. IF CO2 increases,
chemoreceptors are activated, activate muscles,
breath
• Explains why drowning victims usually have
water in their lungs
 Higher brain centers 4. Stretch receptors in lungs
(cerebral cortex—voluntary • Lungs are stretched, receptors signal BRAIN
control over breathing)
STEM , sends inhibitory impulses to end
Other receptors (e.g., pain) ± inspiration, start expiration
and emotional stimuli acting
through the hypothalamus

±
5. Irritant receptors in bronchioles
Respiratory centers • Inhaled dust, toxic fumes, debris stimulate
(medulla and pons)
bronchioles to constrict

Peripheral
chemoreceptors +
¯O2,­CO2,­H + Stretch receptors
+ -
in lungs
Central
chemoreceptors
­CO2,­H + ±
Irritant
receptors

Figure 22.27 Neural and chemical influences on brain

stem respiratory centers.
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 Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport in blood

1. Oxygen is transported by hemoglobin

2. Carbon dioxide is transported in three different ways

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1. Oxygen Transport

• Association of oxygen and hemoglobin

• Each Hb molecule is composed of four polypeptide chains, each with an iron-
containing heme group
• So each Hb can transport four O2 molecules
HHb + O 2 ¬¾¾®
Lungs
HbO 2 + H +
• Oxyhemoglobin (HbO2): hemoglobin-O2 combination
Tissues

• Reduced hemoglobin (deoxyhemoglobin) (HHb): hemoglobin that has released O

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2. Carbon dioxide is transported in three
different ways
1. Dissolved in plasma (7-10% of CO2 is
simply transported in plasma)

2. Chemically bound to hemoglobin

(carbaminohemoglobin): ~20%
• Binds to globin, not heme so doesn’t
compete with oxygen transport

3. As bicarbonate ions in plasma (HCO3-)

(~70%).
• HCO3- is carried to lungs
• H+ binds Hb, enhances oxygen
unloading

3. 35
In the lungs the process is reversed
1. CO2 dissolved in plasma follows
concentration gradient, into alveoli

2. Carbaminohemoglobin releases CO2,

enters lungs. The Hb picks up O2

3. Oxygen picked up by hemoglobin,

become saturated
• Hb Releases H+, combines with HCO3-,
forms carbonic acid which is unstable ,
forms CO2 and water, CO2 follows
concentration gradient

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BioFlix: Gas Exchange

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Hypoxia: self study
• Hypoxia: inadequate O2 delivery to tissues; can result
in cyanosis and is classified by cause:
• Anemic hypoxia: too few RBCs or abnormal or too little Hb
• Ischemic hypoxia: impaired or blocked blood circulation
• Histotoxic hypoxia: cells unable to use O2, as in metabolic
poisons (ex: cyanide)
• Hypoxemic hypoxia: abnormal ventilation; pulmonary
disease, low levels of oxygen in air
• Carbon monoxide poisoning: especially from fire; Hb has a
200´ greater affinity for carbon monoxide than oxygen
• Victims have headaches and can become flushed

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