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 Journal of Computer Science and Control Systems 19
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A Brief History of Electric Vehicles

VĂSCAN Iulia, SZABÓ Loránd

Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Department of Electrical Machines and Drives, Faculty of Electrical Engineering
28 Memorandumului str., 400114 Cluj-Napoca, Romania, E-mail: Iulia.Vascan@emd.utcluj.ro, Lorand.Szabo@emd.utcluj.ro

Abstract – Electric vehicles are powered by electrical In this context, the main goal of the first international
machines that are more efficient than any internal conference on urban planning, held in New York in
combustion engine. Their other main advantage is that 1898, was to find solutions to circumvent this alarming
they do not emit any harmful substances during problem. The final conclusion was that it is inevitable to
operation. Today, they seem to be the future of replace the horsecars with an engine-driven carriage [4].
transportation motorization. All automakers are At that time two approaches were available: steam
concentrating on developing a variety of new models. and electrical vehicles.
Even if it seems to be a new technology, electric Even if the first steam cars had been constructed
mobility has a long history, alternating glorious and beginning in the 18th century, their wider spread due to
disgraceful periods. The paper briefly reviews the greater series production can be dated only to the 1890s.
history of electric vehicles and highlights their future. They had some drawbacks. In cold weather, they took
up to 45 minutes to warm up and needed to be topped up
Keywords: electrical machines; electric vehicles; with large volumes of water, restricting their range [5].
science history. At the end of the 19th century, there was a significant
competition between steam and electric cars.
I. INTRODUCTION People preferred electric cars that outperformed their
steam rivals. They didn't have the smell, noise, or
Electric vehicles have a long and storied history. The vibration of the steam cars. Moreover, they were easier
interest for them largely varied over the years due to to operate, with no hand crank start, and had a much
environmental issues and available energy resources. simpler gear system.
The first electric cars were built in the 1830s, Meanwhile, several advancements had been made in
immediately after the development of the first electrical the field of internal combustion engines (ICE),
machines. In the next period, numerous electrical especially in Germany. Even if the first prototype of the
vehicles were constructed but without a significant gasoline car was built by Siegfried Marcus already in
breakthrough in transportation. 1870, the first vehicle specifically designed to be driven
The real need for the first engine-based by an ICE (a tricycle) was presented only in 1885 by
transportation was raised for a very simple reason. In the Karl Friederich Benz. This was followed by the
1890s, the world's most developed cities faced serious developments performed by Gottlieb Daimler and
environmental and health problems from horse manure. Ferdinand Porsche. The last one built the first truly
All vehicles at that time were horse-drawn, as shown in commercial such car in 1899. At the time, it had very
Fig. 1. In London alone, more than 300,000 horses advanced solutions, such as the hub motor in its driving
roamed the streets, each producing around 10 kg of wheels. He was also the "father" of the hybrid vehicles,
manure and 1 L of urine per day. Manure releases as he proposed first this technical approach in 1902 [6].
methane gas, which has four times the greenhouse effect ICE cars also had a few drawbacks. It took a lot of
of carbon dioxide. With the rapid development of effort to wrestle with a hand crank, and changing gears
industry and transportation, the disposal of this waste was also a difficult operation [5].
has become difficult [1], [2]. The early 1900s marked the first golden age of
electric vehicles. Many automakers have come up with
dozens of new, more comfortable models. In 1900 1,575
electric cars were produced lone in the USA and only
936 with ICE [1].
Electric car production peaked in 1912. At that time,
only the Oliver P. Fritchle Company, one of the most
significant electric vehicle manufacturers produced
yearly close to 200 cars [7].
In the years after, electric cars begun to lose their
share on the vehicle market due to the rapid
Fig. 1.City traffic in the 1890s [3]. developments of the ICE cars [7]. The percentage of
 20 Volume 15, Number 1, May 2022
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electric cars produced in the United States declined to vehicles appear to be the way of the future. Several
4% in 1925 [1]. automakers have pledged to stop or severely limit ICE
There are some specific reasons for this fall. During vehicle production until the 2030s. Moreover, several
the so-called Gusher era (beginning in 1895), the Texas major cities in Europe and the USA plan to ban diesel
crude oil boom led to tremendous economic change and vehicles by 2025.
growth in the USA [8]. The sharp drop in gasoline prices The purpose of this paper is to provide a brief survey
made ICE cars cheaper to own and maintain for the on the most significant achievements in the field of
average consumer. More and more gas stations were electric vehicle development from three critical times in
opened across the countries, making ICE vehicles easier its history: the early years, the dawn of the modern era,
to refill. Another reason had to do with manufacturing. and the near future.
Ford invented the mass production of the very popular
Model T in 1908, which had a major impact on the price II. THE FIRST ELECTRICAL VEHICLES
of the cars. In 1912, a gasoline car cost as little as $650,
while a similar electric car was $1,750. Another nail in A. The very beginnings
the electric car coffin was the American inventor
The history of electrical cars is strongly connected to
Charles Kettering's patent in 1912 for the first electric
that of electrical machines. In 1827 the Hungarian
car starter. With the removal of the manual crank,
Benedictine monk Ányos Jedlik built the first
gasoline cars became more attractive to drivers [7].
rudimentary but working d.c. electrical machine. Only
Cheap, plentiful gasoline and persistent ICE within one year, he used it to drive a simple small-scaled
developments lessened the need for and interest in car model (see Fig. 2) [6].
alternate fuel vehicles during the next 30 years.
However, throughout the 1960s and 1970s, petrol prices
permanently increased. The most significant shock to
the oil market occurred in 1973 when OPEC declared
the global oil embargo. In six months, the fuel prices
increased by three times. This shock had several
immediate and long-term consequences for the world
economy. For the first time, humanity learned how
reliant they are on limitedly available resources. In
addition, the issue of ICE-related air pollution began to
acquire attention [9].
Many automotive companies began to develop
Fig. 2. The electric car model built by Á. Jedlik in 1828 [11].
electric vehicles, mostly for short-distance urban
mobility. Electric cars had limited performance and Another small-scale electric cell supplied electrical
range at the time. In the meantime, ICE's improvements vehicle (shown in Fig. 3) was built in 1835 by Sibrandus
have been focused on reducing fuel consumption and Stratingh, a professor of chemistry and technology at the
emissions. All of this has led attention in electric University of Groningen (Netherlands) [6], [12]. It
vehicles to wane once more [10]. weighed about 3 kg and could move for 20 minutes with
Beginning in the 1990s, there was a resurgence of a 1.5 kg load with its fully charged cells [13].
interest in electric cars, mainly owing to tight
environmental regulations. Most manufacturers began to
convert their ICE models to electric or hybrid ones,
allowing them to compete with gasoline-powered cars in
terms of speed, performance, and range.
Electric/hybrid car flagships, such as GM's EV1 and
Toyota's Prius, were developed at those times. Tesla cars
became the industry norm for electric vehicles ten years
later. Meanwhile, widespread of charging locations took
place all around the world and intensive improvement of
the batteries was achieved by the involved scientists and
engineers.
Nowadays almost all the vehicle manufacturers offer
a wide range of hybrids, plug-in hybrids, and full
electric vehicles and they are hard-working on the
Fig. 3. Small scale electric car model developed by
development of the future such cars.
S. Stratingh in 1835 [13].
It seems that electrical transportation is the key to a
more sustainable future for humanity. The most Scotsman Robert Anderson is the inventor of the first
developed countries can lessen their reliance on foreign full-scale electricity driven carriage (see Fig. 4). His
crude oil and minimize carbon pollution on the planet by prototype was built sometime from 1832 to 1839 in
switching to electric vehicles [10]. As a result, electric Aberdeen It used primary cells (non-rechargeable
 Journal of Computer Science and Control Systems 21
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batteries) to generate electrical power and had a C. Representative Electrical Cars from the First
maximum speed of 12 km/h [6]. Golden Era
The first successful commercially available electric
cars were named in an inspired way Electrobats. Its first
variant was built in 1894 by the combined efforts of a
mechanical engineer and a chemist, Henry G. Morris
and Pedro G. Salom in Chicago upon their own patented
technologies. The first variant was a slow and very
heavy car having steel tires. The rechargeable batteries
alone weighed more than 725 kg of the 2 tons gross
mass of the vehicle [2].
Thanks to the continuous research and development
efforts, later Electrobats became lighter, faster, and less
unwieldy. They had pneumatic tires and were steered by
Fig. 4. The first electric car built by R. Anderson [6]. their two rear wheels. These vehicles were powered by
two 1.1 kW claw pole motors. Due to their state-of-the-
B. The First Electric Locomotives art batteries at the time, they could travel 40 km at an
During the same time, another Scotsman, Robert average speed of 32 km/h on a single charge.
Davidson, also of Aberdeen, developed the first electric Due to high interest in these cars, the two partners
locomotive in 1837. Its improved variant, called Galvani expanded their business by building several hansom
was tested on the railway line from Edinburgh to variants based on the model. One of these is given in
Glasgow in 1842. The 5 t, 4.8 m long locomotive was Fig. 7. These electric vehicles were also used as taxis in
driven by four switched reluctance motors, as can be many cities in the USA [17], [18].
seen in Fig. 5 [14]. With fully charged batteries it could
move near 2.5 km at a 6.4 km/h speed [15].

Fig. 7. An elegant model of the Electrobat car [19]

Here also the main achievements in this field of the
Austrian-born Ferdinand Porsche must be mentioned. In
Fig. 5. The first electrical locomotive powered by switched
1899, while working at Jakob Lohner & Company, the
reluctance motors [15].
22-year-old brilliant designer created his first electric
In 1851 Charles Grafton Page, a senior examiner for car. This could achieve a speed of 25 km/h. His electric
the U.S. Patent Office built an around 12 kW electrical cars included cutting-edge technology at the time, such
machine for a battery-driven electric locomotive that as the electrical hub motor that drove the vehicle's
achieved a speed of 30.5 km/h on the Baltimore and wheels directly (as can be seen in Fig. 8).
Ohio Railway. In the linear variable reluctance motor
shown in Fig. 6, the commutation was performed by the
so-called circuit changers (linear commutator) [16].

Fig. 6. The linear variable reluctance motor driving a very Fig. 8. A Lohner-Porsche Phaéton in the Vienna Technical
early electric locomotive [16]. Museum [20].
 22 Volume 15, Number 1, May 2022
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He exhibited the world's first functioning This two-seat electric car weighed 1000 kg, more
revolutionary hybrid car with all four wheels electrically than 350 kg of which were in batteries. It was built in
driven three years later. It was given the name Semper Denver in 1908 by Oliver Parker Fritchle, an early key
Vivus, which means "always living". Porsche increased pioneer in the field of electric vehicles. He made
the car's range by installing ICEs that drove the substantial contributions to both battery and automobile
electrical generators to charge the battery, rather than manufacturing. His name is linked to the creation of
relying simply on the battery. The original 74-cell regenerative braking, too. He concentrated his
accumulator was replaced with a smaller, having 44 developments on the endurance of newly designed
cells to save weight and space. Two water-cooled electric cars. He proposed an audacious challenge in
2.6 kW ICEs were mounted in the vehicle's center, September 1908: to perform the 2,900 km trip between
driving the two independent 1.84 kW generators, each Lincoln and New York in an electric car with no
delivering 20 A current at 90 V voltage [21]. mechanical problems. He accomplished the trip in 20
Later, its production-ready version was released and days, covering on average nearly 100 miles (160 km) a
named Lohner-Porsche Mixte (see Fig. 9). Its top speed day.
was 80 km/h [22], [23].
D. Electric Racing Cars
The first car in history to break the speed record of
100 km/h had electrical traction. The
torpedo-streamlined car was called Jamais Contente
(Never Satisfied in English) and is shown in Fig. 11. It
was powered by two electrical machines of 25 kW (of
200 V and 124 A each) [25], [26]. The body of the
vehicle was made of a light alloy, partinium, a very
lightweight and expensive alloy of laminated aluminum,
wolfram, and magnesium, not frequently used
a) an oldtimer variant nowadays.

b) its technical details

Fig. 9. The Lohner-Porsche Mixte, the first commercially
Fig. 11. The Jamais Contente electric race car in an exposition
available hybrid car [22].
[27].
Later, Ferdinand Porsche was the designer also of
The record-breaking took place in Achères (France),
the iconic Volkswagen Beetle, which is set to make a
on April 24, 1899 (see Fig. 12). The supercar driven by
comeback soon as an electric vehicle.
the Belgian Camille Janetzy reached a record speed of
An important milestone in the development of
105.882 km/h.
electrical machines was the so-called 100-Mile Electric
Automobile (see it in Fig. 10).

Fig. 10. Fritchle's Victoria, the so-called 100-Mile Electric Fig. 12. The Jamais Contente after the record breaking
Automobile [24]. [28].
 Journal of Computer Science and Control Systems 23
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Ferdinand Porsche also constructed electric race presented by Siemens&Halske (the predecessor of
cars. One of its first variants was built in 1902, and it is Siemens AG) at the Berlin Industrial Exhibition in 1879
given in Fig. 13. It had two 1.5 kW electrical motors in [32]. Its first operational variants, capable of
both of its front wheels. The car was energized by a transporting 6 passengers, were placed into service in
huge quantity of batteries, weighing 1.800 kg [9]. Lichterfelde, near Berlin, in 1881 (see Fig. 15). These
were powered by drum-type d.c. machines of 7.5 kW,
180 V (supplied via the rails), and had a 2.5 km range
[6].

a) original picture [29].

Fig. 15. The first electric tramway in Lichterfelde (Germany)

[33].
The following year the first overhead electric
trolleybus, the Electromote, began service in Halensee (a
Berlin suburb) on a 540 m long track. [6] It was
designed by Werner von Siemens, who also constructed
the first electric elevator.

b) an oldtimer variant [30].

Fig. 13. The Lohner-Porsche racing car

The world's first four-wheel drive vehicle was a

particular race car designed also by F. Porsche. He titled
it La Toujours Contente (the Always Satisfied in
English) in reference to the race car given in Fig. 11.
The four 3 HP (2.23 kW) in-wheel electrical motors Fig. 16. Electromote, the first electric trolleybus designed by
allowed for a top speed of about 58 km/h. After charging Werner von Siemens [34].
its 44-cell 80 V lead-acid battery, it could run for around
The famed American inventor Thomas Alva Edison
3 hours [31].
could not be left out of the electric vehicles business
either. Among the numerous devices created by him,
there are also electrical vehicles. After building his first
electric car, the Edison Baker, in 1915 he presented the
world's first electric bus (see Fig. 17).

Fig. 14. The world's first four-wheel drawn car made by

F. Porsche (sitting beside the driver) [31].

E. The First Public Electrical Vehicles

Other vehicle types were also electrified during this
time. The focus of German manufacturers was on public
electric vehicles. The first electrical tramway was Fig. 17. The first electric bus in 1915 [35].
 24 Volume 15, Number 1, May 2022
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Edison very early recognized that the batteries are

the main bottleneck of the electric vehicles. He spent a
lot of time researching how to make the accumulators
lighter and recharge faster. He had high hopes for the
nickel-iron (Ni-Fe) alkaline batteries, but there were a
few bugs to smooth out. Even though their power to
mass ratio was higher, they required more space and
were significantly more expensive than standard lead-
acid batteries. Another significant disadvantage of Ni-Fe
batteries was that they released flammable hydrogen
when charging, which was considered extremely Fig. 19. 1976 Sebring-Vanguard CitiCar [39].
dangerous [6]. As a result, lead-acid accumulators As previously stated, the electrical cars intended
remained the most essential electrical power sources in application field at the time was limited to specific local
automobiles for many years. use. The electrified version of the popular BMW 1600,
It's worth noting that the "hazardous" feature of shown in Fig. 20, which is powered by a 32 kW Bosch
Ni-Fe batteries is currently one of the most important electrical machine, is a good example. In 1972, BMW
hopes of scientists working on hydrogen fuel generation, presented the Olympic stewards with two such electric
which has the potential to transform transportation [36]. cars, which they utilized to support the marathon road
running and long-distance walking competitions. The
III. THE EARLY MODERN HISTORY OF ELECTRIC car's range only slightly exceeded the 42.195 km
CARS marathon run distance [40], [41].
As previously stated, the rise in gasoline prices that
began in the 1960s and accelerated in the 1970s
reawakened interest in electric vehicles after an almost
50-year hiatus. As a consequence, several electric
vehicles were developed at that time. Small-size and
short-range city cars were primordially targeted.
Enfield Automotive, a small British company, began
serial production of a small two-seater electric car in
1966, powered by a 6 kW series-wound d.c. motor and 8
lead-acid traction batteries. The car shown in Fig. 18 had Fig. 20. The BMW 1602 electric car used during the 1972
a maximum speed of 64 km/h and weighed 975 kg. It Munich summer Olympic games [42]
had a range of 40÷90 km when its batteries were fully In the mid-1970s some automobile manufacturers
charged [9]. attempted to convert conventional cars to electric ones,
but the market was not ready for such expensive, hard to
charge vehicles. Having in the mind the future need for
clean vehicles not needing fossil fuels, the Japanese
government began to strongly support the research in the
electrical vehicles field. The results were seen in the
1990s, when Japanese automakers (such as Toyota and
Nissan) dominated this market [9].
Meanwhile, in 1971, the first electric vehicle left the
Earth. The Lunar Rover, shown in Fig. 21, a solar-
powered planetary surface exploration device developed
by NASA, began traveling across the Moon's surface.

Fig. 18. The Enfield 8000 electric car [37].

In 1972, Sebring-Vanguard company of Florida
created the Citicar, a compact two-door two-seat small
electric automobile (see in Fig. 19). This was the first
attempt in the USA to mass-produce a modern electric
automobile since the golden age from the beginning of
the 20th century. It weighed only 500 kg thanks to an
aluminum chassis with a roll cage and an ABS plastic
body. Between 1974 and 1977, 2,500 of these simple
and inexpensive automobiles were sold [9], [38]. Fig. 21. The Lunar Rover electric vehicle taken to the Moon by
the Apollo 15 mission of NASA [44].
 Journal of Computer Science and Control Systems 25
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The Moon buggy, as it was popularly named, Surely, the rapid improvements in the field of
weighed 210 kg and could transport a load of up to electrical transportation will provide soon unexpected
490 kg, which included two astronauts, scientific outcomes, fundamentally altering our perception of this
equipment, and collected lunar samples. It had a top subject.
speed of roughly 13 km/h and a range of about 90 km.
Each of its wheels had its own d.c. series wound V. CONCLUSIONS
0.25 HP (0.19 kW) motor with a 10,000 r/min speed,
connected to the wheel through an 80:1 harmonic drive. Hopefully, the reader could get a comprehensive
It was critical in acquiring information on our planet's sense of the major milestones and achievements in the
natural satellite [43]. relatively short history of electric vehicles based on this
From these times the history of electrical vehicles is survey. All of this points to a bright future for this vital
better-known. aspect of our daily lives.

IV. THE NEAR FUTURE OF ELECTRIC CARS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Finally, two of the most futuristic electrical cars are This paper was financially supported by the
presented just for illustrating the bright future of these "Entrepreneurial competences and excellence research
vehicles. in doctoral and postdoctoral programs – ANTREDOC"
The first one is upon the Sedric (SElf-DRIving Car) project co-funded by the European Social Fund,
concept of the Volkswagen Group and is shown in financing agreement no. 56437/24.07.2019.
Fig. 22. It combines wholly autonomous driving, full
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