Unit 5: Structure and Functions of Biological Molecules

Lesson 5.1
Carbohydrates
Contents
Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2

Warm Up 2

Learn about It! 3

Structure and Function of Carbohydrates 4
Monosaccharides 5
Oligosaccharides 10
Polysaccharides 12
Metabolic Processes Involving Carbohydrates 15

Key Points 18

Check Your Understanding 20

Challenge Yourself 21

Bibliography 21
Unit 5: Structure and Functions of Biological Molecules

Lesson 5.1

Carbohydrates

Introduction
Humans have always been busy with their daily lives—from studenthood until they reach
an age when they already work to earn for themselves and their families. To fuel our
bodies in our activities, we consume meals as an essential part of our daily routine, and
breakfast is considered the most important meal of the day. This meal “jumpstarts” our
metabolism so that we may be able to burn calories more efficiently throughout the day.
An ideal breakfast meal should consist of carbohydrates to give us sufficient energy
sources. Carbohydrate-rich sources include rice, bread, pastries, pasta, cereals, wheat, and
potatoes. These sources are usually coupled with proteins and vegetables to give us a
balanced diet. However, one must also be aware that excessive consumption of
carbohydrates can lead to diseases, such as diabetes and obesity. In this lesson, we are
going to discuss how our cells metabolize carbohydrates. Also, we will discuss the
importance of carbohydrates to other organisms.

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Learning Objectives DepEd Competencies

In this lesson, you should be able to do the ● Categorize the biological

molecules (carbohydrates)
following:
according to their structure and
● Identify the structure and function of function

carbohydrates. (STEM_BIO11/12-Ii-j-15).
● Explain the role of each
● Describe the different types of biological molecule in specific
carbohydrates. metabolic processes
(STEM_BIO11/12-Ii-j-16).
● Explain the role of carbohydrates in
specific metabolic processes.

Warm Up
I Am Rice 15 minutes
In this activity, the students will read and synthesize an article entitled I am Rice by Camino
ApitaTabinas. This article will provide students with background knowledge on
carbohydrates present in rice, their structure, and the mechanism of their digestion and
absorption in our body.

Materials
● adhesives
● cartolina
● copy of I Am Rice by Camilo ApitaTabinas (link provided below)
● markers

Procedure
1. Form groups with three members each.
2. Before the class, you may print a copy of the reading material I Am Rice. You can
access it in the link provided below. (Note: Alternatively, the teacher may give each
group a printed copy of the article.)

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Unit 5: Structure and Functions of Biological Molecules

I Am Rice.
Quipper Limited, “I Am Rice” (April 04, 2020),
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1iGs63DYJkjIzzOrFBPscmkjh3n
6jBy1l/view?usp=sharing, last accessed on April 04, 2020.

3. Read and analyze the contents of the material with your groupmates.
4. After reading the article, discuss the mechanism of carbohydrate digestion with your
groupmates based on what you already know about the topic.
5. Using markers, each group should draw a diagram of carbohydrate digestion based
on the article. This should be done on a sheet of cartolina.
6. Once done, stick your cartolina sheet on the board.
7. Compare your chart with the output from the other groups. Selected groups may
also be requested to discuss their outputs briefly.
8. Answer the guide questions below.

Guide Questions
1. What are the essential elements of your diagram?
2. What is the composition of rice that makes it a carbohydrate?
3. How do you think we can harness the energy stored in carbohydrates?
4. By using arrows and boxes, trace the pathway of carbohydrates from ingestion in the
oral cavity to the cells.

Learn about It!

Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules on the planet. Cells use them
to provide structural support, energy for chemical reactions, and means of molecular
transport and storage, among others. Carbohydrates are almost universally used as an
immediate energy source when oxidized in cells. Still, they also play structural roles in
many organisms, such as plants and invertebrates, as shown in Fig. 5.1.1.. Carbohydrates
are a class of biomolecules that includes sugar and polymers of sugars. Some examples
include the simple sugar molecules dissolved in energy drinks and the long starch molecules
in pasta and bread. In animals, carbohydrates serve as primary sources of dietary energy

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and raw materials for the synthesis of other classes of biomolecules, particularly
proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Fig. 5.1.1. Carbohydrates act as structural molecules in some organisms. Cell walls of
plants (left) primarily consist of cellulose. The tough exoskeleton of crustaceans, such as
those found in lobsters (right), contains another structural carbohydrate known as chitin.

How would you describe the structure and

functions of carbohydrates?

Structure and Function of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic compounds that primarily consist of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen that occur in a 1:2:1 ratio. Their composition is the primary basis of their collective
name, i.e., they consist of carbon atoms (carbo–) and water (–hydrate). Their name also
explains why, when we heat sugars, we obtain carbon and water. We also describe
carbohydrates as either polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones. This
classification depends on the functional group present in simple sugar molecules, which
will be further elaborated later. Also, you will notice that specific names of simple sugars
end with the suffix –ose (e.g., glucose, sucrose).

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Food products that are rich in carbohydrates include candies, sweet fruits, cereals, potatoes,
pasta, and bread. Various carbohydrate-based materials consist of one or two of the three
main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
This classification is based on their number of sugar subunits, which may consist of single
sugar molecules or chains of sugars. The length of sugar chains of large carbohydrates
varies from a few to hundreds and thousands of subunits. Carbohydrates are mostly
produced by plants through photosynthesis, which makes them the most common
biomolecules in the biosphere. In this process (as shown in Fig. 5.1.2.), the simple sugar
glucose is synthesized by photosynthetic organisms by using light energy to fix carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. Eventually, glucose is utilized by plants and other organisms for
maintenance, survival, and even in the biosynthesis of other molecules.

Fig. 5.1.2. Photosynthesis is the primary source of sugars, particularly glucose, for cells of
plants themselves and for the rest of the organisms of an ecosystem. Cells oxidize glucose
to release energy that will drive other biochemical reactions.

Monosaccharides
The smallest carbohydrates are monosaccharides (mono=one; sacchar=sugar), which
usually contain three to eight carbon atoms. They are the monomers and fundamental
units of carbohydrates that cannot be further broken down or hydrolyzed into smaller
sugars. All monosaccharides are characterized by a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or
polyhydroxy ketone unit. These types depend on the nature of the carbonyl group
present in the molecule (as shown in Fig. 5.1.3.). Aldoses are sugar units that contain an
aldehyde group, whereas ketoses are those with a ketone group. You can easily remember
their difference just by identifying whether the carbonyl C (or C=O) is terminal (for aldoses)
or internal (for ketoses).

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Fig. 5.1.3. Monosaccharides, the basic sugar units of carbohydrates, may either be aldoses
or ketoses. These classes differ in the functional groups that they have (colored in blue). An
aldose (e.g., glucose) has an aldehyde group, whereas a ketose (e.g., fructose) has a ketone
group. The carbon atoms in the molecules above are labeled with red digits.

Monosaccharides have a general empirical formula of (CH2O)n, where n is the number of

carbon atoms. In this case, monosaccharides may also be classified in terms of n. A triose
(3C) consists of three carbon atoms. Examples of trioses include glyceraldehyde and
dihydroxyacetone. A tetrose (4C) has four carbon atoms, a pentose (5C) has five, a
hexose (6C) has six, and a heptose (7C) has seven. Thus, the given examples above (glucose
and fructose) are both hexoses (C6H12O6).

Where do we usually encounter these monosaccharides? Monosaccharides occur in various

forms (as shown in Fig. 5.1.4). We usually find glucose in sports drinks. Glucose is also
alternatively known as dextrose or blood sugar. Regardless of the sugars we consume,
glucose is the type of sugar present in our bloodstream for transport to other tissues. Other
types of sugars are ultimately converted into glucose by our liver for transport and energy
generation in cells. Fructose, the fruit sugar, is alternatively known as levulose. It is the
sweetest among all sugars, and it is also present in honey, corn syrup, and fruits. When it is
used as a sweetener in food, relatively less amount is needed because of its natural

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sweetness. Galactose, which is also a hexose, is combined with glucose to form the milk
sugar. Deoxyribose and ribose are pentoses (five-carbon sugars) that make up the DNA
and RNA nucleotides, respectively.

A B C D
Fig. 5.1.4. Monosaccharides are abundant in nature. Glucose (A), which is also known as
dextrose, is the form that circulates in our bloodstream. Fructose occurs in ripe and sweet
fruits, such as mangoes (B), the sweetest fruit on the planet. Galactose makes up the sugar
in milk (C). Deoxyribose, a pentose, is a major structural component of DNA (D) nucleotides.

As previously mentioned, glucose, a six-carbon monosaccharide, is one of the most

important sugars. It is a hexose similar to fructose and galactose. Glucose, fructose, and
galactose have the same chemical formula (i.e., C6H12O6). However, they differ in the
arrangement of their atoms, making them isomers of each other. These molecules have the
same molecular formula but different structures. Even though they only have minor
differences in the arrangement of their atoms, their molecular structure is very important
that it gives them different properties. In this case, the rearrangement of the functional
groups makes fructose sweeter than glucose and galactose. This case is also an example of
how structure, regardless of the similarity in composition, significantly contributes to the
physical properties of a substance.

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Fig. 5.1.5. The hexoses glucose, galactose, and fructose are considered isomers.
Specifically, glucose and galactose are stereoisomers because their atoms have the same
order but differ in one asymmetric carbon (at C3). Fructose, by contrast, is a structural
isomer of glucose and galactose because its atoms have a totally different order.

You may have noticed that the monosaccharides illustrated so far ( Fig. 5.1.3. and Fig.
5.1.5. ) are in linear conformation. However, in aqueous solutions, equilibrium favors the
ring-shaped conformations of these monosaccharides. Particularly, this molecular
structure is called the pyranose ring. In Fig. 5.1.6, you will also notice the minor difference
between the structures of glucose and galactose. They both have a six-membered ring, but
they differ in the position of the “H” and “OH” of one carbon atom. Fructose, being their
structural isomer, has a five-membered ring despite having the same chemical formula as
glucose and galactose. This ring conformation of monosaccharides is dominant if you try to
prepare, for example, a glucose solution. Approximately 99% of all the glucose molecules in
this aqueous solution are expected to be in pyranose ring form.

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Fig. 5.1.6. Monosaccharides with five to six carbon atoms usually occur as pyranose rings
in aqueous or water-based solutions.

Glucose, being a six-membered ring, has a standard label or number designation for its
carbon atoms. Note that in Fig. 5.1.7 below, a glucose molecule has a designated C1 (or
carbon 1) to C6 (or carbon 6) atoms. Based on the position of the OH group at C1, two
conformations of glucose also exist, the 𝛼-glucose and 𝜷-glucose. If the OH group of the C1
is “below the ring” or on the opposite side of the CH2OH group, it is an 𝛼-glucose. By
contrast, if the OH group of the C1 is “above the ring” or on the same side as the CH2OH
group, it is a 𝜷-glucose. Differentiating between these two conformations is important in
describing the types of bonds between monosaccharides.

Fig. 5.1.7. Two types of glucose conformations exist: The 𝛼-glucose has its C1 OH group
below the ring, whereas 𝜷-glucose has its C1 OH oriented above the ring.

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Oligosaccharides
An oligosaccharide (oligo=few) is a carbohydrate that consists of two to ten units of
monosaccharides. The most commonly occurring forms of oligosaccharides are
disaccharides (di=two), which consist of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration
synthesis. This process, which is alternatively known as condensation reaction, occurs
when the hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide combines with the hydrogen of another,
as shown in Fig. 5.1.8. The process also yields water; hence, the name dehydration. When
two monosaccharides are combined into a disaccharide, a glycosidic bond holds them
together. Condensation reactions are reversible. Thus, to break a disaccharide into its
constituent molecules, water is needed to facilitate the hydrolysis reaction. During
hydrolysis, the “H” and “OH” groups of water will be distributed to the resulting
monosaccharides.

Fig. 5.1.8. Disaccharides are formed by dehydration synthesis. Sucrose, a disaccharide, is

synthesized via the dehydration reaction between glucose and fructose. Particularly,
sucrose is bound by an 𝛼-1,2 glycosidic linkage. This means that the C1 of an 𝛼-glucose is
connected to the C2 of a fructose molecule.

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Fig. 5.1.8 above shows how sucrose, which is commonly known as table sugar, forms when
glucose and fructose monomers combine. We encounter many forms of disaccharides daily
(as shown in Fig. 5.1.9). Sucrose is the main carbohydrate in the plant sap, which
nourishes plant tissues. Also, in terms of transport, sucrose can be likened to glucose in
humans. Sucrose is the form of sugar that is transported in plant vascular tissues, instead of
glucose. You usually encounter sucrose in the sweet stems of sugarcane. Other examples of
disaccharides are given in Table. 5.1.1 below.

Table. 5.1.1 Examples of oligosaccharides.

Oligosaccharide Description Location/Application

Also known as milk sugar, made

Lactose Milk
from glucose and galactose

Also known as malt sugar, made Found in seeds, used for making
Maltose
of two glucose subunits beer and other malted products

Three monosaccharides: Found in many plants like cabbage,

Raffinose
galactose, glucose, and fructose beans, asparagus, and grains

Other oligosaccharides also make up the glycolipids present in the plasma membrane,
which is important for cell recognition and immune response.

A B C D
Fig. 5.1.9. Disaccharides occur in various forms and sources. Sucrose in plants is abundant
in sugarcane (A), which is processed to produce table sugar. Maltose in barley (B) can be
fermented to produce alcoholic beverages. Lactose is the major sugar found in cow’s milk
(C). Raffinose, a trisaccharide, is found in cabbages (D) and asparagus.

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Monosaccharides and disaccharides are generally called sugars or simple carbohydrates.

Their primary function in cells is to provide a readily available energy source, which is
released when their bonds are broken through hydrolysis and redox reactions.
Eventually, other monosaccharides such as fructose and galactose are converted into
glucose (usually by the liver) for use in cell respiration. Sugarcane sap and sugar beets are
abundant in sucrose, which plants use to fuel growth. The disaccharide maltose provides
energy in sprouting seeds, while beer brewers also use it to promote fermentation.

Some simple sugars also contribute to immune function. Short chains of monosaccharides
on cell surfaces are important for immunity and cell recognition. For example, a person’s
blood type, which may be A, B, AB, or O, is determined by the combination of
carbohydrates present on the surface of his or her red blood cells. A transfusion of the
“wrong” blood type can trigger a harmful immune reaction.

Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides (poly=many) are large molecules that consist of hundreds to thousands of
monosaccharide monomers. They are long chains of complex carbohydrates, as shown in
Fig. 5.1.10. The most common polysaccharides are cellulose, chitin, starch, and glycogen.
All of these polysaccharides are long chains of glucose, but they differ from one another in
terms of the orientation of the bonds that link monomers and whether branching is
present. These polysaccharides may either serve as storage or structural molecules, and
they are insoluble in water. They are significantly larger than simple sugars; thus, they
cannot simply pass through the cell membrane without being hydrolyzed.

Fig. 5.1.10. Polysaccharides are composed of very long chains of monosaccharides. The
orientation of bonds and the presence of branching determine their properties.

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Cellulose is the major component of plant cell walls, which makes it the primary structural
carbohydrate in plants. It consists of long, straight (unbranched) chains of glucose
monomers, as shown in Fig. 5.1.11. Hydrogen bonds lock the chains into tight, sturdy
bundles. Although it is the most common organic compound in nature, humans cannot
digest it. It does not dissolve in water and is not easily broken down. Some bacteria and
fungi synthesize enzymes, particularly cellulase, which can hydrolyze cellulose into its
component sugars. Bacterial cells that live in the gut of termites and grazers, such as cattle
and sheep, help these animals digest cellulose in their diet. Though indigestible, cellulose is
still an important component of the human diet. It makes up much of what nutrition
labels refer to as dietary fiber. Humans with high-fiber diets have a reduced risk of colon
cancer. One possible explanation for this benefit is that fibers smoothen the movement of
food through the digestive tract, so it may shorten the length of time that harmful chemicals
linger within the intestines. Cotton fibers, wood, and paper are also rich in cellulose.

Fig. 5.1.11. Cellulose molecules occur in very long fibers of glucose chains. The glucose
units are bound by 𝜷-1,4 glycosidic linkages. This means that 𝜷-glucose molecules are
connected via their C1 and C4 atoms.

Why is it good to have a high-fiber diet? What food

products are rich in fiber?

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Unit 5: Structure and Functions of Biological Molecules

Starch and glycogen, which were also shown in Fig. 5.1.11 above, are polysaccharides with
similar structures and functions. Both act as storage molecules, which can readily be
broken down into their glucose monomers when cells need energy. Starch is the primary
storage polysaccharide in plants. Its covalent bonding pattern between glucose
monomers makes a chain that coils up spirally. The helical or coiled shape of this
polysaccharide exposes the sugar linkages to the hydrolytic enzymes that can break
them down. Most plants, such as potatoes, rice, and wheat, store large amounts of starch.
These starchy plants are high-energy staples in the human diet. Starch exists only in two
forms (as shown in Fig. 5.1.12): amylose, which is unbranched, and amylopectin, which is
branched. Branched polysaccharides have no main carbon chain because new chains
occur at regular intervals, i.e., every 24 to 30 glucose units. Approximately 10%–20% of
starch occurs as amylose, whereas 80%–90% occurs as amylopectin.

Fig. 5.1.12. The unbranched amylose has glucose subunits that are bound by 𝛼-1,4
glycosidic linkages. By contrast, the highly branched amylopectin is composed of both
𝛼-1,4 and 𝛼-1,6 glycosidic linkages, the latter being the point of branching.

Glycogen, by contrast, is the storage polysaccharide in animal and fungal cells. In humans,
for example, skeletal muscles and liver store energy as glycogen. Like starch, glycogen is a
polymer of glucose monomers, but it is more extensively branched than the
amylopectin. Similar to starch, glycogen also consists of 𝛼-1,4 glycosidic linkages.
Branching also occurs where 𝛼-1,6 glycosidic linkages are present. The covalent bonding
pattern in glycogen forms these highly branched chains of glucose monomers. The storage

5.1. Carbohydrates 14
Unit 5: Structure and Functions of Biological Molecules

and release of glycogen from the liver are controlled by hormones. For instance, after we
eat, the release of the hormone insulin from the pancreas promotes the storage of glucose
as glycogen.

Chitin is the second most common polysaccharide in nature. It is a structural

polysaccharide similar to cellulose. Its monomers are glucose molecules with a
nitrogen-containing carbonyl group. Long, unbranching chains of these monomers are
linked together by hydrogen bonds. Cell walls of fungi contain chitin, as do the flexible
exoskeletons of insects, spiders, and crustaceans (an example of which was shown earlier in
Fig. 5.1.1) Like cellulose, chitin also supports cells and other structures. Chitin resembles a
glucose polymer, except that it also contains nitrogen atoms. One important application
of chitin is in the manufacture of surgical threads because of its toughness, flexibility, and
biodegradability.

How are carbohydrates involved in certain

metabolic processes?

Metabolic Processes Involving Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate metabolism is an essential biochemical process for every organism, which
ensures a constant supply of energy for cells. One of the most important carbohydrates is
glucose. It is oxidized in glycolysis and Krebs cycle to generate electron carriers that will be
utilized by the electron transport chain in mitochondria. Ultimately, these reactions
synthesize adenosine triphosphate or ATP. In this sense, glucose serves as the main fuel
molecule in almost all cells.

In our diet, we consume other forms of monosaccharides. However, cells cannot directly
oxidize other sugars. Our bodies perform different metabolic pathways to maximize the
energy present in monosaccharides and to also perform both building-up (anabolic) and
breaking-down (catabolic) reactions. The pentose phosphate pathway converts hexose
sugars into pentoses. This is also particularly important in the synthesis of sugars for
incorporation in DNA and RNA nucleotides (as shown in Fig. 5.1.13). Glycogenesis is
performed by liver and skeletal muscles to convert excess glucose into glycogen after

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Unit 5: Structure and Functions of Biological Molecules

stimulation from insulin. During starvation, on the other hand, the hormone glucagon
promotes glycogenolysis, which is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose subunits.
Gluconeogenesis is a pathway in which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate
precursors such as lactate and amino acids. Reversibly, glucose may also be used to
biosynthesize other non-carbohydrate molecules such as vitamin C, which is more
dominantly performed by plants than animals. Other biosynthetic pathways also involve the
use of C, H, and O from carbohydrates. Most importantly, glycolysis is the process
wherein glucose is broken down and oxidized to generate energy for cells. In all of these
pathways, enzymes are involved in catalyzing the biochemical reactions (as shown in Fig.
5.1.14).

Fig. 5.1.13. DNA and RNA molecules require the pentoses deoxyribose and ribose. Cells
perform the pentose phosphate pathway to convert hexoses into the needed pentoses.

Disaccharides with varying sugar units are often attached to lipids or proteins with
important functions in immunity. They are also soluble in water, similar to
monosaccharides. They also contain a free carbonyl group, which can be either reducing or
non-reducing, such as in monosaccharides. Polysaccharides can react with water during

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hydrolysis to produce constituent sugars. Most polysaccharides that are indigestible are
present in the cell wall. Because of the polymeric nature of disaccharides and
polysaccharides, enzymes are usually used to hydrolyze and break their glycosidic bonds so
that their subunits can be easier to be transported, absorbed, and metabolized by cells. A
general overview of carbohydrate metabolism is shown in Fig. 5.1.14.

Fig. 5.1.14. Carbohydrate metabolism involves several pathways, which may either involve
building up or breaking down of molecules. To categorize them, those with the suffix –lysis
are catabolic mechanisms, whereas those with the suffix –genesis are anabolic processes.

Did You Know?

What does it mean when a food product is organic or natural?

The word “organic,” for a chemist, refers to compounds that contain

carbon atoms. Chemically, all food products are, therefore, organic.
However, organic products are manufactured according to a
defined set of standards for farmers or consumers.

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Unit 5: Structure and Functions of Biological Molecules

The U.S. Department of Agriculture certifies crops as organically

grown if the farmer did not apply pesticides, petroleum-based
fertilizers, or sewage sludge. Cows, pigs, and chickens that were
raised in an organic process cannot receive growth hormones or
antibiotics. In addition, food labeled as “organic” cannot be
genetically engineered or treated with ionizing radiation.

On the other hand, natural food may or may not be organic. Food is
considered “natural,” depending on the way it was processed, not
how it was grown. The USDA specifies that meat and poultry
labeled as natural should not contain any artificial ingredients.

Key Points
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Easter egg
● Carbohydrates are organic compounds that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio. They have an empirical formula of (CH2O)n, where n is the
number of carbon atoms.
● Carbohydrates are one of the four major groups of biomolecules. The three main
classes of carbohydrates in living systems are monosaccharides, oligosaccharides,
and polysaccharides. They are grouped according to the number of monomers
present in their molecules.
● The simplest carbohydrates are the monosaccharides, which may have three to
eight carbon atoms. Simple sugars or monosaccharides are the fundamental units
of carbohydrates that cannot be broken down into simpler sugars.
● An oligosaccharide is a carbohydrate composed of two to ten monosaccharide
units. The most common oligosaccharides are disaccharides, which consist of two
monosaccharides.
● Carbohydrates with multiple monosaccharide units are formed by dehydration
synthesis or condensation reaction. In this process, glycosidic bonds are formed
between the monosaccharides.

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● Polysaccharides are large molecules consisting of hundreds to thousands of

monosaccharides. They are complex carbohydrates that contain long chains of
sugars or polymers of monosaccharides.
● Carbohydrate metabolism is a group of biochemical processes that ensures the
generation of energy from carbohydrates, as well as storing them in some tissues
when present in excess quantities.

Graphical representation of classes and functions of carbohydrates in living organisms

___________________________________________________________________________________________

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Check Your Understanding

A. Identify the terms being described in each of the following

statements.

1. These biomolecules consist of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon that occur in 1:2:1
ratio.
2. This fundamental unit of carbohydrates may contain three to six carbon atoms.
3. These molecules have the same molecular formula but different structures.
4. This oligosaccharide consists of two monosaccharides that are joined after a
dehydration synthesis.
5. This carbohydrate is the main component of plant sap.
6. This most common disaccharide is naturally found in germinating seeds.
7. These huge carbohydrate molecules consist of hundreds to thousands of
monosaccharide monomers.
8. These long, straight chains of glucose monomers are locked by hydrogen bonds,
thereby forming a rigid, structural molecule.
9. This carbohydrate consists of glucose monomers with a nitrogen-containing
carbonyl group that is linked together by hydrogen bonds.
10. This storage carbohydrate is most common in potatoes, rice, and wheat.

B. Write true if the statement is correct and write false if it

is otherwise.

1. Even if glucose and fructose have only minor differences in the arrangement of their
atoms, they still differ in terms of their properties.
2. Monosaccharides and disaccharides provide a readily available source of energy,
which is released when their bonds are broken.
3. Polysaccharides are simple carbohydrates that contain long chains of sugars.
4. Starch and glycogen both function as storage molecules.
5. Glycogen is an unbranched polymer of glucose molecules.

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C. Determine the possible consequences should the

following events take place.

1. The length of sugar chains in the different types of carbohydrates does not vary.
2. The enzymes of the pentose phosphate pathway have been denatured.
3. The bonds of simple carbohydrates cannot be easily broken.
4. All polysaccharides become soluble in water.
5. The release of glycogen in the body is not controlled by the hormone.

Challenge Yourself

Provide brief answers and explanations to the following

questions.

1. How do the three main types of carbohydrates differ from each other in terms of
their sugar composition?
2. How are disaccharides formed?
3. How are the monosaccharides in cell surfaces functional in terms of immunity?
4. Compare and contrast starch and glycogen.
5. How are carbohydrates involved in the build-up or anabolic processes?

Bibliography
Hoefnagels, Marielle. Biology: The Essentials. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Education, 2016.

Mader, Sylvia S., and Michael Windelspecht. Biology. 11th ed. McGraw-Hill Education, 2014.

Reece, Jane B, Martha R. Taylor, Eric J. Simon, Jean L. Dickey, and Kelly Hogan. Biology
Concepts and Connections. 8th ed. Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd., 2016.

Simon, Eric J., and Jane B. Reece. Campbell Essential Biology. 5th ed. Pearson Education Inc.,
2013.

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Starr, Cecie, Christine A. Evers, and Lisa Starr. Biology Applications and Concepts. 8th ed.
Cengage Learning Asia Pte. Ltd., 2012.

Starr, Cecie, Christine A. Evers, and Lisa Starr. Biology Today and Tomorrow. 4th ed. Cengage
Learning Asia Pte Ltd., 2014.

Tabinas, Camilo A. “I AM RICE: A Teaching Activity on the Digestion of Carbohydrates.” Science

2.0 Join the Revolution. Science 2.0, January 1, 2010.
https://www.science20.com/flexi_chem_teacher/blog/i_am_rice_a_teaching_activity_
on_the_digestion_of_carbohydrates-63075. Last accessed on April 13, 2020.

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