FACULTY OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

BACHELOR OF QUANTITY SURVEYING (HONOURS)

ACADEMIC YEAR 2021/2022

SEMESTER 3
BTBE2023 CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGY

GROUP ASSIGNMENT

Assignment CLO
No. Student Name ID. No.
Mark
1. AARON LO ZI XIANG 19 WVR 11275 /100 CLO1

2. LEE KAM HOU 19 WVR 12508 /100 CLO1

3. LEON ENG SHI KIT 19 WVR 12054 /100 CLO1

4. LOH MAN KEONG 19 WVR 12048 /100 CLO1

5. /100 CLO1

PROGRAMME : Bachelor of Quantity Surveying (Honours)

GROUP : Year 3 Semester 2 Group 1

LECTURER : HIDAYU MURNI BINTI ABU HUSSAIN

TUTOR : HIDAYU MURNI BINTI ABU HUSSAIN

DATE OF SUBMISSION : 17 / 3/ 2022

 Coursework Declaration

11/3/2022

Semester: 2021/2022 Semester 3 Course Code & Title: BTBE2023 CIVIL

ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Declaration

I/We confirm that I/we have read and shall comply with all the terms and
condition of Tunku Abdul Rahman University College’s plagiarism policy.

I/We declare that this assignment is free from all forms of plagiarism and for all
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No. Name Signature Date

AARON L 11/3/2022
AARON LO ZI XIANG
1.

LKH 11/3/2022
LEE KAM HOU
2.

ENG 11/3/2022
3.LEON ENG SHI KIT

LOH 11/3/2022
LOH MAN KEONG
4.

5.
Table of Contents
1.1 Explanation of construction method................................................................................................4
1.1.1 Precast bridge construction method..........................................................................................4
1.1.2 Balanced cantilever bridge construction method......................................................................4
1.1.3 Span by span casting bridge construction method....................................................................5
1.1.4 Incremental launching bridge construction method..................................................................6
1.1.5 Cable-stayed bridge construction method.................................................................................7
1.1.6 Arch bridge construction method.............................................................................................7
1.1.7 Advanced shoring bridge construction method.........................................................................8
1.2 Explanation of materials..................................................................................................................9
1.2.1 Concrete...................................................................................................................................9
1.2.2 Steel..........................................................................................................................................9
1.2.3 Stone.......................................................................................................................................10
1.2.4 Timber....................................................................................................................................11
1.2.5 Composite materials...............................................................................................................12
1.3 Explanation for bridges construction of processes of civil engineering works..........................12
2.1 Determine the appropriate construction methods, materials and processes of civil engineering
works...................................................................................................................................................14
2.1.1 Balanced cantilever bridge construction method (Precast).....................................................14
2.1.2 Cable-stayed bridge construction method...............................................................................16
2.2 Material and process of bridge construction..................................................................................18
2.2.1 Concrete.................................................................................................................................18
2.2.2 Steel........................................................................................................................................18
2.2.3 Stone.......................................................................................................................................18
3.0 Determine the appropriate sustainable construction methods, materials and processes of civil
engineering works...............................................................................................................................19
4.0 Case Study.....................................................................................................................................23
4.1 Project background....................................................................................................................23
4.2 Challenges and solution.............................................................................................................24
4.3 Foundation.................................................................................................................................25
4.4 Erosion protection.....................................................................................................................26
4.5 Double-column piers.................................................................................................................27
4.6 Bearings....................................................................................................................................27
4.7 Installation of Pot-bearing.........................................................................................................28
4.8 Moveable Scaffolding System...................................................................................................29
5. 0 References....................................................................................................................................32
1.1 Explanation of construction method
1.1.1 Precast bridge construction method
The construction method of precast bridge is divided into three parts, namely I-beam and
super tee, segmental and full span. Precast construction refers to the prefabrication of bridge
members or segments at a place other than the site, transportation to the site, and installation
there. Precast construction has several advantages when compared to cast-in-situ
construction. This is because casting of the segments can be casted under controlled. This
industrialised approach provides for easy segment quality monitoring prior to placement in
the superstructure and saves money by reusing the pre-casting formwork. When the segments
are still accessible from all sides prior to placement in the superstructure, surface finishing
tasks like texturing, painting, coating and sandblasting can be done on the ground level
without scaffolding (Constro, 2021).

Figure 1: Precast bridge construction method

1.1.2 Balanced cantilever bridge construction method

Building a bridge superstructure from both sides of the pier table in a scales-like fashion is
known as cantilever construction. Free cantilever construction is another term for this
erection style. It is one of the most widely utilised bridge construction methods. The term
‘balanced cantilever’ refers to when two opposing free cantilever constructions are joined
together as a single structure and erected in the same phase. The cost-effective span lengths
for cast-in-situ cantilever construction start at about 70 metres and go up to more than 250
metres. Using this technology instead of traditional bridge construction can result in
significant cost reductions. The advantage of utilising this method, particularly in urban
areas, is that it does not require any temporary shoring and can cause traffic disruption over
water channels and in steep gorges, which is extremely risky for construction workers. Cast-
in-situ or precast segments can be used to achieve balanced cantilevering. For instance, a set
of two form travellers, one for each arm of the cantilever, is required for cast-in-situ balanced
cantilevering. The form travellers on multi-span bridges can be dismantled after cantilevering
from one pier and reassembled for use on the next cantilever ( Constro, 2021).

Figure 2: Balanced cantilever bridge construction method

1.1.3 Span by span casting bridge construction method

For precast segmental bridges, span by span installation is the most popular, easiest, and
often most cost-effective construction method. It is most commonly used on long bridges
with a large number of 25-45m spans and a big plan radius, and it is suitable with both
simply-supported and continuous spans. The erection equipment is designed to fit the
maximum gradient of the bridge, however a 4-5 percent gradient is rarely an issue. Many
span-by-span bridges have been post-tensioned with internal tendons, despite the fact that
eternal post-tensioning streamlines segment manufacture and improves strand protection in
the unlikely event of leaking joints. Due to gantry’s capacity to span across the supports and
also take the dead weight of the deck with controlled deflection, the span length is limited
with this form of construction. However, this building type is most commonly used for spans
of 35 to 55 metres (Constro, 2021).

Figure 3: Span by span casting bridge construction

1.1.4 Incremental launching bridge construction method

Incremental launch is a civil engineering technique that involves producing a complete bridge
deck from one abutment of the bridge and then manufacturing the bridge’s superstructure in
sections on the other side. The process is highly mechanised and uses pre-stressed concrete in
modern usage. For example, weekly segment cycles and by-weekly span cycles with one shift
per day are generally used for incremental launching construction of 50-60m spans with half-
span segments. The bridges are generally made of box girders and have a constant radius and
work with straight or constant curve designs. The bridge deck’s 15-to-30 metre (49-to-98
foot) box girder sections are built in factory conditions at one end of the bridge. Each piece
takes around a week to produce. The launching nose, the first portion of the launch, is built of
a strengthened steel plate girder that is roughly 60% of the length of a bridge span and
decreases the cantilever moment. The bridge deck sections glide over sliding bearings, which
are stainless steel-coated concrete blocks with strengthened elastomeric pads (Constro, 2021).
Figure 4: Incremental launching bridge construction method
1.1.5 Cable-stayed bridge construction method
Cable-stayed bridge construction method refers to the weight of the deck which is supported
by a number of almost straight diagonal cables in tension running directly to one or more
vertical towers. Vertical compression is used by the towers to convey cable forces to the
foundations. The tensile pressures in the cables also compress the deck horizontally. Cable-
stayed bridges are typically built using the cantilever method, which begins with the sinking
of caissons and the erection of towers and anchorages. One cable and a section of the deck
are constructed in each direction after the tower is built. Before continuing, each portion of
the deck is pre-stressed. The process is repeated until all of the deck portions are linked in the
middle. The abutments serve as anchors for the ends (Constro, 2021).

Figure 5: Cable-stayed bridge construction method

1.1.6 Arch bridge construction method

The abutments at each end of an arch bridge construction are designed like a curving arch.
The weight of the bridge and its load is partially transferred into a horizontal thrust restrained
by the abutments on either side of the bridge. A viaduct (a long bridge) can be created out of
a sequence of arches, although today’s viaducts are usually made out of other, more cost-
effective structures. Arch bridges can now be longer and have lower spans thanks to the
development of these new materials. An arch bridge’s load is transported outward along the
curve of the arch to the supports at each end, rather than being pushed straight down. At
either end, the weight is transferred to the supports (Constro, 2021).

Figure 6: Arch bridge construction method

1.1.7 Advanced shoring bridge construction method

The advanced shoring system is a technique has lately been adopted as an enhanced bridge
construction method. Because of the heavy equipment and large number of employees
required, this construction method requires high initial cost. It was created for multi-span
bridges over challenging terrain or water where scaffolding would be prohibitively expensive
or impossible. A launching girder slides forward, span by span, on the bridge piers to allow
the cast-in-situ concrete to be placed. The method is very adjustable for a wide range of
spans, both underslung and overhead (Constro, 2021).
Figure 7: Advanced shoring bridge construction method

1.2 Explanation of materials

1.2.1 Concrete
Concrete is used to build more bridges than any other material on the earth, reflecting
continuous confidence in the material’s performance and longevity. Concrete bridges have a
long history of flexibility and adaptability in terms of final shapes and building processes that
is difficult to match. Concrete is the best building material for every bridge project, regardless
of size, form or intended use, due to its durability, aesthetics, cost-effective solutions,
streamlined construction, and rapid deployment procedures. The different types of concrete
readily available across the country provide for greater building flexibility, making concrete
an adaptable resource appropriate for even the most difficult of bridges types of construction
sites. The only limit to the structural forms that may be created with concrete is the designers'
imagination, allowing for the production of exquisite bridge structures that blend in with their

surroundings. Concrete, regardless of scale, combines utility and elegance in safe, durable
constructions. Architectural surface coatings can enhance visual impact while also removing
the need for cladding, painting, and ongoing maintenance activities (Constro, 2020).
Figure 8: Concrete for bridges

1.2.2 Steel
Steel is commonly utilised in the construction of bridges of all sizes, from the very large to
the extremely little, all over the world. It's a versatile and effective substance that offers cost-
effective and long-term solutions. Steel has long been recognised as the most cost-effective
material for a variety of bridges. Structural steel is a high-quality material that is widely
accessible in certified grades and in a variety of shapes and sizes around the world. Steelwork
is prefabricated in a controlled manufacturing environment, resulting in high-quality work at
a low cost. A thorough testing regime at the steel mills, as well as during the manufacturing
operations of cutting and drilling, assembling, welding, and protective treatment, ensures
outstanding quality control. Steel is available in two types of products: "flat products" (steel
plate and strip) and "long products" (rolled sections, either standard open sections such as
beams, channels, angles, etc or hollow sections). These goods must be cut (to size and shape)
and welded one component to another for structural use in bridges. Tensile and compressive
forces act on the material in the structure. Up to the 'yield point,' structural steel behaves in a
linear elastic form, but has a large capability for plastic stretching before failure. The designer
of a steel bridge considers all of these properties of steel material (Constro, 2020).

Figure 9: Steel for bridges

1.2.3 Stone
Stone is strong and durable and to a lesser extent in shear, but it is unable to withstand
considerable force in tension. As a result, masonry arch bridges are designed to be in
continual compression to the greatest extent possible. Each arch is built on top of a centring,
which is a temporary falsework structure. A keystone in the centre of the bridge bore the
weight of the rest of the bridge in the earliest compression arch bridges. The bridge's
construction became stronger as more weight was placed on it. For thousands of years, stone
bridges have been used in some form or another. Clapper bridges were most likely the first
surviving stone structures. Large flat slabs of granite or schist placed on stone or sitting on
the banks of streams make up this old type of stone bridge. Despite the projected high
construction costs, masonry arch bridges prove to be comparable to concrete or steel bridges
in terms of cost. This is mainly due to the lack of the requirement for costly machinery or
equipment. Masonry bridges have historically been built primarily by hand, with only the
most basic lifting machinery. Masonry bridges have much lower life-cycle maintenance costs
than other bridge types, and if properly maintained, they can outlast any other bridge type
(Constro, 2020).

Figure 10 – Stone Bridge

1.2.4 Timber
A timber bridge, often known as a wooden bridge, is a structure made primarily of wood or
timber. Timber bridges were one of the earliest types of bridges, and they have been utilised
since ancient times. Many European countries have shown a rising interest in timber bridges
over the last two decades. This is due to a number of factors. Growing interest in
environmental issues and sustainability has prepared the way for more structural timber to be
used, but new and inventive uses of timber, such as the stress laminated timber deck and
better connections, have also played a key role. Footbridges and road bridges are the two
most common types of bridges. The decks of the vast majority of timber footbridges are built
of wood in some way, from simple timber boards or planks to crossed layers of boards and
various sorts of laminated decks. The situation is more complicated in the case of road
bridges. It's necessary to keep surface water from accessing the asphalt wearing course, thus
an impermeable barrier is installed between the timber deck and the asphalt (Constro, 2020).

Figure 11: Timber for bridges

1.2.5 Composite materials
Composite materials are being researched and used for both new bridge building and bridge
rehabilitation. Fiber reinforced plastic is an example of a polymer matrix material. Fibers,
either glass or carbon, are used to reinforce this. These materials are light in weight, long-
lasting, high-strength, and ductile. Due to the difficulties of deterioration that steel and
concrete bridges face, new solutions and materials are promoted. The reactive powder
concrete (RPC), which was created in Korea, is another substance. This substance is a steel-
fiber-reinforced version of high-performance concrete. This mixture will aid in the creation
of slender columns for longer-span bridges. This also ensures a high level of durability. In
order to increase the ductility and resistance to seismic force, composite materials are
employed in the restoration of bridge columns and other supporting elements. As the
advantages of composites become more widely recognised, many fabricators and suppliers
indicate that discussions with civil engineers are shifting away from opposition to change and
scepticism about material capabilities and toward other considerations such as cost and
material capabilities (The Constructor, 2017).

1.3 Explanation for bridges construction of processes of civil engineering works

Figure 12: Bridge construction process

Step 1: Site inspection and planning

Planners must examine the site for soil strength, depth, land layout, and other factors before
construction can begin. Engineers may visualise the bridge’s behaviour under various weights
and weather situations using computer-aided design & establish the proper structure
(Bigrentz, 2022).
Step 2: Placement and design
Choose a location for the bridge. The location must be suitable to build the bridge such as
consider traffic patterns, soil conditions, and the length of the span. Then, make a list of the
materials that will be utilised to construct the bridge. For example, for smaller bridges, pre-
stressed concrete, which contains metal called “rebar” that has been stretched tight while the
concrete cures, is most typically employed. Steel girders are also employed on occasion, as
the name implies. In order to complete the bridge by the construction company, calculations
and design drawings are needed. These are required for approval from the authorities. The
drawings should be stamped with an engineer’s seal by a structural engineer who oversaw the
project’s design (Homesteady, 2017).
Step 3: Setting the foundation
Workers can start break ground on the job site and begin laying the foundation for the bridge
after the planning phase is completed. Prepare the surrounding ground to support the load of
bridge is the initial step. In order to reach the specified elevation and distance, build up or
excavate are needed. Prepare the cut earth for the concrete abutment pour by compacting the
filled earth and preparing the filled earth. Compaction equipment and even dynamite will be
used to level any areas where the bedrock are hit. Workers find a stable area or dig supporting
piles into the ground and place solid pillars that will eventually support the remainder of the
bridge to accomplish this. These pillars are usually composed of concrete and can bear a great
deal of weight (Bigrentz, 2022). Then, pour the abutments. If the pillars are concrete, the
design will ask for a concrete pour with rebar already in place (Homesteady, 2017).
Step 4: Installing piers and bridge supports
Workers construct upward from the bottoms of the bridge piers until each pier reaches its
predetermined height. Supports can be made wholly of concrete or a combination of steel and
other materials, depending on the size and type of bridge (Bigrentz, 2022).
Step 5: Adding the superstructure
All components that immediately receive the load, such as cables, support beams, and
latticework, are included in the superstructure. Engineers must harness numerous materials
and create structures that sustain stability when exposed to wind, gravity, and other natural
forces in order to install the superstructure (Bigrentz, 2022).
Step 6: Final quality and safety inspections
Workers use cranes and bridge booms to undertake safety testing once construction is
completed to guarantee that the structure satisfies all quality standards. Engineers can use
these tests to rule out or rectify any structural issues before installing the completed paving
and electrical systems (Bigrentz, 2022).
2.1 Determine the appropriate construction methods, materials and processes of civil
engineering works.

2.1.1 Balanced cantilever bridge construction method (Precast)

Precast segmental and cast-in-place bridges benefit from balanced cantilever construction. To
avoid load imbalance and longitudinal bending in piers and foundations, the deck is
constructed segmentally on either side of the pier in a balanced sequence. During building,
the deck is self-supporting, as well as erection equipment and construction supplies housed
on the cantilever. This kind of construction is especially useful for lengthy spans, maritime
activities, and areas where access beneath the deck is difficult. Balanced cantilever
construction is governed by negative bending, which frequently necessitates box sections
with a thick bottom slab at the cantilever's root and several longitudinal tendons in the top
slab. In terms of structural materials and manpower, balanced cantilever installation of
precast segmental bridges is frequently more expensive than span-by-span erection for a
given span length. The advantage of balanced cantilever erection is that each segment is
handled separately, making the erection equipment lighter and less expensive than a self-
launching gantry for span-by-
span construction, which
bears the weight of an entire
span of segments during span
assembly and post-tensioning
application. A box section is
common in balanced
cantilever bridges. A box
girder's bottom slab reduces
the cross-sectional centre of
Figure 13: Balanced Cantilever Construction of Precast Segmental
gravity, increasing flexural Bridges
capacity in negative bending areas. A hollow section's torsional strength and rigidity ensure
cantilever stability across extended spans, which is a common use for this construction type.
When the deck is curved in plan, this is especially true. Transverse ribs in the top slab,
diagonal struts supporting the edges of the side wings from the bottom web-slab nodes of the
cross-section, and combinations of ribs and struts have all been utilised to successfully extend
the top slab of single-cell box girders. Engineers in the nineteenth century realised that a
continuous bridge over several supports would evenly disperse the weight. This would result
in reduced girder or truss strains, allowing for greater spans to be erected. Several engineers
in the nineteenth century patented continuous bridges with mid-span hinge points. The
employment of a hinge in a multi-span system provided the benefits of a statically
determinate structure as well as a bridge that could manage differential foundation settling.
With a hinge in the girder, engineers could more readily calculate the forces and stresses.

Example of cantilever bridge in the world:

Figure 14: Forth Bridge in Scotland

Figure 15: The Poughkeepsie Bridge
in New York

Figure 16: The High Bridge of Figure 17: The Commodore Barry Bridge in
Kentucky in Kentucky Pennsylvania
2.1.2 Cable-stayed bridge construction method

Since at least the 16th century, the cable stayed bridge design has been recognised. It has
been in use since at least the nineteenth century. One of the benefits of the cable stayed
bridge design is that it does not need as many anchorages as other bridge designs. The bridge
deck can also be supported with fewer suspension cables. A single tower may be sufficient to
support the whole design for smaller designs. As a result, when compared to other current
bridge designs, the building time for this bridge design might be greatly reduced. A cable
stayed bridge can withstand greater pressure than a regular suspension bridge since the cables
are stronger. This gives the deck a higher level of consistency when it comes to travel.
Because the overall construction is more robust, it holds its form better even under strong live
loads. At the same time, they have a natural amount of environmental resistance that allows
them to continue to be a viable alternative in the aftermath of disasters like earthquakes. The
majority of cable-stayed bridge designs use less raw materials. They take less hours of effort
to finish. Because of this, this bridge design choice might be up to 30% less expensive than
other bridge designs. As a result, since the late twentieth century, the cable stayed bridge has
regained popularity as a means of replacing outdated bridges that no longer react well to
continuing maintenance and support. A cable stayed bridge's natural design restricts the
distance that it can safely cross for pedestrians. This design is unique in that each deck piece
may be connected to the next through a sequence of pylons and anchors, allowing for bridges
of almost unlimited length. China's Jiaxing-Shaoxing Sea Bridge is now the world's broadest
and longest cable-stayed bridge. It has eight lanes of traffic and stretches for almost 10,000
metres across Hangzhou Bay. The bridge's main body alone is about 2,600 metres long. What
distinguishes this design is that the bridge's cables serve as both permanent and temporary
supports. If a greater amount of weight has to be sustained in a single segment, the bridge
may handle this by distributing the weight over the cable structures. Simultaneously, the
cables are utilised to keep the deck in good condition eternally, allowing the bridge to be used
safely in the first place. A cable-stayed bridge may be constructed in a number of ways,
allowing each span to be tailored to the needs of the community. A side-spar structure has
only one tower and is only supported on one side. A single spar is used on one side of the
span in a cantilever-spar design. This sort of bridge also comes with multiple-span, extra-
dosed, and cradle-system bridge designs as alternatives. In my opinion, balanced cantilever
bridge construction method and cable-stayed bridge construction method are the appropriate
construction methods.
Example of Cable-stayed bridge in the world:

Figure 18 : Brooklyn Bridge in New York City

Figure 19 : Sutong Yangtze River

Bridge in Suzhou, China

Figure 20 : Incheon Bridge in South Korea

2.2 Material and process of bridge construction
2.2.1 Concrete
Many bridge superstructure members, such as decks, pre-stressed concrete beams, curbs,
walkways, and parapets, are made of concrete (side traffic barrier walls). The complete
abutment, comprising the footings, stem (primary front wall), wingwalls, cheek walls,
backwalls, endwalls (for traffic barrier connection), beam seats, and piers with comparable
components, is commonly utilised in modern construction. It can also be used to support
abutments and piers with cast-in-place or prefabricated concrete piles. (Matt, 2022)
2.2.2 Steel
Steel is widely used to protect expansion joints, beams, bearings, floor beams, girders,
concrete reinforcing bars, traffic barriers, and trusses in bridge superstructures. It's utilised in
the substructure for concrete reinforcing bars, expansion joint armouring, anchor bolts, and
other things. It's also utilised to support abutments and piers using piles. (Matt, 2022)
2.2.3 Stone
In the 1940s and before, stone was extensively utilised to construct abutments and piers. This
was especially true in areas where local field stone was rich. In the 1800s, the B&O railroad
system erected a number of beautiful stone arch bridges. The ruins of certain MA & PA
Railroad bridge abutments and piers may still be seen in Harford County. (Matt, 2022)
3.0 Determine the appropriate sustainable construction methods, materials and
processes of civil engineering works.

Sustainable construction method can be defined as process of constructing a healthy

environment based on ecological principles. To reduce energy consumption and toxic waste,
sustainable construction projects use renewable and recyclable materials. The primary
purpose of this effort is taking advantage of green technology to reduce the industry's
environmental effect through the use of sustainable construction methods, energy efficiency,
and green technology.
Construction techniques, resources, and building practises have evolved over time, and with
greater interest in sustainability and energy saving, new sustainable construction solutions
have emerged. Sustainable building is comprised of two components: the materials used and
the procedures employed. (BigRentz, 2022) Normally, people only heard about sustainability
on design and construction of building. According to the Greenroads Foundation, green
construction must include environmentally friendly roads and bridges in order to have a
substantial impact on the environment. (Short Span Steel Bridges, 2022)
In fact, in terms of its supply chain, raw materials, and social implications, the bridge
fabrication industry has already embraced as many sustainable techniques as it can. Experts
say that prolonging the lifespan of bridges is the best option for bridge fabrication and
construction to improve its sustainability. As from research bridge that lasts 300 years instead
of 100 years has a 66 percent reduction in environmental consequences. Bridge maintenance
is unquestionably at the forefront of sustainable bridge development in the future. Bridges
will be expected to provide a safe and valuable service socially, environmentally, and
economically for many more years than a 50-year lifespan will be considered adequate. With
improved rehabilitation and repair, bridges will be expected to provide a safe and valuable
service for many more years. (pbctoday, 2020)
From the research among few types of bridge construction method, precast bridge
construction method and steel bridge is the most sustainable construction method. Normally
precast concrete construction can be build and combine faster, fire resistant, higher sound
control and stronger. Because the quality of concrete and reinforcement can be modified to to
achieve various requirement and extend bridge lifespan. Precast concrete is a long-term
investment. Precast concrete has a stronger strength, which allows for longer clear spans,
making it ideal for constructions with a lot of open space. It can provide advantage such as
extreme durable, resistant to natural disasters, weather resistance, environmental protection
and conversion of energy use in building. Hence, it is being economical in term on lifetime,
meet social priorities and minimizing environmental impact due to extend bridge lifetime
without reconstruct or high maintenance on it by using more raw material. (BigRentz, 2022)

Figure 21 – Use tower crane to Figure 22 – Combine bridge

place precast structure structure

Furthermore, precast bridge construction method is more environmentally friendly. The

majority of a structure's carbon emissions occur during its lifetime. The carbon produced
during the creation of cement is countered in the case of precast, with reduced maintenance
expenses, decreased heating and cooling costs, and the concrete reabsorbing up to 40% of the
carbon over the structure's life. Furthermore, there is very little waste generated during the
manufacturing process, and waste materials such as fly ash and slag are utilised instead.
Precast constructions can be totally recycled at the end of their useful lives. And its also use
less concrete compare to cast-in-situ. This is because manufacturing precast uses innovative
technology in reusable steel moulds and is done in a factory-controlled setting, resulting in
high-quality products and less waste. Besides, it can reduce the environment and air pollution
during constructing bridge due to only required transport to delivery and combine all the
structure. Hence, it will have less impact to the environment.

There is three type of precast bridge construction method which is precast beams that short
span between 5m to 50m as railway or motorway bridges Beside that, is precast decks
construction which long viaducts are frequently built with. This approach allows for the rapid
installation of a complete precast deck on a long viaduct. A huge crane or a specially
designed gantry is used to position the decks. When using a gantry system, a rate of two
spans per day is considered normal; if this rate is maintained, a one-kilometer deck can be
installed in three weeks. Third is precast segmental decks construction methods. Third is
precast segmental decks construction methods. Precast segmental deck construction is
utilised for lengthy bridges where the deck depth makes cast-in-place construction
impossible. Box girder deck segments are commonly utilised where the section can be 2m or
less deep, 2.5m to 4m long, and carrying a deck up to 15m wide. Precast concrete bridge
construction normally will first design and construct within factory away from site and
delivery to site. After that, only use crane to lift up the structure to be combined. (BigRentz,
2022)

From the other point of view, material also can be a important point. Steel attached
importance on all the sustainability priorities for sustainable bridge. Steel bridge is economics
due to light weight of steel and being cost-effective over their full lifetime, including
decommissioning,
and taking Figure 23 – Sustainable construction requirement into account the
effects of user interruption during construction and maintenance. Apart from that, steel is
more environmental friendly. Steel is the world's most recyclable material. Every year, more
steel is recycled than paper, glass, aluminium, and plastic combined. Furthermore, steel from
a dismantled bridge might be reused for another purpose. Steel's strong strength-to-weight
ratio, combined with its low carbon footprint, results in an overall reduction of a typical
structure's embodied carbon when compared to other frame materials. Simply put, when steel
is used, waste and environmental problems are reduced. And it is social priorities. Every
bridge project must be planned with the society in mind. A bridge must not only serve the
existing population, but it must also be constructed with materials that will last for future
generations. Steel bridges can be strengthened and changed in the future to accommodate
increasing live loadings, new live loadings, roadway widenings, or other configuration
changes. Other materials do not have the same versatility and frequently require replacement
for new loadings or configuration modifications. (BigRentz, 2022)
 Figure 24 – Steel bridge

4.0 Case Study

4.1 Project background
 Figure 4.1: Rawang bypass view. (The Arup journal, 2019)

Rawang bypass is known as one of the tallest highways in Malaysia and a project that
preserves Malaysia’s natural heritage. The total construction cost was around RM628 million
and the project was begun in July 2005 and was completed in November 2017. Rawang is a
town located in Selangor and northwest of central Kuala Lumpur. The traveling time from
Rawang to Kuala Lumpur might be about two hours or more during peak hours. The
objective of constructing Rawang Bypass was to reduce heavy traffic congestion in Rawang
town by distracting the north-south traffic between Serendah and Kuala Lumpur. Rawang
Bypass was connecting the north which is Sungai Choh near Serendah to south of Templer’s
Park in Rawang. The new Rawang bypass was able to reduce the traveling time from two
hours to 30 minutes during peak hour. The project was divided into three phases. Phase 1
includes enhancing the current Federal Road 1(FR001) by transforming the single lane
roadway into a dual lane roadway together with 2m-wide paved shoulders. Phase 2 comprised
the construction of a new road which is a new bypass to distract the traffic north around
Rawang town center. Phase 3 was upgrading the existing 2km federal road on the north of
Rawang that leads to Serendah and building a trumpet interchange. The project was tendered
in 2003 to a collaboration between Arup and the local company Panzana Enterprise Sdn Bhd
as a design and construct contract. Arup supplied comprehensive detailed designs and
engineer services and also the project's full time site supervision consultant. While Panzana
Enterprise Sdn Bhd provided the main contractor's work. (Endut,2019)
4.2 Challenges and solution

Figure 4.2: Rawang bypass through Kanching Forest Reserve. (The Arup journal, 2019)

In 2004, the design team began their work on detailed design. The progress for Phase 1 and 3
were smooth and less challenging, however Phase 2 was significantly more difficult and full
of challenges. This is because the project required constructing a bypass around the Rawang
area would have passed through a reserve forest which is Kanching Forest Reserve. However,
the state government did not allow any large construction that could affect the reserve’s
ecosystem. The most challenging part of this project was to redesign a bypass that can
minimize deforestation and minimal impact on the environment during the construction
phase. (Endut,2019)

The Public Works Department (JKR) has rejected the original design and the use of
conventional cut and fill construction methods. The cut and fill method would have led to the
loss of many trees and areas of the forest reserve which may impact on the ecosystem as well.
Viaduct was the best solution instead of adopting conventional cut and fill method to traverse
through the forest reverse area. The use of viaduct was environmentally friendly due to very
minimal on cutting the slopes and minimal disturbance of the flora and fauna. (Gamuda,
2018) A solution has come out from Arup to the problem which involves designing the
elevated bridge structure over the outer fringes of the reserve forest and relocating the path
originally proposed by the Public Works Department (JKR) to the forest's slopes. Thus, the
need for deforestation was significantly reduced by saving almost 40 hectares of forest and to
ensure that the bypass was located at the edge of the forest reserve area. In order to match the
vertical alignment of the other sections of the road, the road construction had to be lifted up
above the ground. The final design for this bypass included the ten kilometers of four-lane
dual carriageway which 2.78km was elevated structure supported by 58m high piers.
(Endut,2019)
4.3 Foundation

Figure 4.3: The construction workers dig the foundation by hand and jack hammer.
(Construction plus Asia, 2019)
A caisson foundation or pier foundation, is a waterproof retaining structure that is used to
support a bridge. It is a foundation consisting of a prefabricated hollow box or cylinder that
sunk into the ground to a desire depth and then filled with concrete. This is due to the fact
that caissons could be sunk into position after being floated to the project site. The caisson
foundation is adopted when the bearing strength soil is found beneath surface layers of weak
materials like as fill or peat. The purpose of adopting caisson foundation system is to prevent
the foundation and soils beneath from moving vertically. (Mishra, 2019)

In order to avoid extensive earthwork and deforestation, the construction team had a more
suitable route for the bridge that had minimal impact on the forest area. Light machinery was
adopted to dig caisson foundations rather than using piled foundations and large machinery.
Therefore, the construction for foundation might be distributed across a smaller area than
would otherwise be required. Caissons are hand dug by labourers with the tools of shovels,
scopes, pneumatic breakers. The excavated materials thus hoisted to the top by using pulley
system or electronic hoist (Uniteddriller, 2022).

By adopting this method, the construction for the foundations and bridge piers only required
a narrow 50m corridor. The foundations range in diameter from 1.7m to 6m and were
excavated using jack hammers and hydraulic rock crushers. Slipform construction was used
to construct the piers which allowed each pier to be erected safely, quickly and properly.
(Endut,2019)
4.4 Erosion protection

Figure 4.4: Before and after laying of Reno Mattress during the Phase 2 construction.
(Maccaferri, 2014)
During Phase 2 construction, the construction includes an existing channel that has to be
rearranged to make way for the new highway and the solution is to prevent erosion along the
new channel. Reno Mattress was adopted and it’s made of hexagonal double twisted steel
woven wire mesh and internal diaphragms installed at each metre split the unit into evenly
partitioned cells, resulting in a multi cell unit. Each of the cells are filled with stones in order
to form a flexible, permeable and monolithic structure. In addition, the mesh is made of
heavily galvanized wire that has been coated with Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) in order to
prevent it from long term corrosion. It is also capable of developing and integrating with its
surroundings which allows it for the preservation of nature. In order to prevent scouring, the
installation works consists of a layer of geotextile filter (refer to Figure 4.5) that is laid under
the Reno Mattress. Following the placement and arrangement of the mattresses on a slope,
rockfill sizes ranging from 150mm to 200mm were manually inserted into the mattress cells.
Lastly the mattresses were covered by lids. (Maccaferri,2014)
Figure 4.5: Geotextile that used to prevent scouring and placed before laying of Reno
Mattress. (Maccaferri, 2014)
4.5 Double-column piers

Figure 4.6: Double column piers of Rawang

Bypass. (The Arup journal, 2019)

Piers are the structures that located at the ends of bridge span at intermediate point between
the abutment or embarkment. The function of pier is to transfer the dead and live loads from
superstructure into the foundation through pier, and to withstand horizontal forces and
transverse forces acting on the bridge. (Kamble, 2021) The base area of the piers rises
proportionally with the number of the tie beam. Due to the piers are constructed up to 58m
tall, the adoption of double column piers able to help improving the stability and twisting
movement of the vertical structure as well as prevent radial movement. The adoption of
double columns piers is not enough for the stability of the bridge, therefore the double
column piers constructed with two straining beams can improve the performance in the
transverse direction and improve the stability of the bridge compared to single straining
beam. (Zhang, 2019) Straining beam or intermediate tie beam are the beam structure that
connects between two piers at any height. The purpose of beams is to serve as a length
breaker for the columns, prevent the piers from buckling and used to carry the axial
compression. (Civilseek, 2020) 

4.6 Bearings
Bridge bearings can be defined as a component of a bridge that transfer the loads from the
deck including both dead and live loads to the substructure. It also acts as a structure to
control the movement that caused by the temperature variation or seismic activity and
reducing the stresses involved as well. A bearing is located between the superstructure and
substructure. (Lin, 2017) The function of bearings is used to reduce the reaction forces and
bending movement within the safety limits of the bridge structure. Thus, the bearings have
reduced the overstressing and damage that caused by vehicles and loading movement to the
piers. (IRPEC,ntd) Rawang Bypass adopted the mechanical pot bearing for the bridge
construction. Pot bearing or rubber bearing with elastomeric bearing inserted inside of the
steel plate. It can be divided into three types such as fixed pot bearing, guided pot bearing and
free sliding pot bearing. It also designs to taking large loads, large horizontal displacement
and rotation requirement in confined areas. Elastomeric bearings have a restricted loading
capacity, however pot bearings have overcome this problem. As a result, pot bearings are
frequently recommended for use in bridges that require massive bearing responses. (Dacheng,
2016)

Figure 4.7: Typical pot bearing. (Dacheng Rubber Co, 2016)

4.7 Installation of Pot-bearing

Figure 4.8: The installation of pot-bearing. (The Engineering Community, 2019)

1) Placing the bearing on its support.
2) Adjust the bearing.
 3) Grout the base.
4) Place the formwork and reinforcement and pour concrete to the superstructure.
5) Release temporary attachments.

4.8 Moveable Scaffolding System

Figure 4.9: The elevated bridge constructed by Moveable Scaffolding System (MSS).
(The Arup journal, 2019)

Moveable Scaffolding System (MSS) is one of the most popular form-work systems for span-
by-span cast-in-situ bridges. The system was widely used in the world because of its
lightweight, easy to assemble and dismantle, efficiency in operation and innovative ideas.
The system allows the contractor to re-use the formwork system for different projects due to
the ability of adapting different cross sections. (NRSAS,2017) The MSS system is able to
handle a wide range of bridge sections such as box girders, multi-cell box bridge, double - T
bridge, U - shape bridge and others (Ooi, 2020)
Figure 4.10: Box girder construction was used for the Rawang bypass bridge section
above the road. (The Arup journal, 2019)

The system includes a support structure spanning between two piers from which formwork
was either supported or suspended. While the inner formwork or core form was foldable and
it allows move easily to the next span on a rail system. The MSS formwork system is
designed with the outer formwork able to expand sufficiently and appropriately to facilitate
passage around the bridge piers during the launching process. The placing of reinforcement
can begin after the formwork is closed and the setting has been aligned and leveled to the
desired alignment and level. (NRSAS,2017)

Figure 4.11: Self-launching MSS was adopted to construct the bridge in order to reduce
the deforestation and avoid extensive earthworks. (The Arup journal, 2019)

Rawang bypass was the very first bridge construction that used the underslung Moveable
Scaffolding System (MSS) in Malaysia. It is self-launching MSS (SL-MSS) and it does not
require any supporting cranes for handling the support brackets. (Gamuda, 2018) The MSS
was able to reduce the construction period, it is reliable and economical solution for the
construction of the elevated bridge (Endut,2019). Due to the lesser heavier cranes or other
equipment used on construction sites, the MSS was considered feasible for this project and it
reduced the impact on the forest reserve along its alignment. (Gamuda, 2018) The MSS
consists of a hydraulically powered large steel gantry, formwork and working platform that
glides from pier to pier which allows the beams and concrete slabs to be built from the tops of
the piers. The construction workers, equipment and materials have minimal impact at ground
level. This is because the formwork is released and moved to the next pier once the section is
completed.
The MSS contributed greatly to this project, a total number of 50 sections with 40m span
were constructed by using the Moveable Scaffolding System (MSS). (Endut,2019) However,
a different construction method needs to be adopted for the 51st and 53rd spans section due to
some reason. This is because of the huge 114m span between the pier, the MSS could not be
utilized with the bridge at this point travelling at a skewed angle over the existing federal
trunk road at Templer Park. Moreover, the MSS steel frames hung below the bridge may be
an obstruction and danger to road users travelling on the road below. Therefore, a
conventional balanced cantilever method of construction was adopted with the remainder of
the spans erected using standard inverted-T post tensioned beams. (Endut,2019)

Figure 4.12: Cross-section of a typical bridge deck at a pier position. (The Arup journal,
2019)

How does an Underslung Self Launching Moveable Scaffolding System work ?

Figure 4.13: The process of Moveable Scaffolding System self-launching. (The Arup
journal, 2019)

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