(Week 4)

Mercator projection, type of map projection introduced in 1569 by Gerardus Mercator. It is often

described as a cylindrical projection, but it must be derived mathematically. The meridians are
equally spaced, parallel vertical lines, and the parallels of latitude are parallel, horizontal straight
lines, spaced farther and farther apart as their distance from the Equator increases. This
projection is widely used for navigation charts, because any straight line on a Mercator-
projection map is a line of constant true bearing that enables a navigator to plot a straight-line
course. It is less practical for world maps because the scale is distorted; areas farther away
from the equator appear disproportionately large. On a Mercator projection, for example, the
landmass of Greenland appears to be greater than that of the continent of South America; in
actual area, Greenland is smaller than the Arabian Peninsula.

Uses of Mercator Chart

As on all map projections, shapes or sizes are distortions of the true layout of the Earth's
surface. The Mercator projection exaggerates areas far from the equator.
The Mercator projection is still used commonly for navigation. On the other hand, because of
great land area distortions, it is not well suited for general world maps. Therefore, Mercator
himself used the equal-area sinusoidal projection to show relative areas. However, despite such
distortions, Mercator projection was, especially in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
perhaps the most common projection used in world maps, but in this use, it has much been
criticized. Because of its very common usage, it has been supposed to have greatly influenced
on people's view of the world, and because it shows countries near the Equator as far too small
when compared to those of Europe and North America, it has been supposed to cause people
to consider those countries as
less important. As a result of
these criticisms, most
modern atlases no longer use
the Mercator projection for
world maps or for areas
distant from the equator,
preferring other cylindrical
projections, or forms of equal-
area projection. The Mercator
projection is still commonly
used for areas near the
equator, however, where
distortion is minimal.
Properties of Chart
A nautical chart is one of the most fundamental tools available to the mariner. It is a map that
depicts the configuration of the shoreline and seafloor. It provides water depths, locations of
dangers to navigation, locations and characteristics of aids to navigation, anchorages, and other
features.
The nautical chart is essential for safe navigation. Mariners use charts to plan voyages and
navigate ships safely and economically.
Nautical charts are based on hydrographic surveys. As surveying is laborious and time-
consuming, hydrographic data for many areas of sea may be dated and not always reliable.
Depths are measured in a variety of ways. Historically the sounding line was used. In modern
times, echo sounding is used for measuring the seabed in the open sea. When measuring the
safe depth of water over an entire obstruction, such as a shipwreck, the minimum depth is
checked by sweeping the area with a length of horizontal wire. This ensures that difficult to find
projections, such as masts, do not present a danger to vessels navigating over the obstruction.
Nautical charts are issued by power of the national hydrographic offices in many countries.
These charts are considered "official" in contrast to those made by commercial publishers.
Many hydrographic offices provide regular, sometimes weekly, manual updates of their charts
through their sales agents. Individual hydrographic offices produce national chart series and
international chart series. Coordinated by the International Hydrographic Organization, the
international chart series is a worldwide system of charts ("INT" chart series), which is being
developed with the goal of unifying as many chart systems as possible.
There are also commercially published charts, some of which may carry additional information
of particular interest, e.g. for yacht skippers.

Chart correction
The nature of a waterway depicted by a chart may change, and artificial aids to navigation may
be altered at short notice. Therefore, old or uncorrected charts should never be used for
navigation. Every producer of nautical charts also provides a system to inform mariners of
changes that affect the chart. In the United States, chart corrections and notifications of new
editions are provided by various governmental agencies by way of Notice to Mariners, Local
Notice to Mariners, Summary of Corrections, and Broadcast Notice to Mariners. In the U.S.,
NOAA also has a printing partner who prints the "POD" (print on demand) NOAA charts, and
they contain the very latest corrections and notifications at the time of printing. To give notice to
mariners, radio broadcasts provide advance notice of urgent corrections.
A good way to keep track of corrections is with a Chart and Publication Correction Record
Card system. Using this system, the navigator does not immediately update every chart in the
portfolio when a new Notice to Mariners arrives, instead creating a card for every chart and
noting the correction on this card. When the time comes to use the chart, he pulls the chart and
chart's card, and makes the indicated corrections on the chart. This system ensures that every
chart is properly corrected prior to use. A prudent mariner should obtain a new chart if he has
not kept track of corrections and his chart is more than several months old.
Various Digital Notices to Mariners systems are available on the market such as Digitrace,
Voyager, or ChartCo, to correct British Admiralty charts as well as NOAA charts. These systems
provide only vessel relevant corrections via e-mail or web downloads, reducing the time needed
to sort out corrections for each chart. Tracings to assist corrections are provided at the same
time.
The Canadian Coast Guard produces the Notice to Mariners publication which informs mariners
of important navigational safety matters affecting Canadian Waters. This electronic publication
is published on a monthly basis and can be downloaded from the Notices to Mariners
(NOTMAR) Web site. The information in the Notice to Mariners is formatted to simplify the
correction of paper charts and navigational publications.
Various and diverse methods exist for the correction of electronic navigational charts.

Limitations
as an example of limitations in the vertical geodetic datum accuracy of some offshore areas as
represented on nautical charts, especially on small-scale charts. A similar incident involving a
passenger ship occurred in 1992 when the Cunard liner Queen Elizabeth 2 struck a submerged
rock off Block Island in the Atlantic Ocean.[2] More recently, in 2005 the submarine USS San
Francisco ran into an uncharted sea mount about 560kilometres (350 statute miles) south of
Guam at a speed of 35 knots (40.3 mph; 64.8 km/h), sustaining serious damage and killing one
seaman. In September 2006 the jack-up barge Octopus ran aground on an uncharted sea
mount within the Orkney Islands (United Kingdom) while being towed by the tug Harold. £1M
worth of damage was caused to the barge and delayed work on the installation of a tidal energy
generator prototype. As stated in the Mariners Handbook and subsequent accident report "No
chart is infallible. Every chart is liable to be incomplete".

Importance of chart Catalogue

Its most portion comprises of diagrammatic representation of limits of navigational charts in
various regions and in addition to this the BA chart number, title of charts, date of publication
date of hew edition & natural scale for all the charts are shown in the geographical region.
A list or enumeration of navigational charts, sometimes with index charts indicating the extent of 
coverage of the variousnavigational charts.The ADMIRALTY Digital Catalogue (ADC) provides
a comprehensive and up-to-date reference of ADMIRALTY Maritime Products & Services,
including Standard Navigational Charts and Publications, as well as AVCS, ARCS and
ADMIRALTY ECDIS Services.  Users can search for these products by type, scale or a defined
route, with weekly updates available online to keep you fully up-to-date.
The ADMIRALTY Digital Catalogue simplifies the passage planning process by making the
identification of T&P NMs relevant to the intended voyage quick and easy. The Catalogue
allows T&P NMs to be displayed geographically, searched, viewed either individually or as a
user-defined group, saved and printed
(Week 5)
Correcting of charts according to notices to Marines
Whenever a new area is to be added to a chart or it has to represent an area different from the
previous chart, or the depth units shown on previous charts have to be changed or if the scale
on which a previous chart was made has to be renewed, then Admiralty publishes a New Chart.
However if there are major changes in a chart or large amount of data is to be inserted  for e.g.
Insertion of a New Traffic Separation Scheme not present on the previously used chart, the
Admiralty then publishes a New Edition of that chart replacing the existing one.
The Catalogue of Admiralty Charts and Publications is published every year with current and
updated editions of charts, however, if during the year the Weekly Notices to Mariner indicate
any new editions or new charts, they are to be inserted in the chart catalogue by the navigating
officer.

An updated and corrected chart folio system comprises of  Chart correction Log and Folio Index,
Admiralty Chart catalogue, Admiralty Sailing Directions , Weekly Notices to Mariners , Annual Summary
of Notices to Mariners,   Admiralty List of Lights , Admiralty List of Radio Signals , Admiralty Tide tables ,
Chart – 5011 Symbols and abbreviations to be used  on charts.  The following points to be considered in
order to maintain updated chart folio onboard:
The chart correction log should have details of all charts present onboard with index of corrections
(temporary and preliminary also) mentioned against each chart number. All the charts and publications
are to be corrected on weekly basis following instructions provided in weekly notices to mariners and the
correction numbers to be entered in the same index mentioned above against chart numbers respectively,
so that it can be used as a quick reference to check status of corrections for any chart
There should be a designated chart supplier or service provided on a timely basis without delays to
supply new charts and new editions applicable to the folios onboard. Other than that weekly Notice to
mariners, Annual summary of Notices to Mariners, their supplements should be provided
There should be equipment onboard and services to receive Navigational warnings, and Navtex warning

Whenever a new chart or new edition is published, Weekly Notices to Mariner carry a notification of the
same. On receiving a new edition or a new chart the chart correction log is to be updated with the relevant
folio number against the chart number in the index and ‘NC’ or ‘NE’ to be inserted adjacent to the chart
number in the correction index. The chart to be verified for any pending temporary and preliminary
corrections and navigational warnings
On receiving a chart or a notification through weekly notices to mariners which replaces a previous chart ,
insert in the chart correction log ‘replaced by’ or ‘cancelled by’ against the mentioned chart. The folio
number to be inserted on the replacement chart received.
Changes in buoyage and lights, wrecks, obstructions or depth changes are examples of updates to charts
that are critical to safe navigation.  Major changes covering a large area will require a new edition of the
chart to be published, but when small important changes can be made by hand on the chart, the
corrections are issued as a Notice to Mariners (NM or Notam), or a stick on Notice to Mariners Block.
Correcting the Chart
1.   Decide if the notice is applicable to your chart, your vessel, and your sailing area.
2.  Apply the correction.  If replacing a symbol, find the old symbol on the chart, then, as close as possible
and not over any other information, draw the new symbol (Check Chart 5011).  Link the new symbol to
the required position with a curved line. Finally draw 2 diagonal lines through the old symbol to show that
it no longer applies. 
If inserting a new symbol, draw it on the exact position given in the NM. If there is no room follow the
process above for a 'replacement symbol'.
Detailed instructions and examples of chart corrections are in the UKHO publication NP294 ‘How To
Correct Your Charts The Admiralty Way.’
3.  Document the corrections applied.  Check your work and make a note of the Notice to Mariner Number
and Year in the bottom left hand corner of the chart, so any reader knows the last correction applied.  If
you decide that a correction does not apply to your vessel, making a note of the correction number on the
chart will save re-checking at a later date. 

 Notice to Mariners
The title in bold is the NM number, the geographical area, a region or port and the type of correction. The
second line gives the text of the correction, with instructions on the update.  In this case, a new starboard
hand mark has been placed at position 50º 20'.750N,  4º 37'.820W, and an amended light has been
notified at 50º 19'.69N,  4º 38'.66W, in Fowey harbour.
You need a pen with a fine point (preferably magenta in colour to show up clearly), Chart 5011 Symbols
and Abbreviations, Internet access to http://www.nmwebsearch.com or a list of Notices to Mariners.
The Notes contain any relevant further information. There follows a list of charts affected by this update
and the last NM that applied, shown in square brackets [ ]. This allows you to check if there are any other
outstanding corrections for the chart, as it is important to apply corrections to the chart in order. Below this
is the source of the information and the UKHO reference.  For more information on updating your charts,
and how to update Leisure Folios
3579* ENGLAND, South Coast - Fowey Harbour - Polmore Point and Saint Catherine's Point - Beacon;
Light
Insert            Starboard hand beacon with topmark                 50º 20'.750N,  4º 37'.820W.

Amend          Light to Fl R7s15m2M                                       50º 19'.69N,  4º 38'.66W.
Note: The above update will he included in a New Edition of Chart 1185 to be published in due course.
Note: Positions on the chart affected by this notice are referred to a WGS 84 compatible datum. See
ADMIRALTY CHARTS OF GREAT BRITAIN THAT ARE REFERRED TO A WGS 84 COMPATIBLE
DATUM (near the beginning of this publication) and NM 4731(P)/00.
Chart [Last correction] - 31 (INT 1721) (plan C, Fowey Harbour) [ New Edition 24/5/01 ] 
Light List Vol. A, 2002/3, 0083
Fowey Harbour Commissioners Notice 1/02    (HH.232/470/03).

Polar of the earth

Earth radius is the distance from Earth's center to its surface, about 6,371 km (3,959 mi). This
length is also used as a unit of distance, especially in astronomy and geology, where it is
usually denoted by R⊕.
This article deals primarily with spherical and ellipsoidal models of Earth. See Figure of Earth for
a more complete discussion of the models. Earth is only approximately spherical, so no single
value serves as its natural radius. Distances from points on the surface to the center range
from 6,353 km to 6,384 km (3,947–3,968 mi). Several different ways of modeling the Earth as a
sphere each yield a mean radius of 6,371 km (3,959 mi).
While "radius" normally is a characteristic of perfect spheres, the term as used in this article
more generally means the distance from some "center" of Earth to a point on the surface or on
an idealized surface that models Earth. It can also mean some kind of average of such
distances, or of the radius of a sphere whose curvature matches the curvature of the ellipsoidal
model of Earth at a given point.
Aristotle, writing in On the Heavens[1] around 350 BC, reports that "the mathematicians" guess
the circumference of the Earth to be 400,000 stadia. Due to uncertainty about which stadion
variant Aristotle meant, scholars have interpreted Aristotle's figure to be anywhere from highly
accurate[2] to almost double the true value.[3] The first known scientific measurement and
calculation of the radius of the Earth was performed by Eratosthenes about 240 BC. Estimates
of the accuracy of Eratosthenes’s measurement range from within 0.5% to within 17%.[4] As with
Aristotle's report, uncertainty in the accuracy of his measurement is due to modern uncertainty
over which stadion definition he used.
The Earth's polar radius b, or semi-minor axis, is the distance from its center to the North and
South Poles, and equals 6,356.7523 km (3,949.9028 mi).

Equational Circumference of the earth

You can figure out the earth’s circumference using a geometric formula that’s over 2,000 years
old! Contrary to popular belief, Christopher Columbus did not discover that the Earth is round.
Eratosthenes (276–194 B.C.) made that discovery about 1,700 years before Columbus.
Eratosthenes was the head librarian in Alexandria, Egypt, the center of learning in the ancient
world. He estimated the circumference of the Earth with the following method: He knew that on
the summer solstice, the longest day of the year, the angle of the sun above Syene, Egypt,
would be 0°, in other words, the sun would be directly overhead. So on the summer solstice, he
measured the angle of the sun above Alexandria by measuring the shadow cast by a pole and
got a 7.2° angle.
The following figure shows how Eratosthenes’s earth measurement worked.

Eratosthenes divided 360° by 7.2° and got 50, which told him that the distance between
Alexandria and Syene (500 miles) was 1/50 of the total distance around the Earth. So he
multiplied 500 by 50 to arrive at his estimate of the Earth’s circumference: 25,000 miles. This
estimate was only 100 miles off the actual circumference of 24,900 miles!
(WEEK 6)

The Nautical Chart

As a navigator, the nautical chart is one of your most important tools. A chart is a graphical
representation of part of the earth's surface. Unlike a map, a chart emphasizes areas of
water and features that allow mariners to determine position, avoid hazards and find a safe
route to a destination.
Charts cover the open sea, coastlines, navigable inland waters and canal systems. They
can cover a large area; for example, the shipping lanes of the North Atlantic; or provide a
detailed representation of a smaller area, such as a harbour or anchorage.
Most maritime nations publish charts and Canada is no exception. Canadian paper and
electronic charts are published by the Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS). These charts
are available from chandleries and map retailers. The United States and Great Britain
publish charts for their own waters and much of the earth's navigable waters.
Find out more about the history of charts
Projections
It's a challenge for chart makers to transfer the features of a spherical earth to a flat piece of
paper. The solution lies in using mathematical formulas to create projections. Different
formulas produce different projections and there are many types, each with its particular
characteristics. Nautical charts are usually one of three: Gnomonic (pronounced no-
monic), Polyconic and Mercator. The Mercator projection is the most common.
In a Mercator projection, meridians of
longitude are parallel. Lines of
latitude, while still parallel, are no
longer equidistant but wider apart
further north. This causes distortion in
the shape and size of land and ocean
masses as these features are
enlarged closer to the poles.
The advantage of a Mercator chart is
that meridians and parallels cross
each other at right angles to form a
rectangular grid. This means a
straight-line course through the water
can be plotted as a straight line on
the chart — something that's not
The Mercator Projection
possible on other projections.
 The Chart at a Glance
A chart identifies navigable areas,
shorelines and areas not suitable for
navigation. It indicates depths of water,
or soundings; the location of rocks and
other hazards, tidal drying areas as well
as deep water. A chart also points out
the location and type of navigational
aids, and shows symbols for piers,
bridges and other structures. On-shore
landmarks that can assist with
navigation, such as radio towers and
church steeples, are also symbolized.
Charts from different agencies (three
agencies make charts in the USA) and
countries may look different, but there
are many common characteristics.

A chart's scale is the ratio of the distance on a chart to the distance on land or water. A
scale of 1:8 000 means that the chart is one eight-thousandths of the size of the area it
represents: Objects shown as a centimetre apart are physically 8,000 centimetres (80
metres) apart.
A coastal chart usually has a scale of between 1:50 000 to 1:150 000. The scale of a
harbour chart is typically 1:10 000.
A chart that provides a lot of detail for a small area is a large scale chart. A chart that covers
a vast area and provides little detail is a small scale chart. Remember:
large scale - small area, small scale - large area.
The same geographic area may be covered by several charts with differing scales.

One of navigation's golden rules: use the chart with largest scale available.

Symbols
Charts use symbols to represent real-world objects. Knowledge of these symbols, as well as
their common abbreviations and terminology, is an important part of using a chart. Symbols
are covered in lesson 2.2.
Measuring Distance
Because a chart is a scaled
representation of the real world, it can be
used to measure distances between
objects. This is useful, among other
things, for estimating sailing or motoring
time between points.
On a Mercator chart, the latitude
scale on the sides of the chart serves as
the distance scale.
It's worth remembering that only the
vertical, latitude scale on a Mercator chart
can be used to measure distance, not the
horizontal longitude scale. This is
because each minute of latitude equals
one nautical mile, while the distance
between minutes of longitude decreases
between the equator and the poles.
The latitude scale is the distance scale
Dividers are used to transfer the distance
on a Mercator chart because one
between two charted objects to the
minute of latitude equals one nautical
latitude scale on the side of the chart, or
mile.
from the latitude scale to any points on
the chart.
Finding Co-ordinates
Dividers are also used to transfer a position's latitude and longitude co-ordinates to a chart
or to find a position's co-ordinates. Charts have a grid of reference lines that make it
possible to transfer co-ordinates with precision.

The latitude of the light at

Cabot Head is found by placing
one point of the dividers on the
light's chart symbol and the
other on the nearest latitude
reference line.
The dividers are then
transferred to the side of the
chart and the latitude noted
from the scale.
 To find the longitude the
process is repeated using the
vertical reference line and the
scale at the bottom or top of
the chart.

Charts and Change

Charts get out of date quickly: buoys are moved, removed or changed, shorelines shift or
new hazards appear. Lesson 1.4 examines how Notices to Mariners inform boaters of
changes to charts between publications. In Canada CHS charts are revised to include
changes made between publications. The year of these revisions is printed in the lower left-
hand corner of the chart.
Define Possition
condition with reference to place; location; situation. the point or area occupied by
a physical object : location took her position at the head of the line.

Lines of position
The modern chart shows us positions of many recognizable aids to navigation like churches and
lighthouses, which facilitate the approach to a coastal area. This concept originated from a chart
by Waghenaer  and proved a milestone in the development of European cartography. This work
was called “Spieghel der Zeevaerdt” and included coastal profiles and tidal information much
like the modern chart. It enables us to find the angle between the North and for example an
offshore platform, as seen from our position.
        Compass courses True courses                        
Taking a bearing on this oil rig with a compass provides us with a compass course. This course
first needs correction for both variation and - via ship's heading - deviation  before plotting
a Line of Position (LOP) in the chart as a true course. 
Our position is somewhere along this line.

Ranges

A precise way to obtain a LOP, and without a

compass, is to locate two aids to navigation in line. The map of Laura Island on the right shows
four examples of ranges, each consisting of two aids to navigation.
Please, note that:
More distance between the two landmarks enhances accuracy.
And less distance between the vessel and the closest aid to navigation also enhances accuracy.
One of these four ranges consists of two lights that are intentionally placed to provide a LOP.
These pairs of lights are called range lights or leading lights. In this case they indicate the
approach towards the marina and mark the channel between the dangerous rocks along a true
course of 50° . When looking towards any leading lights, the nearest one will be lower

.  Therefore, in the middle of the channel both lights will

appear vertically above each other.
Even when there are no man-made structures available, a range can be
found by using natural features such as coastlines and islets. The example
on the left shows a yacht that will avoid the dangerous wreck as long as the
islets don't overlap. 
 
Position fix
If two LOPs intersect we can construct a position fix: the ship's position on the earth. 
Often however, a triangle occurs when a third LOP is added in the construction. This indicates
that there are errors involved in at least one of the bearings taken. In practice, we should
consider each LOP as the average bearing in a wider sector of for instance 10° .

The optimum angular spread is 90° (two objects) or 120° (three objects). Moreover, bearings

on distant objects bring about more uncertainty in our position fix as the sector widens. Finally, if
moving fast you should not put any time between the bearings.
The next example features a nocturnal landfall on Willemsen Island - you are welcome to visit,
but mind the rocks. The position fix is plotted by taking bearings at two light-vessels as their
lights appear over the horizon . The variation is -1° and the ship's compass heading is
190°. Since we use our steering compass  for our bearings, we can use the
same deviation table. That means a deviation of -4° with which we can calculate (cc +
var + dev = tc) the true courses.

An estimated position is based upon whatever

incomplete navigational information is available, such as a single LOP, a series of depth
measurements correlated to charted depths, or a visual observation of the surroundings.
In the example on the right we see an estimated position constructed using a single LOP and
the ship's dead reckoning position (DR) . This is done by drawing a line from the DR
position at the time of the LOP perpendicular to the LOP. An EP is denoted by a square instead
of an ellipse.
Do not rely on an EP as much as a fix. The scale of reliability, from best to worst:
Fix
Running fix
Estimated position
DR position
Plotting a Position

When latitude and longitude are given, or read from a GPS receiver, the preferred method of
plotting the position is to first identify the approximate area and use the parallel rules to lay off
the given parallel of latitude from the closest side latitude scale. Longitude can then be
measured along this parallel using dividers set against the appropriate longitude scale.

To plot a position given bearing and distance from a known point, parallel rules are used to
mark off the true bearing by “walking” them from the nearest compass rose. 

Dividers or compasses are then used to mark off the distance from the point. Remember that
distance is measured from the adjacent latitude scale.
By Cross Bearings

Bearings taken may be:

a) Relative - as with pelorus or radar in ship’s head up display.

b) Compass - using the magnetic compass
c) Gyro - when a gyro repeater is used.

In any case the bearing must be converted to true before laying it off on the chart.

Each position line (LOP) should be identified by a single arrow at the end of the line away from
the object observed.

When position lines intercept at (or nearly at) a point, that point should be encircled and the time
of the fix noted alongside.

When position lines fail to intercept at a point and a “cocked hat” results, it may be due to any of
the following:

a) Too long a delay between taking bearings

b) Wrong identification of an object
c) Error in plotting
d) Compass error wrongly applied
e) Unknown compass error
f) Poor survey of the area

a) can be overcome by transferring one or more position lines to allow for the distance travelled
between bearings. This will be covered in detail later. b), c) and d) can be eliminated by
rechecking the working or taking fresh bearings. If e) is suspected then every effort should be
made to check the deviation by one of the methods previously discussed. The danger of f) can
be reduced by selecting objects on the same coastline rather than on two coasts or on coasts
and off-lying islands.
If the cocked hat cannot be reduced or eliminated by any of the above checks then the position
of the ship should be taken as that part of the cocked hat which will place the ship in most
danger.
Figure 3.0: Fix by cross bearings showing a “cocked hat”

By Ranges of Two or More Points

This is the preferred method when fixing the position by radar observations. Ranges taken from
the radar are generally more accurate than radar bearings. Avoiding the steps necessary to
convert relative or compass bearings to true also reduces the chance of error.

Ranges must be taken off the adjacent latitude scale and the relevant arc plotted on the chart
using compasses. Both ends of the arcs should be marked with a single arrow, the point of
intersection circled, and the time of the fix written alongside.

Selection of objects for ranges is as important as it is with bearings, and any cocked hat should
be treated in much the same way.

Figure 3.1: Fix Using Radar Ranges

By Combined Range and Bearing

When only one suitable object is available the position may be fixed with a single bearing of that
object combined with its range. Although the range would usually be measured by radar it is still
preferable to obtain the bearing visually. The bearing can usually be taken more accurately by
visual means.
By a Bearing and Sounding

This method may be used providing :

· Allowance is made to reduce the sounding to chart datum.

· The depth contours are well defined.
· The contour in question only crosses the position line in one possible place.
· The depth contour crosses the position line at a wide angle.

Figure 3.2: Fixes Using Soundings

By a Line of Soundings

By taking soundings at a regular time intervals and converting that time to distance run, a line of
soundings may be constructed along the edge of a piece of paper. If this is manoeuvred across
the chart parallel to the vessel’s track a match may be found with charted soundings. This again
required converting to chart datum and a chart with sufficient soundings. Even then there may
be more than one track where a good match can be found. Any position obtained by this
method should therefore be treated with a great deal of caution and checked by other means as
soon as possible.
By Running Fix

Transferring a position line was mentioned earlier as a means of reducing a cocked hat when
there is an unplanned delay between bearings. It is more commonly used when only one object
is available for bearings and there is no means of measuring the range. In this case there is a
planned delay between bearings so that the change in bearing will provide an acceptable angle
of cut.
Figure 3.3: A Running Fix

The first position line is transferred forward by the distance and in the direction the vessel is
thought to have travelled between bearings. The transferred position line is drawn parallel to the
first position line. It is marked with double arrows at each end. The Fix is where it intersects the
second position line.

Danger or Clearing Bearings

Many ports have provided leading lights or shapes to guide mariners safely into harbour,
avoiding shoals and other dangers.
In places where such aids are not provided, the navigator may still be able to select a leading
line provided by the transit of natural features. Thus approaching an anchorage with a coastal
hill in transit with a more distant peak may ensure that the vessel clears dangerous rocks.
The advantage of a transit is that the mariner is assured of a safe approach regardless of any
compass error.
When a suitable transit is not available a single danger bearing may be taken from the chart. As
shown below - so long as land’s end is bearing 244°(T) or less then the danger will be avoided.

Figure 3.8: Single Danger Line

A single position line may also be transferred ahead to give a course to steer to safely clear a
charted danger. As illustrated below the vessel can safely turn on to a course of 312°(T) at 0430
hrs. and be assured of clearing the danger so long as the speed is accurately known and
allowance is made for any set and drift.
Figure 3.9: Transferred Clearing Bearing

Plotting Positions

Plotting a Dead Reckoning (DR) and Estimated Position’s (EP’s)

It is now time to consider plotting DR’s and EP’s - finding Set and Drift and making allowance for
tides, currents and wind. As you will remember, a D.R. position uses true course steered and
vessels speed only. If we start at position P (fix) and steer 090°T for one hour, we arrive at
position Q (D.R.) as shown on the chart extract drawing Figure 4.8.

If the navigator is aware of the existence of a current or tidal stream he can make an allowance
for it and plot an Estimated Position (E.P.)

As illustrated etc. (see below)

Fig 4.8 Plotting a D.R. and E.P.

As illustrated the vessel has been steering 090°(T) for one hour at 7.0 knots. The navigator
estimates that the tide has been running to the north at 2 knots during that time. Given the
starting position at “P” the D.R. is plotted at “Q” - then one hour’s set and drift is applied to give
the estimated position at “R”
Leeway

We will now consider Leeway.

If a vessel is steering 090°(T) with a southerly wind, which is expected to cause 10° leeway (this
is ascertained through vessel experience) then the vessel’s track will be 100°(T).

In practice it would be far more sensible to adjust the vessel’s course, counteracting expected
leeway so that the desired track is achieved. See example Fig 4.10.

Figure 4.9: Estimating Track after allowing for Set, Drift and Leeway
Example:

A vessel is required to make good a course of 060°(T) in a strong South Easterly wind which is
expected to cause 5 degrees leeway.
Figure 4.10: Allowance for Leeway

Course to make good 060°(T)

To counter leeway + 5 
Course to steer 065°(T)
Finding Set and Drift

If a reliable fix places a vessel in a position which is different from the D.R. position, that
difference will be the result of current and/or tide (and possibly wind).

In the illustration below a vessel obtained a good fix at 0600 (position “A”) and set course
285°(T) at a speed of 10 knots. At 0630 the D.R. was at position “B”, but a reliable fix showed
the true position to be at “C”. In this case the set is 050°(T) and the drift is 1.0 mile. Since the
time period was thirty minutes the rate of the current was 2 knots.
Figure 4.11: Finding Set and Drift
To Counteract a Known Tidal Stream or Current

If the navigator knows the direction and speed of a tidal stream, the course to steer to
counteract that tidal stream can be found.

From the starting point “A”, a vessel needs to make good a track of 080 (T) to arrive at position
“B”. The tide is known to set 200 (T) at 2 knots. The vessel’s speed is 10 knots.

To find the course to steer:

1. Lay of the required course to make good, “AB”.

2. Plot one hour’s set and drift from “A” to “C”.
3. With centre “C” lay off ship’s speed - the distance she will travel through the water in one hour
- to point “D”
4. The direction “CD” is the true course to steer from “A”
5. The distance “AD” is the speed that will be made good
6. To find the E.T.A. at “B” the distance “AB” is divided by the speed made good “AD”

Figure 4.12: Counteracting a known tidal stream or current

To Counteract Tidal Stream and Wind

The tidal stream must be counteracted first. The correction for leeway is applied to the result.

Figure 4.13: Constructing a Triangle from Tidal Stream and Wind

The Triangle A.C.D. is for construction only and can be of any size depending on chart scale.

For ease of calculation it is usually made to 1 hr. or intervals thereof.

Example:
It is required to make good a course of 090°(T) with a tide setting 220°(T) at 4 knots and a
northerly wind causing an estimated leeway of 6 degrees. Ship’s speed is 13 knots. What is the
true course to steer?

From the vector plot - course to steer to counteract tide 076°T

to counteract wind -6°
Therefore: course to steer to counteract wind and tide 070°T
Running Fix with Tide

As was previously discussed, the accuracy of a running fix depends on the accuracy of the
course and speed made good between bearings.

If the navigator is aware of the existence of a tidal stream or current, allowance must be made
for set and drift experienced in the time interval between bearings.

If the vessel is steering 040°(T) at 10 knots, the tide is setting 090° at 3 knots and the run is 30
minutes between bearings then the first bearing must be transferred ahead 5 miles in a direction
of 040° and 1.5 miles in a direction of 090°. This is illustrated below.