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PRELIM LEARNING MODULE

First Semester of A.Y. 2023-2024

GED 101 – UNDERSTANDING SELF

Prepared by:
Dr. Adelwina M. Pineda
Mrs. Myla M. Nacorda

Copyright 2023
Unauthorized reproduction of this Learning Module is strictly prohibited.

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 GED101- UNDERSTANDING SELF
Module 1
“Mirror, Mirror on the Wall, Who Am I After All?”

Learning Objectives
At the end of the module, students can:
1. Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from various.
disciplinal perspectives.
2. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across different disciplines and
perspectives.
3. Demonstrate critical, reflective thought in integrating the various aspects of self and identity.
4. Identify the different forces and institutions that impact the development of various aspects of self and
identity.
5. Acquire and hone new skills and learnings for better managing of oneself and behaviors.
6. Apply these new skills to oneself and functioning for a better quality of life.

COMPANY NAME
Copyright 2023
Unauthorized reproduction of this Learning Module is strictly prohibited.

Unit I
CONTENTS
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Self from Various Perspectives
2.1 Philosophical Perspective of the Self
2.2 Sociological Self: The Self as a Product of Society
2.3 Psychological Perspective of the Self
2.4 The Self in Western and Eastern Thought

3.0 Unpacking the Self

3.1 The Physical Self
3.2 The Sexual Self
3.3 The Material Self
3.4 The Spiritual Self
3.5 The Political Self
3.6 The Digital Self

4.0 Managing and Caring for the Self

4.1 Learning to be a Better Learner
4.2 Do Not Just Dream, make it Happen.
4.3 Taking Charge of One’s Health

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INTRODUCTION:

Any new beginning starts with an introduction of the self. It begins with articulating and writing
your name and the other details that tell something about you. It seems repetitive when you were
asked to comply with the usual writing activity to start the academic year. But as you grow old,
you begin to realize that the “self” is more than just the name that you have learned to write or the
details of your whereabouts. Understanding the self takes time and effort, there is more to the
facts instilled in us since time immemorial. However, the process of understanding the self maybe
crucial, yet one of the essences of what it means to be a human being. Everyone is tasked to
discover oneself. Have you truly discovered yours? The self is thought to be something else than the
name. The self is not static thing that one is simply born with like a mole on one’s face or just assigned
by one’s parent just like a name. Everyone is tasked to discover oneself. Intended Learning
Outcomes

PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

It was the Greeks who seriously questioned myths and moved away from them in attempting to
understand reality and respond to perennial questions of curiosity, including the question of self.
The different perspectives and views on the self can be best seen and understood then by revisiting
its prime movers and identify the most important conjectures made by philosophers from the ancient
times to the contemporary period.

SOCRATES: KNOW YOURSELF

Socrates was more concerned with the problem of the self. He is the first philosopher who ever
engaged in a systematic questioning about the self. According to him, the true task of the
philosopher is to know oneself, that the unexamined life is not worth living. Accused of disturbing
the male Athenians from their slumber towards truth and wisdom of who they really are, he felt
sorry that this worst thing can happen to anyone: to live but die inside. "The only true wisdom is in
knowing you know nothing."
For him, every man is composed of body and soul. This means that every person is dualistic, that is,
he is composed of two important aspects of his personhood: the imperfect and impermanent aspect,
the body; and the perfect and permanent aspect which is the soul. The soul is the immortal entity
and the very essence of the self. Reason is the tool that can help the soul to strive for wisdom and
perfection and attain the exalted state. He thus suggests that man must live an examined life. The
individual person can have a meaningful and happy life only if he becomes virtuous and knows the
value of himself that can be achieved through soul searching which begins with the self, the source
of all knowledge and significance. The Socratic method -the self-introspection- is a method of
carefully examining one’s thoughts and emotions- to gain self-knowledge. He thought that the worst
that can happen to anyone, to live but die inside.

Reflect and Analyze

This Pandemic was like a personal and a family retreat as well. You sure have plenty of time to go
over the self a little deeper. It is self-introspection. What are the things that you get to know about
yourself just now? Are you happy about it? Why? Why not?

PLATO

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Plato is Socrates’ student, and he supported the idea that man is a dual nature, the body and soul.
Plate added that there are three components to the soul: the rational soul, the spirited soul and

PLATO: THE IDEAL SELF, THE PERFECT SELF

Man was omniscient or all-knowing before he came to be born into this world. He believed that
humans were divided into three aspects, the body, the mind, and the soul. The body -concerned
with the material world and through which we can experience the world we lived. It is needed to
be satisfied it experiences gratifications. The mind directed towards the heavenly realm of ideas.
The soul is the driving force of the body, it is what gives us our identity. Plato added that there
are three parts or components of the soul. The rational soul, spirited soul, and appetitive soul.
When this ideal state is attained the human person’s soul becomes just.

ST. AUGUSTINE: LOVE AND JUSTICEAS THE FOUNDATION OF INDIVIDUAL SELF

This African Philosopher is an important figure in the development of Western Christianity.

Integrating the ideas of Plato and Christianity, he once believed that man is of compartmentalized
nature. There is an aspect of man, which dwells in the world, that is imperfect and continuously
yearns to be with the divine while the other can reach immortality. But as he matured in thinking,
he developed a more unified perspective on body and soul. He ultimately came to view the body
as the “spouse” of the soul, both attached to one another by a “natural appetite”. He believed
that the body is united with the soul, so that man may be entire and complete. Nevertheless, as a
religious philosopher, he contemplated on the nature of man with an emphasis on the soul as an
important element of man. The body is bound to die on earth and the soul is to anticipate living
eternally in the realm of spiritual bliss in communion with God. The goal of every person is to attain
this communion and bliss with the Divine by living his life on earth in virtue. Augustine was convinced
that the self is known only through knowing God through reflection and prayers. For Augustine,
knowledge can only come by seeing the truth of knowing God. God is transcendent and that the
self seeks to be united with God through faith and reason. In his mission to discover the truth on the
existence of God, he developed a fundamental concept of the human person and thus, provided a
philosophical principle, “I doubt, therefore I am”.
St Augustine believes that a virtuous life is dynamism of love. t is constant following and turning
towards love while a wicked life is constant turning away from love. Loving God means loving one’s
fellowmen, as the golden principle of justice.

Reflect and Analyze

To love God means to love one's fellowmen, and to love one's fellowmen means never to do any
harm to another. How do you think can we best share love in this moment of crisis when we also
need to save some for ourselves? Share your experiences.

RENE DESCARTES: I THINK THEREFORE I AM

The Father of Modern Philosophy conceived that the human person as having body and mind. He
claimed that there is so much that we should doubt. If something is so clear and lucid as not to be
even doubted, then that is the only time when one should buy a proposition.
His famous line, "Dubito ergo cogito, cogito ergo sum" (I doubt therefore I think, I think therefore I
am) is the keystone of Descartes’ concept of self. He believes that the act of thinking about the
self-of being self-conscious- is proof that there is a self. The Self is defined as a subject that thinks,
doubts, understands, analyzes, questions and reasons. In Descartes view, the body is nothing else
but a machine that is attached to the mind. The human person has it but it is not what makes a man
a man.

JOHN LOCKE
The English Philosopher Locke believes that the human mind at birth is tabula rasa or blank slate
which is shaped by experience, and sensations and reflections being the two sources of all our

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ideas. Personal identity (or the self) is founded on consciousness and memory of previous
experiences. The essence of the self is its conscious awareness as a thinking, reasoning, and
reflecting identity. Consciousness accompanies thinking and makes possible the concept people
have of a coherent self-identity.

DAVID HUME: THE SELF IS THE BUNDLE THEORY OF MIND

David, a Scottish Philosopher, has a unique way of looking at man. He believes that man can only
attain knowledge by senses and experiences. One can rightly see empiricism (the school of thought
that espouses the idea that knowledge can only be possible if it is sensed and experienced) that
runs through the veins. To him, the self is nothing else but a bundle of impressions. Experiences can
be categorized into two: Impressions or the basic objects of our experience or sensation that form
the core of our thoughts. They are vivid because they are products of our direct experience with
the world. Ideas, on the other hand, are just copies of impressions. Imagining oneself falling in love
is just a mere idea, therefore not vivid. What one thinks as unified self is simply a combination of
all experiences with a particular person.

IMMANUEL KANT: RESPECT FOR SELF

The German Philosopher believes that it is the self that makes experiencing an intelligible world
possible because it is the self that is actively organizing and synthesizing all our thoughts and
perceptions. There is necessarily a mind that organizes the impressions that men get from the
external world. Without the self, one cannot organize the different impressions that one gets in
relation to his own existence. He therefore suggests that the “self” is an actively engaged
intelligence in man that synthesizes all knowledge and experience. The self is a seat of knowledge
acquisition for all human persons. Kant suggested that the self is an actively engaged intelligence
in man that synthesizes all knowledge and experiences. Thus, the self is not just what gives one his
personality. It is also the seat of knowledge acquisition for all human person.

Reflect and Analyze

What is your opinion about a son expressing his opinion about financial difficulty in the
family in social media because his father was one of those who were not so lucky to be kept
in the company due to crisis? He just feels like saying it.

MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY

This French Philosopher believes that the unified experience of the self, that is the integrated core
identity, a combination of mental, physical, and emotional structured around the core of the self, is
the ideal paradigm to understand the nature of the self. He argued that all knowledge about the
self is based on the phenomena of experience. He further articulated that when people examine
the self at the fundamental level of the direct human experience, people will discover that the mind
and body are not separate entity. In his book, Phenomenology of Perception, he noted that
everything that people are aware of is contained within the dynamic form responsible for actively
structuring the conscious ideas and physical behavior, known as consciousness. He is convinced that
this consciousness, the world, and the human body are intricately intertwined in perceiving the world.

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 Check Your Progress 1

1. According to him, “Happiness, who is dependent in an individual's virtues, is the

central purpose of human life and a goal in itself.”
a. Socrates
b. Plato
c. Aristotle
2. The aspect of the self that strives for perfection and a tool to achieve the exalted state
according to Socrates.
a. Desire
b. Soul
c. Intellect
3. It is a method of carefully examining one’s thoughts and emotions to gain self-
knowledge.
a. Brainstorming
b. Introspection
c. Team Building
4. The component of the soul, according to Plato, which is in-charge of the basic needs
and
desires of the self which includes eating, drinking, and sleeping.
a. Rational Soul
b. Spirited Soul
c. Appetitive Soul
5. When we give more importance to worldly wealth at the expense of sacrificing the
eternal
good, we are living in what world, according to Plato?
a. The World of Form
b. The World of Virtual Technology
c. The World of Sense
6. Doing charitable acts especially in this time of crisis, especially to our less fortunate and
forgotten brothers and sisters is an act that leads to a good and flourishing and
fulfilling.
life of sensuality.
SOCIOLOGICAL SELF: The Self as a Product of Society
a. True
The storyb.ofFalseTarzan tells us that man is morphing according to the circumstances and contexts he is
into. 7.InWhen
the movie, the Little Women, Amy March came back to their place with sophistication
a man is born, his mind is empty. Experiences help shape and mold the self.
throughout a person’s life.
a. Cognito ergo sum.
b. Tabula Rasa
The SELF c. is always
Universiunique and has distinct identity from other selves. One cannot be the other. The
Qui Scitis
SELF is self-contained and independent. It does not require any other self for it to exist, it has its
own thoughts, characteristics, and volition. The SELF is consistent and enduring in its personality,
self-traits, characteristics, tendencies, and potentialities. The SELF is unitary where experiences and
thoughts are converging. And finally, the SLEF is private because processed information, feelings

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and thoughts are never accessible to anyone but the self. It may be isolated from the external
world, yet it is related with the external reality. The self is always at the mercy of external
circumstances that bump and collide with it. It is changing and dynamic, therefore external
influences can take part in its shaping.

Social Constructionist Perspective

Social constructionist argues for a merged view of the persona and their social context where the
boundaries of one cannot be easily separated from the boundaries of the other (Stevens, 1996).
The self Is truly multifaceted. We play various roles in life and act according to various
circumstances life gives us. It is not static; it is in constant struggle with external reality and is
malleable in all its dealings with the society.

Reflect and Analyze

What are your various roles in life? How do you describe yourself in responding to your various
roles in life? Is it easy?

The Self and Culture

To be who we are and turn into a chameleon by adapting to the context where we are in is quite
paradoxical. However, Marcel Mauss, French Anthropologist explains that every self has two faces:
the MOI which refers to the person’s sense of who he is, his body and his basic identity, his biological
givenness. It is the person’s basic identity, and the PERSONNE which is composed of the social
concepts of what it means to be who he is. It has something to do with what it means to live in a
particular institution (teacher), a particular family (Father), religion (Catholic), nationality and how
to behave given expectations and influences from others (profession). Therefore, the self is simply
morphed according to the circumstances and contexts.
The dynamics and malleability of different Personne is illustrated better cross-culturally. Filipinos
manifest the dynamics of Personne when staying in another culture, like in the case of the OFWs.
Jaywalking has been one of the biggest issues of discipline in the country. A common Filipino treats
road, even national ones, as basically an extension of his backyard that whenever he wants to
reach the other side would just cross the street oftentimes unmindful of traffic rules. However, a lot
of Filipinos has anecdotally confirmed the observation that the Filipino who does not follow rules
become law abiding when stepping on a territory which enforces strict traffic rules like Singapore.
Also consider a typical fairy tale story when a cruel stepmother turns into a gentle, kind woman to
her husband’s kids and suddenly changes after getting all the family’s wealth when death strikes
the poor husband. The self simply morphed according to the circumstances and contexts.
Contexts that Affect Morphing

Territory Language

• “tapat ko, linis ko” Language conveys others’ attitudes and

opinions toward a subject or the person.
• Filipinos tend to follow traffic Emotions such as anger, happiness and
rules in other countries to avoid confusion are conveyed through language.
being apprehended vs “no
brainer crossing of street in their
own country

Reflect and Analyze

In trying to fit into the world where one is raised or exposed, the language as both a publicly
shared and privately utilized symbol system 7is the site where the individual and the social
make and remake each other. (Schwartz, White and Lutz, 1993). They say “the self” who is born
into a particular culture adjusts according to its exposure. Try comparing how a Filipino looks
at the “self” with other cultures such as the Japanese, North Americans, and Europeans.
THE SELF AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIAL WORLD
To understand how the self is developed, George Herbert Mead, a sociologist from the late 1800s
proposed his Theory of the Social Self, which includes the concepts of “me” and “I”. Mead's work
focuses on the way in which the self is developed. Mead's theory of the social self is based on the
perspective that the self emerges from social interactions, such as observing and interacting with
others, responding to others' opinions about oneself, and internalizing external opinions and internal
feelings about oneself. The social aspect of self is an important distinction because other sociologists
and psychologists of Mead's time felt that the self was based on biological factors and inherited
traits. According to Mead, the self is not there from birth, but it is developed over time from social
experiences and activities.
I Me
It is the subjective and active side of It is considered as the socialized aspect of
the self. It is believed to be the present the self.
and future phase of the self. The “I”
The “me” represents learned behaviors,
represents the individual’s identity
attitudes, and expectations of others and of
based on the response to the “Me”. It
society.
represents the spontaneous and unique
traits of the individual. The “me” has been developed by the
knowledge of society and social interactions
The “I” allows the individual to still
that the individual has gained.
express creativity and individualism
and understand when to possibly It is the objective element of the self. It
bend the rules that govern social represents the internalized attitudes and
interactions. demands for other people and the
individual’s awareness of those demands.
The “me” is what prevents someone from
breaking the rules or boundaries of
societal expectations.
An example of how we can conceive of this duality is through a work scenario. Your boss is
conversing with you. She says something that you vehemently disagree with and through your “I”
would like to tell her to go to hell in that moment, your “me” interprets how she would expect you
to respond as the employee and so you respectfully defer to her based on your understanding of
your role and expected behaviour. (Youcheng Ding, 2018) This process is characterized by Mead
as the “I” and the “me.” The “me” is the social self and the “I” is the response to the “me.” In other
words, the “I” is the response of an individual to the attitudes of others, while the “me” is the
organized set of attitudes of others which an individual assumes. The “me” is the accumulated
understanding of the “generalized other,” i.e., how one thinks one’s group perceives oneself.
He also identified the three activities that help develop the self:
LANGUAGE PLAY GAMES
Language conveys others’ Play develops the self by allowing Games develop self by
attitudes and opinions individuals to take on different roles allowing individuals to
toward a subject or the (helps develop self-consciousness), understand and adhere to
person. Emotions such as pretend and express expectations the rules of the activity.
anger, happiness and of others. During role play, a Self is developed by
confusion are conveyed person can internalize the understanding that there
through language. perspective of others and develop are rules in which one must
an understanding of how others feel

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 It develops self by allowing about themselves and others in abide to win the game to
individuals to respond to various situations. be successful in the activity
each other through symbols,
gestures, words, and sounds
Three Stages of Development According to Mead
How do we get from being newborns to being humans with “selves”? In Mead’s theory of childhood
development, the child develops through stages in which the child’s increasing ability to play roles
attests to his or her increasing solidification of a social sense of self. A role is the behavior expected
of a person who occupies particular social status or position in society.
• Preparatory Stage (0-3) Children imitate the people around them, especially family
members without understanding underlying intentions. During this stage, children are
just preparing for role-taking.

• Play Stage (3-5) Children start to view themselves in relation to others as they learn
to communicate through language and other symbols. Role taking is exhibited
however, they do not perceive it as something expected of them. The self emerges
as the child takes the role of a particular individual.

• Game Stage (early school days, 8-9) Children understand not only their own social
position but also those of others around them. They find it important to consider in
their behavior the generalized others which refer to the attitudes, viewpoints, demands
and expectations of society.

Agents of Socialization

Mead’s theory is based on the premise that the self is formed through its interaction to many
situations and experiences the society is giving us. Some of the most significant agents are the
following:
1. FAMILY- The kind of family that we are born in, the resources available to us (human,
spiritual, economic), and the kind of development that we will have will certainly affect us
as we go through life.
2. MEDIA- The average young person spends 6 ¾ hours per day immersed in media in its
various forms, often using multiple media forms simultaneously. Television, computer, and
electronic gadget has become the most dominant media among many.
3. PEERS – The young people, especially, consider the peer as the most important source of
identity. Through interaction with peers, children learn concepts of self, gain social skills
and form values and attitudes.
4. RELIGION- Children tend to develop the same religious beliefs with their parents.
5. SCHOOL – Teachers and other students in school provide a source of expectation and
encouragement on how to behave and think in particular ways.

Analyze and Reflect

Introduce your family. What is your family’s greatest influence on you? Who is the most
influential person in the family in building yourself?

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 Check Your Progress 2
Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. The phase of self that is considered the present and the future self is known as the _____.
a. I
b. me
c. imaging
d. interpreting
2. Why wouldn't a solitary activity such as reading a book contribute to the development of
'self'?
a. Because the 'self' develops through external social interactions.
a. Because the 'self' only develops through reading psychology books.
c. Solitary activities can contribute to the development of 'self'.
d. Because the 'self' only develops through interactions with the mother.
3. Socialization, as a sociological term, describes:
a. How people interact during social situations.
b. How people learn societal norms, beliefs, and values.
c. A person’s internal mental state when in a group setting.
d. The difference between introverts and extroverts.
4. From a sociological perspective, which factor does not greatly influence a person’s
socialization?
a. Gender
b. Class
c. Blood type
d. Race
5. Why are wealthy parents more likely than poor parents to socialize their children toward
creativity and problem solving?
a. Wealthy parents are socializing their children toward the skills of white-collar employment.
b. Wealthy parents are not concerned about their children rebelling against their rules.
c. Wealthy parents never engage in repetitive tasks.
d. Wealthy parents are more concerned with money than with a good education.
6. Which one of the following is not a way people are socialized by religion?
a. People learn the material culture of their religion.
b. Life stages and roles are connected to religious celebrations.
c. An individual’s personal, internal experience of a divine being leads to their faith.
d. Places of worship provide a space for shared group experiences.
7. Which of the following is typically the earliest agent of socialization?
a. School
b. Family
c. Mass media
d. Workplace

PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

Psychologists today do not believe there is one “right” way to study the way people think or behave.
There are, however, various schools of thought that evolved throughout the development of
psychology that continue to shape the way psychologists investigate human behavior.
Sigmund Freud’s Construction of Self and Personality
Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was one of the most influential modern scientists to put
forth a theory about how people develop a sense of self. He explained the human mind as like an
iceberg, with only a small amount of it being visible, that is our observable behavior, but it is the
unconscious, submerged mind that has the most, underlying influence on our behavior. Freud used

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three main methods of accessing the unconscious mind: free association, dream analysis and slips of
the tongue.
He believed that the unconscious mind consisted of three components: the 'id' the 'ego' and the
'superego.' The 'id' is the primitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains sexual and
aggressive drives and hidden memories contains two main instincts: 'Eros', which is the life instinct,
which involves self-preservation and sex which is fuelled by the 'libido' energy force. 'Thanatos' is
the death instinct, whose energies, because they are less powerful than those of 'Eros' are channeled
away from us and into aggression towards others. The super-ego operates as a moral conscience,
and the ego is the realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego. The
'id' and the 'superego' are constantly in conflict with each other, and the 'ego' tries to resolve the
discord. If this conflict is not resolved, we tend to use defense mechanisms to reduce our anxiety.
Psychoanalysis attempts to help patients resolve their inner conflicts.Although each part of the
personality comprises unique features, they interact to form a whole, and each part makes a relative
contribution to an individual's behavior.

Examples of Defense Mechanisms

He believed that personality and sexual development were closely linked, and he divided the
maturation process into universal psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Each
stage involves the child’s discovery and passage through the bodily pleasures linked to
breastfeeding, toilet training, and sexual awareness (Freud, 1905).
Key to Freud’s approach to child development was his emphasis on tracing the formations of desire
and pleasure in a child’s life. The child is seen to be at the centre of a tricky negotiation between
internal, instinctual drives for gratification (the pleasure principle) and external, social demands
that the child repress those drives to conform to the rules and regulations of civilization (the reality

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principle). Failure to resolve the traumatic tensions and impasses of childhood psychosexual
development results in emotional and psychological consequences throughout adulthood. For
example, according to Freud the failure of a child to properly engage in or disengage from a
specific stage of development results in predictable outcomes later in life. An adult with an oral
fixation may indulge in overeating or binge drinking. An anal fixation may produce a neat freak
(hence the term “anal retentive”), while a person stuck in the phallic stage may be promiscuous or
emotionally immature.
The Fully Functioning Person by Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist who agreed with the main assumptions of
Abraham Maslow. However, Rogers (1959) added that for a person to "grow", they need an
environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being
seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood).
Without these, relationships and healthy personalities will not develop as they should, much like a
tree will not grow without sunlight and water. Rogers believed that every person could achieve their
goals, wishes, and desires in life. When, or rather if they did so, self-actualization took place.
"The organism has one basic tendency and striving - to actualize, maintain, and enhance the
experiencing organism” (Rogers, 1951, p. 487). Rogers rejected the deterministic nature of both
psychoanalysis and behaviorism and maintained that we behave as we do because of the way we
perceive our situation. "As no one else can know how we perceive, we are the best experts on
ourselves."
Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-
actualize - i.e., to fulfill one's potential and achieve the highest level of 'human-beingness' we can.
Like a flower that will grow to its full potential if the conditions are right, but which is constrained
by its environment, so people will flourish and reach their potential if their environment is good
enough. However, unlike a flower, the potential of the individual human is unique, and we are meant
to develop in different ways according to our personality. Rogers believed that people are
inherently good and creative. They become destructive only when a poor self-concept or external
constraints override the valuing process. Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-
actualization there must be congruence between the person’s “ideal self” (i.e., who they would like
to be) with their actual behavior (self-image). Rogers describes an individual who is actualizing as
a fully functioning person. The main determinant of whether we will become self-actualized is
childhood experience.
Who then is the Fully Functioning Person? Rogers believed that every person could achieve their
goal. This means that the person is in touch with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences
and feelings, continually growing and changing, therefore a process of always becoming and
changing.
Five characteristics of the fully functioning person:
1. Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings are not
denied but worked through (rather than resorting to ego defense mechanisms).
2. Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding prejudging
and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not always looking back
to the past or forward to the future (i.e., living for the moment).
3. Trust feelings: feeling, instincts, and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted. People’s
own decisions are the right ones, and we should trust ourselves to make the right choices.
4. Creativity: creative thinking and risk-taking are features of a person’s life. A person does not
play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek new experiences.
5. Fulfilled life: a person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new challenges
and experiences.
For Rogers, fully functioning people are well adjusted, well balanced, and interesting to know.
Often such people are high achievers in society.
Reflect and Analyze

Go back to your childhood experience. How was it? What childhood memories do you think
can help you achieve your full potential as a person?

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The Self as Proactive and Agentic
Albert Bandura conceived human agency as the ability to act and make things happen. In his theory
of the self, people are viewed as proactive agents of experiences. Agency refers to the human
capability to influence one's functioning and the course of events by one's actions. Human agency
entails intentionality while embodying endowments, belief systems, self-regulatory capabilities and
distributed structures and functions through which personal influence is exercised enabling people
to behave purposively. The core features of the agency enable people to play a part in their self-
development, adaptation and self-renewal with changing times. The following are main core
properties of the human agency:
 INTENTIONALITY People form intentions that include action plans and strategies for
realizing them.
 FORETHOUGHT permits us to anticipate outcomes. In deciding, the person anticipates
possibilities for every option available. This includes more than future-directed plans. People
set themselves goals and anticipate likely outcomes of prospective actions to guide and
motivate their efforts anticipatorily. When projected over a long-time course, a
forethoughtful perspective provides direction, coherence, and meaning to one’s life.
 SELF-REACTIVENESS allows us to motivate and regulate actions. They adopt personal
standards and monitor and regulate their actions by self-reactiveness. They do things that
give them satisfaction and a sense of self-worth, and refrain from actions that bring censure.
 SELF-REFLECTIVENESS gives us the ability to reflect on our thoughts and behavior and make
necessary changes. People are not only agents of action. They are self-examiners of their
own functioning. Through functional self-awareness they reflect on their personal efficacy,
the soundness of their thoughts and actions, the meaning of their pursuits, and make
corrective adjustments if necessary.
ERIK ERIKSON IN UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of
psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences
a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development.
these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual
(i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social). According to the theory, successful
completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic
virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises. Failure to
successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and
therefore an unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved
successfully.

Trust vs. Mistrust. This stage begins at birth and lasts through around one year of age. The infant
develops a sense of trust when interactions provide reliability, care, and affection. Autonomy vs.
Shame and Doubt occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately age two to three years.
The infant develops a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.
Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within
an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure. Initiative vs. Guilt occurs during the
preschool years, between the ages of three and five. The child begins to assert control and power
over their environment by planning activities, accomplishing tasks and facing challenges. Success at
this stage leads to a sense of purpose. If initiative is dismissed or discourages, either through criticism
or control, children develop a sense of guilt. Industry vs. Inferiority occurs during childhood
between the ages of five and twelve. It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater
significance and will become a major source of the child’s self-esteem. The child is coping with new
learning and social demands. Identity vs. Role Confusion is the fifth stage occurs during
adolescence, from about 12-18 years. Teenagers explore who they are as individuals, and seek
to establish a sense of self, and may experiment with different roles, activities, and behaviors.
According to Erikson, this is important to the process of forming a strong identity and developing a

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sense of direction in life. Intimacy vs. Isolation takes place during young adulthood between the
ages of approximately 19 and 40. During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate,
loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in
loneliness and isolation. Generativity vs. Stagnation stage takes place during middle adulthood
between the ages of approximately 40 and 65. People experience a need to create or nurture
things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit
other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in
shallow involvement in the world. Ego Integrity vs. Despair stage takes place after age 65 and
involves reflecting on one's life and either moving into feeling satisfied and happy with one's life or
feeling a deep sense of regret. Success at these stages leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure
results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

Reflect and Analyze

Imagine that you are looking in that mirror at an image of yourself. Pretend that this is a
magic mirror that allows you to clearly see your core self—your “ideal” or “potential self”—
the person that you really are beneath all the labels that others place on you. Then inside the
mirror—describe your “core” or “ideal” self. Describe the kind of person you would truly like to be and
that you believe you would have had the potential to be if only given the opportunity and support. Inside
the mirror write down the characteristics you would like to have and the talents and gifts you were born
with.

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 Check Your Progress 3

1. Which is an example of the autonomy versus shame and doubt stage?

a. An infant chewing on a teething ring
b. A preschooler insisting on picking out her own clothes, no matter how mismatched they are.
c. A middle-schooler completing a challenging math assignment.
d. A teenager trying out new fashions and hairstyles.
2. The central theme of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial stages was the development of:
a. Personality
b. Psychosocial conflict
c. social status
d. Ego identity
3. What do people face during each psychosocial stage that can serve as a turning point in
development?
a. Epiphany
b. Conflict
c. Paradigm shift
d. Turmoil
4. The stage that occurs between birth and one year of age is concerned with:
a. Trust vs. Mistrust
b. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
c. Initiative vs. Guilt
d. Identity vs. Role Confusion
5. How many stages of psychosocial development did Erikson describe?
a. Four
b. Eight
c. Ten
d. Twelve

THE SELF IN WESTERN AND EASTERN THOUGHT

It is quite surprising to hear people of the same kind speaking differently when dealing about the
self. Maybe because at different times and places people have concern with different aspects of
selfhood. Baggini (2016) in her article explained that seeing the difference also helps justify the
value of cross-cultural and cross-disciplinary inquiry. The point is not to reach warm, ecumenical
mutual understanding, rooted in profound respect for difference. Rather it is to see that our questions
are not the only one’s worth asking and that by considering others, we might not only open new
vistas but also see our familiar intellectual territory in a different light.
Broadly, speaking, Western society strives to find and prove "the truth", while Eastern society
accepts the truth as given and is more interested in finding the balance. Westerners put more stock
in individual rights, Easterners in social responsibly.

EASTERN CONCEPT OF THE SELF

The Eastern philosophy is drawn much more into groups or society or people’s actions and thoughts
as one to find meaning in life as they try to get rid of the false “me” concept and find meaning in
discovering the true “me” in relation to everything around them, or as part of a bigger scheme.
CONFUCIANISM

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 It is focused on the principle of reciprocity or the Golden Rule; the most basic conduct is
knowing how to act in relation to others. The most important of the relationships are the FIVE
CARDINAL RELATIONSHIPS: between ruler and minster, between father and son, between husband
and wife, between brothers and between friends. Hence, the SELF IS a RELATIONAL SELF.
The individual’s greatest mission is the attainment of self-actualization that is attained
through self-cultivation. Self-cultivation is accomplished by knowing one’s role in the society and
act accordingly, consistently to attain perfection of moral character. Harmonious relationship can
only happen if individuals follow the rules of proper social behavior. The individual is set to respond
to what is socially expected of him rather than to one’s personal needs and goals.
TAOISM
It is living in the way of Tao or the universe. However, Taoists rejects having one definition
of what the Tao is and can only state clues of what it is as they live a free-flowing, relative, unitary
as well as paradoxical view of almost everything. Unlike Confucianism, they prefer simple lifestyle,
and its teachings aim at describing to attain that life.
BUDDHISM
The Buddha taught a doctrine called anatta, which is often defined as "no-self," or the
teaching that the sense of being a permanent, autonomous self is an illusion. Very basically, anatta
(or anatman in Sanskrit) is the teaching that there is no permanent, eternal, unchanging, or
autonomous "self" inhabiting "our" bodies or living "our" lives. Anatman is contrasted with the Vedic
teachings of the Buddha's day, which taught that there is within each of us an atman, or an
unchanging, eternal soul or identity. O Brien (2018) in her article emphasized that once we
thoroughly investigate self, self is forgotten. However, I am told, this doesn't mean that the person
you are disappears when enlightenment is realized. The difference, as I understand it, is that we no
longer perceive the world through a self-referential filter.
There are two views in Buddhism: Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism differ on
how anatman is understood. In fact, more than anything else, it is the different understanding of self
that defines and separates the two schools. Very basically, Theravada considers anatman to mean
that an individual's ego or personality is a fetter and delusion. Once freed of this delusion, the
individual may enjoy the bliss of Nirvana. Mahayana, on the other hand, considers all physical
forms to be void of intrinsic self, teaching called shunyata, which means "emptiness". The ideal in
Mahayana is to enable all beings to be enlightened together, not only out of a sense of compassion
but because we are not separate, autonomous beings.
The Four Noble Truths contain the essence of the Buddha's teachings. It was these four
principles that the Buddha came to understand during his meditation under the bodhi tree. The truth
of suffering (Dukkha), the truth of the origin of suffering (Samudāya), the truth of the cessation of
suffering (Nirodha), the truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga). The Buddha is often
compared to a physician. In the first two Noble Truths he diagnosed the problem (suffering) and
identified its cause. The third Noble Truth is the realization that there is a cure. The fourth Noble
Truth, in which the Buddha set out the Eightfold Path, is the prescription, the way to achieve a release
from suffering.
HINDUISM
Atman means 'eternal self'. The atman refers to the real self beyond ego or false self. It is
often referred to as 'spirit' or 'soul' and indicates our true self or essence which underlies our
existence. There are many interesting perspectives on the self in Hinduism ranging from the self as
eternal servant of God to the self as being identified with God. The understanding of the self as
eternal supports the idea of reincarnation in that the same eternal being can inhabit temporary
bodies. The idea of atman entails the idea of the self as a spiritual rather than material being and
thus there is a strong dimension of Hinduism which emphasizes detachment from the material world
and promotes practices such as asceticism. Thus, it could be said that in this world, a spiritual being,
the atman, has a human experience rather than a human being having a spiritual experience.

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 Karma is a Sanskrit word whose literal meaning is 'action'. It refers to the law that every
action has an equal reaction either immediately or at some point in the future. Good or virtuous
actions, actions in harmony with dharma, will have good reactions or responses and bad actions,
actions against dharma, will have the opposite effect. In Hinduism karma operates not only in this
lifetime but across lifetimes: the results of an action might only be experienced after the present
life in a new life. Hindus believe that human beings can create good or bad consequences for their
actions and might reap the rewards of action in this life, in a future human rebirth or reap the
rewards of action in a heavenly or hell realm in which the self is reborn for a period.

WESTERN CONCEPT OF THE SELF

The Western civilization is more individualistic, trying to find the meaning of life here and now with
self at the center as it is already given and part of the divine.
For many East Asians, and their children growing up in the West, listening, following the “right” way,
fitting in, and keeping calm are not odd classroom behaviors; they are the very route to being a
good person—a good interdependent self, Eastern style. But for their Western classmates and
teachers, speaking up, choosing your own way, standing out, and getting excited are also ways of
being a good person—but in this case, a good independent self, Western style. Independent
European-American parents and teachers say that a student should first choose what she wants to
do, and then do it her own way. In the West, choice is perhaps the most important act because it
lets people realize all five facets of independence. Choice allows people to express their
individuality and unique preferences, influence their environments, exercise their free will, and
assert their equality.
In her book Tiger Writing: Art, Culture, and the Interdependent Self, Gish Jen expands on the
differences between the independent and interdependent self even further: [T]he “independent,”
individualistic self-stresses uniqueness, defines itself via inherent attributes such as its traits, abilities,
values, and preferences, and tends to see things in isolation. The second—the “interdependent,”
collectivist self—stresses commonality, defines itself via its place, roles, loyalties, and duties, and
tends to see things in context. Naturally, between these two very different self-construal’s [self-
definitions] lies a continuum along which most people are located, and along which they may move,
too, over the course of a moment. Culture is not fate; it only offers templates, which individuals can
finally accept, reject, or modify, and do.

Reflect and Analyze

Complete the statement with the first thoughts that come into your mind.

I am ___________________________________________________________

I am ___________________________________________________________

I am ___________________________________________________________

I am ___________________________________________________________

I am ___________________________________________________________.

I am ___________________________________________________________

I am ___________________________________________________________

Which of your answers reflect more of the Eastern concept? Western concept? Why do you
think so?

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Summary Matrix of the Eastern and Western Concepts

EASTERN PHILOSOPHY WESTERN PHILOSOPHY

Christianity (Through Christianity
Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Integral
originated in Asia geographically,
Yoga, Islam, Taoism, Zen (Eastern philosophy is a group
culturally it's considered to be a
of philosophies and religions originating in Asia –
Western religion that originated in
China, India, Japan, Southeast Asia, and Arabic
the Mediterranean region)
countries
Rational, Scientific, Logical schools
East MAIN PRINCIPLES West
● Cosmological unity
● Feeling oneself as an element
● Life is a journey towards eternal realities that are of the Divine
beyond the realities that surround us
● Life is a service (to
● Circular view of the universe, based on the the God, money, business, etc.)
perception of eternal recurrence
● Linear view of the universe and
● Inner-world dependent life, based on the Christian
philosophy where everything has
● Self-liberation from the false "Me" and finding the its beginning and the end.
true "Me". The highest state is believed to be a state of
'no-self', where neither self-worth nor self-importance ● Outer-world dependent
have any real meaning.
● Self-dedication to the goal (big
● Behavioral ethics dream, life

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 vision, happiness, personal
success, etc.)

East LIVING PRINCIPLES West

VIRTUE ETHIC

"To be able under all circumstances to

practice five things constitutes
perfect virtue; these five things are
gravity, generosity of soul, sincerity,
"One can live magnificently in this world if one knows
earnestness and kindness." ~ Confucius
how to work and how to love."
"Be satisfied with whatever you have ~ Leo Tolstoy
and enjoy the same. When you come
"Refrain from doing ill; for one all-powerful reason, lest
to know that you have everything, and
our children should copy our misdeeds; we are all to
you are not short of anything, then the
prone to imitate whatever is base and depraved."
whole world will be yours." ~ Lao Tzu
~ Juvenal
"The thought manifests as the word;
"There is no real excellence in all this world which can be
The word manifests as the deed; The
separated from right living."
deed develops into habit; And habit
~ David Starr Jordan
hardens into character. So, watch the
thought and its ways with care, And let
it spring from love born out of concern
for all beings." ~ Buddha
East The "Me" concept West
"Me" is here and now. The true “Me” in
Eternal reality of the universal truth: self- every human being is a part of the Divine
liberation through getting rid of the false "Me" that need to become apparent. True
and discovering the true "Me" “Me” is given and doesn’t have to be
cognizable.

East Relationship with RELIGION West

Integration Opposition

East Search for ABSOLUTE TRUTH West

● More focused on INDIVIDUAL

● HOLISTIC approach – all events in the universe are
EVENTS and the role of the
interconnected
person
● Searching INSIDE YOURSELF – by becoming a part
● Searching outside yourself -
of the universe through meditation and right living
through research and analysis

"Though he should live a hundred years, not seeing the "The truth that survives is simply the
Truth Sublime; yet better, indeed, is the single day's life lie that is pleasantest to believe." ~
of one who sees the Truth Sublime." ~ Buddha H.L.Mencken
East Search for TRUTH & Fundamental Research West
The truth is GIVEN is does not to have be proved. The truth needs TO BE PROVED.

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 The philosophic base for and culture of fundamental The philosophic base for and
research is WEAKER. culture of fundamental research
is STRONGER.

East BELIEFS and VALUES West

The main values
are success and achievement. These
that can be achieved in many ways,
The true key is INSIDE. The inner world of a human but rarely through developing inner
being and his or her ability to control and develop it is strength. The majority
of the highest value. The way to the top is inside of success and achievement criteria
yourself, through self-development. have an external nature (money,
faith, popularity, etc.). The way to
the top is through
active OUTSIDE intervention.

"Man is made by his belief. As he believes, so he

is." ~ Bhagavad Gita
"Happiness lies in virtuous activity,
"The superior man understands what is right; the inferior
and perfect happiness lies in the best
man understands what will sell."
activity, which is contemplative."
~ Confucius
~ Aristotle
"By chasing desires, you will meet only the outer
surface." ~ Lao Tzu

East FUTURE West

Your future is unknown, it
Your future is determined by the past and your deeds
was predetermined by God and is
today.
not much influenced by your deeds.

"You can never plan the future by the

"Study the past if you would like to divine the
past."
future." ~ Confucius
~ Edmund Burke

East JUSTICE West

SPIRITUAL practice CEREBRAL practice

"At his best, man is the noblest of

"There is a higher court than courts of justice and that is
all animals; separated from law
the court of conscience. It supersedes all other
and justice he is the worst.
courts." ~ Mahatma Gandhi
" ~ Aristotle

East INDIVIDUALISM / COLLECTIVISM West

A human being is an integral part of the universe and A human being has an individualistic
the society. People are fundamentally connected. Duty nature and is an independent part of
towards all others is a very important matter. the universe and the
COLLECTIVISM is stronger. society. INDIVIDUALISM is stronger.

East IMPROVEMENT / EVOLUTION West

CYCLIC development, hence improvement is a never LINEAR development, hence
ending journey that has no limits. improvement has a goal.

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 Development stops when the goal is
reached.

East RADICAL INNOVATION / REVOLUTION West

The fundamentals of the status quo
The fundamentals of the status quo should not be can – and often should –
questioned. The culture of considering and be questioned. The culture of
introducing radical changes is WEAKER. considering and introducing radical
changes is STRONGER.
East PASSION & VENTURING West
Entrepreneurial
Entrepreneurial
creativity and venturing is CONTAINED by the habit
venturing is ENCOURAGED emotionally.
to control one's passions.

"Nothing is ever achieved by reasonable

men."
"Desires are the cause of suffering. If desire, which lies ~ J Fred Bucy of Texas Instruments
at the route of all human passion, can be removed, "Nothing great was
then passion will die out and all human suffering will ever achieved without enthusiasm...
be ended." Always do what you are afraid to do...
~ Buddhism Do not go where the path may
"Vain indeed is all overweening pride in the conquest lead, go instead where there is no path
even of the entire universe if one has not conquered and leave a trail." ~ Ralph Waldo
one's own passions." Emerson
~ Sri Aurobindo "If you want to succeed, you have
to forge new paths and avoid borrowed
ones." ~ John Rockefeller

East ACHIEVEMENT & WINNING West

Winning is INSIDE yourself. >>> Winning is OUTSIDE yourself.

"Though he should conquer a thousand men in the "You're not a star until they can spell
battlefield a thousand times, yet he, indeed, who would your name in Karachi."
conquer himself is the noblest victor." ~ Roger Moore
~ Buddha "Life affords no higher pleasure than
"He who conquers others is strong; he who conquers that of surmounting difficulties, passing
himself is mighty." ~ Lao Tzu from one stop of success to another,
forming new wishes and seeing them
"The most excellent Jihad is that for the conquest of gratified."
self." ~ Mohammad ~ Samuel Johnson

East IMPLEMENTATION West

PRAGMATIC and EMOTIONAL ap
SPIRITUAL and MISSIONARY approach.
proach.

"The supreme accomplishment is to

"To create and develop without any feelings of blur the line between work and play."
ownership, to work and guide without any expectation ~ Arnold Toynbee
and control, is the best quality" "Since most of us spend our lives
~ Lao Tzu doing ordinary tasks, the most
important thing is to carry them out

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 To achieve self-liberation and nirvana you need to extraordinary well."
perform your duties without expecting any reward for ~ Henry David Thoreau
it. ~ Vedanta, Hinduism "Every minute you spend
"Action can be achieved by inaction, where the result is in planning saves 10 minutes in
achieved by "Not-Me" ~ Zen execution." ~ Brian Tracy

East GOALS & Key to SUCCESS West

SPIRITUAL MATERIALISTIC

"The secret of success in life, and

subsequently of making money, is
"Live a virtuous life and adhere to performing your to enjoy your work. If you do, nothing
duties." ~ Confucianism is hard work – no matter how many
"The Three Armies can be deprived of their commanding hours you put in." ~ Sir Billy Butlin
officer, but even a common man cannot be deprived of "Success is that old ABC – ability,
his purpose." ~ Confucius breaks and courage." ~ Charles
"If you really want everything, then give up Luckman
everything." ~ Lao Tzu "Flaming enthusiasm, backed by horse
"He is able who thinks he is able." ~ Buddha sense and persistence, is the quality that
most frequently makes
for success." ~ Dale Carnegie

East Establishing Control Over Your EMOTIONS West

Through MEDITATION Through ANALYSIS

"I can control my passions and

A man can separate his/her mind from his/her emotions
emotions if I can understand their
and control them. ~ Taoism
nature." ~ Spinosa

East LEADERSHIP West

SPIRITUAL HANDS-ON
Walking behind people; silence is golden Walking ahead of people; speech is golden

"In order to guide people, the leader must put "Leadership is done from in front. Never ask
himself behind them. Thus, when he is ahead others to do what you, if challenged, would not
they feel no hurt." ~ Lao Tzu be willing to do yourself." ~ Xenophon

Additional Readings:
Baggini, J. (2016). What is the Self? It depends. The Stone. NY Times
Bandura, A. (2007). Reflections on an agentic theory of Human Behavior. Teksten sto på trykk
første gang i Tidsskrift for Norsk psykologforening, Vol 44
Brien, B. (2018). Buddhist Teachings on the Self. Learn Religions
McLeod, S. A. (2018). Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html
Weaver, K. (2011). Fall 2011 - Self-efficacy case study. Work Attitudes and Job Motivation
Home

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