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A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Developing countries face more impacts due to natural hazards because of rapid urbanization, natural resources
Geomorphological mapping overexploitation, and lack of territorial management. Mexico City is one of the most populated metropolitan
Urban geomorphology areas of the world and in addition, due to its geophysical dynamics and increasing vulnerability, is frequently
Natural hazards impacted by natural disasters. Every year, various natural hazards affect Iztapalapa district, the most densely
Developing countries
populated political-administrative unit in Mexico, and represent a high risk for approximately two million in-
habitants. We used various geomorphic analyses to develop a feasible methodology to reduce the disaster risk in
Iztapalapa district. In order to understand the general geomorphic dynamic of Iztapalapa district, we defined
three geomorphological regions: the lacustrine plain, the volcanic piedmont, and the mountain area. Afterwards,
we developed a geomorphological mapping based on LiDAR and aerial photographs to obtain thirty landforms
divided into endogenic and exogenic landforms, both erosional and depositional, at 1:20,000 scale. Based on
these maps, we described four geomorphological hazard zonation for floods, subsidence, soil fractures, and
rockfalls in Iztapalapa district. The higher occurrence of subsidence, soil fractures and floods are in the palus-
trine plains, while rockfalls are associated with volcanic slopes. This study provides important input for local and
regional stakeholders on territorial and risk management. Moreover, this practical methodology can be applied
in other countries to facilitate disaster risk assessments.
1. Introduction systems. The lack of foresight and failures in decision making con-
tribute to a lack of preparedness for increasing cascading disasters
Urban population is in frank growth and approximately 55% of the (Cutter, 2018). Hence, natural hazards mapping is critical in order to
human population live in urban spaces (World Bank, 2018). Over 80% reduce disasters (UNDRR, 2019; see Table 1).
of global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is generated in cities, none- During recent decades development of space-time databases, digital
theless annual direct loss from natural disasters in cities is estimated to technology associated with GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and
be over USD 314 billion (Sharifi, 2019). Natural disasters occur modeling of various aspects of geomorphological systems have solved
worldwide but their impact in developing countries is greater due to conceptual and practical problems of natural hazards mapping (Bishop
their limited coping and adaptive capacity (Alcántara-Ayala, 2002). et al., 2012). Geomorphological maps should include information on
One key element of developing countries is rapid urbanization resulting the spatial properties of landforms (geomorphometry/terrain analysis)
in increased vulnerability (Mitchell et al., 2015). Moreover, natural as well as their origin and evolution in relation to endogenic/exogenic
disasters have been shown to have the most severe impact on economic genetic agents and processes (morphogenesis; Dramis et al., 2011). The
growth per capita when occurring in developing countries (Klomp and implementation of geomorphological maps using GIS in order to assess
Valckx, 2014). In addition, developing countries are challenged with a urban planning and reduce natural hazards has proven effective during
more difficult economic situation after a comparable disaster than do the last decades (Li et al., 2019; Skilodimou et al., 2019). Urban geo-
are developed countries or bigger economies (Noy, 2009). Rus et al. morphological mapping is a useful tool for understanding the effects of
(2018) found that only a few studies assess the resilience of urban urbanization on geomorphic systems and risks in a changing climate
∗
Corresponding author. Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland.
E-mail address: adolfo.quesada@gmail.com (A. Quesada-Román).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2020.102667
Received 21 March 2020; Received in revised form 18 May 2020; Accepted 25 May 2020
Available online 01 June 2020
0895-9811/ © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
D. García-Soriano, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 102 (2020) 102667
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D. García-Soriano, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 102 (2020) 102667
Fig. 1. Location of Iztapalapa district in its national and regional context. Geological formations of Mexico Basin and surroundings based on Arce et al. (2019).
The geomorphological hazards map was made in three phases: pre- 4.1. Terrain analysis
mapping, fieldwork, and post-mapping. In the pre-mapping phase, we
merged the terrain analysis and morphogenetic elements previously The results of the hypsometry map show that the zone of lower
mapped (Dramis et al., 2011). In addition, the hazard cartography was altitude in Iztapalapa district corresponds to the northern sector on the
complemented with geological and stratigraphic information (i.e. Arce border with the territories of Iztacalco and Nezahualcóyotl, with an
et al., 2019), and disaster database reports from 1970 to 2013 of floods, average of 2220 m asl. From this point towards the central part of the
subsidence, soil cracks, and hillslope processes (DesInventar, 2019). district, the landscape acquires an elevation of 2240 m asl. This area,
The return periods for every hazard are differentiated during the 44 except for the Peñón del Marqués, remained covered for thousands of
years of analysis. Soil cracks and subsidence processes occur 0.93/year, years by Lake Texcoco. The highest altitude (2751 m asl) belongs to
floods 2.7/year, and rockfalls 0.25/year in the Iztapalapa district. Guadalupe volcano, part of the Sierra de Santa Catarina (SSC). The
Fieldwork was developed between 2013 and 2015 in several campaigns altimetry map clearly represents the three major geomorphological
in dry and wet season. We could verify and record quantitative and units of Iztapalapa district: the lacustrine plain, the volcanic piedmont,
qualitative information on the processes of floods, fractures and dif- and the mountain area (Fig. 2). These geomorphological units are
ferential subsidence. Moreover, we detected sites that were highly consistent with its slopes. The lacustrine plain has inclinations between
vulnerable to rockfalls from the original substrate, as well as for the 0 and 2°, reaching in some sectors 6°. This area has the highest degree of
reactivation of old deposits. geometric homogeneity. We chose intervals every 0.1°, 0.2° and 1.5° to
In the post-mapping phase, we defined the different geomorpholo- identify minimum variations in slope and depth in lacustrine plain. The
gical hazards susceptibility grades. For floods, subsidence, and soil volcanic piedmont has slopes between 2° and 12°, reaching 20° of
cracks, three levels of occurrence (maximum, frequent and minimum) maximum inclination in very specific places. The mountain zone starts
were established. Floods were determined using historical data and at 12° towards the fronts of the lava flows next to the emission centers
fieldwork measures in centimeters. Subsidence was recognized based that belongs to the SSC. Cinder cones can present slopes of more than
on the previous works of Lesser and Cortés (1998), Aguilar-Pérez et al. 35°, while some mining areas have slopes of more than 70° (Fig. 2).
(2006), Vera and López (2010), and Carreón et al. (2011). The density
of soil cracks was mapped per square kilometer. Finally, rockfalls
mapping was punctual and based on historical official reports and in 4.2. Geomorphology
newspapers notes.
Iztapalapa district presents a high variety of landforms of en-
dogenic, exogenic and anthropic genesis, both erosional and deposi-
tional (Fig. 3).
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Fig. 2. Left: Hypsometry map and topographic profile of the geomorphological regions of the Iztapalapa district. Right: Slopes map showing the relation with the
geomorphology.
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D. García-Soriano, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 102 (2020) 102667
composition of the material during the eruption. Explosive and effusive depositional landforms (lacustrine plains). The first case is especially
depositional volcanic forms present in different sizes. The smaller vol- observed on the cinder cone that crowns the Cerro de la Estrella shield-
canic element is an adventitious cone located on the eastern slope of the type volcano. This massif forms a centrifugal radial type drainage
Guadalupe volcano and measures 50 m, while the largest unit corre- pattern with valleys measuring 1–20 m. In this site, the activity of river
sponds to the Guadalupe cone with a relative elevation of 551 m. erosion has been greater mainly due to the geological composition and
The effusive endogenic landforms are composed of two lava volca- materials cohesion (ashes, sands, and lapilli). In addition, these surfaces
noes with pseudo-shield morphology, nine domes and numerous lava have had greater exposure time to erosive agents such as rainfall.
flows belonging to the Cerro de la Estrella and the Santa Catarina Within the exogenic landforms, the depositional fluvio-lacustrine
complex. We named the two lava volcanoes Estrella Norte and Estrella processes are the most significant in the Iztapalapa district. This con-
Sur, due to their N–S alignment within the Cerro de la Estrella. These dition is due to the quantity and variety of deposited materials and its
two volcanic structures have a diameter of 560 m and 350 m respec- territorial extension. These are plains with slightly undulating sub-
tively, and both represent the adventitious cones responsible for emis- horizontal surfaces whose inclination does not exceed 6°. With the
sions of lava. On the other hand, the location of the volcanic domes purpose of making a more detailed description of these areas, they were
indicates changes in the chemical composition of magma towards a divided into three types of plains: a) higher (2250 m asl), b) inter-
greater silica concentration. This process created viscous lavas with mediate (2230–2250 m asl) and c) lower (2220–2230 m asl). The
little lateral movement and therefore acquired the dome shape. The higher lacustrine plain is located at the surrounding base of the SSC and
location of these domes is restricted to the central sector of the SSC, the Cerro de la Estrella, at an angle of inclination from 2° to 6°. This
adjacent to the cinder cones. Two of these units are located north of the landform is made up of debris from the river's erosion of the sur-
Mazatepec volcano, aligned with each other in the direction of S–N. The rounding volcanic structures and the ancient sediments of Lake
first is known as the Tecuatzi dome, located at the foot of the Mazatepec Texcoco. This debris was partially and/or totally buried by lava flows
volcano, with a diameter of its N–S axis of 600 m and an approximate from the volcanoes of the SSC, resulting in a landscape of small hills. It
260 m height. The second dome measures 770 m length on its major is estimated that the territorial extension that remains covered by these
axis (SE-NW) and approximately 100 m in height. materials is greater than 23 km2.
Lava flows associated with the SSC are present as superimposed The intermediate lacustrine plain covers 38 km2 around Peñón del
fluxes or tabular lobes, placed radially to the emission sources; this Marqués in addition to the central, central-north and southwest of
arrangement resembles a morphology of stepped pediments. The max- Iztapalapa district. These surfaces are composed of silt and clays of
imum calculated length reached by these flows is 3 km. Its width has a lacustrine origin as well as pyroclasts with slopes that do not exceed
gradual increase from its emission center. Some of the lava fronts form 0.3°. The lower lacustrine plain, found in the northern portion of
escarpments as high as 25 m. The lava flows of Cerro de la Estrella, Iztapalapa, is composed of silt and clays of high lacustrine and volcanic
unlike those of the SSC, are consolidated, large, homogeneous slopes plasticity. This unit is 15 km2 with the lowest altitude levels and a
with a slight inclination (6°–8°). These landforms extend 1800 m from practically horizontal inclination of its surface (< 0.3°). It works as a
their source of emission at volcanoes Estrella Norte and Estrella Sur. local base level for the concentration of rainwater and runoff from other
These slopes exhibit a uniform radial distribution pattern forming an parts of Mexico City.
extensive convex pediment with shield volcano morphological char- Anthropic landforms are the product of the alteration of the terri-
acteristics crowned by a cinder volcano in the central sector. It includes tory by humans, related to the open-pit mining sector whose objective is
the earliest lava flows of the SSC, which are totally or partially covered extraction of materials to be used in the construction industry. The
by lacustrine sediments, proluvions, and thick pavement layers. landscape transformation has resulted in various morphologies such as
However, its recognition and mapping were obtained by interpretation terraces, embankments, ramps, and extraction cirques with steep slopes
of LiDAR images, in which it was possible to observe the complete up to 90°. These landforms are located on the Peñón del Marqués, in
morphological configuration of each of these buried lava flows. most of the volcanoes of the SSC, as well as over their lava flows. At
Yuhualixqui volcano threw seven lava flows that ran counter- ground level, on the higher lacustrine plain surrounding the SSC, ex-
clockwise. The first lava flow was directed to the north, blocking the traction wells, leveled terrains for sieve installation for granulometric
next flow and diverting it to the west. This in turn led the others to classification and material banks are common (Fig. 4).
move towards the southwest, extending for 2.6 km and spreading to a
width of 800 m. Four to five lava flows can be attributed to the Xaltepec 4.3. Geomorphological hazards susceptibility
cone. These landforms are directed towards the northwest and south-
west, reaching 2.7 km in length and 950 m in width. Fourteen addi- The geomorphological analysis allowed the correlation of the as-
tional lava flows around the SSC were found to exist, however it was sociated hazards with events of subsidence, floods, soil cracks, as well
not possible to accurately determine their emission sources. These ad- as rockfalls. A map was prepared showing the area of each of these
ditional flows could have arisen from any of the cones grouped in the events differentiated according to its degree of intensity (Fig. 5).
central sector of the SSC complex, or even related to buried structures.
On the north flank of La Caldera volcano, five buried lava flows were 4.3.1. Subsidence
identified with a north direction and a maximum length of 1.1 km. Subsidence is the gradual settling or sudden sinking of the ground
surface due to subsurface movement of earth materials and its occur-
4.2.2. Exogenic landforms rence cause significant damages (Figueroa-Miranda et al., 2018). Its
Exogenic landforms are represented by erosive (river channels) and development in the Iztapalapa district is due to the excessive
Fig. 4. Left: Yuahualixqui Volcano in 1920 (Hugo Brehme). Right: Open-pit in the Yuahualixqui Volcano in 2015, characteristic of the anthropic landscape.
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Fig. 5. Geomorphological hazards susceptibility map of the different communities belonging to the Iztapalapa district.
groundwater extraction especially during the last century, as well as the hydrocarbon pipelines. This clearly presents various risk scenarios to
silt and clays of high lacustrine and volcanic plasticity. This process the local populations. Subsidence rates decrease with increased proxi-
generally occurs gradually over time, however, sometimes are sudden mity to the volcanic landforms such as Cerro de la Estrella and SCC.
defining holes of several meters in diameter and depth. Among the This is due to lower lacustrine plain substrate and thickness being
communities (known locally as colonias) most affected by this phe- highly susceptible to deformation, especially northern the Iztapalapa
nomenon are Juan Escutia, El Paraíso, Ejército de Oriente Zona Peñón, district. Intermediate and higher lacustrine plains are composed mainly
Álvaro Obregón, Unidad Ejército de Oriente, Santa Martha Acatitla of pyroclastic and fluvial deposits providing them greater consolida-
Norte, Renovación, Ejército de Agua Prieta, San Lorenzo Xicoténclatl, tion. In the mountain areas associated with volcanic recent structures,
Chinampác de Juárez, Santa Cruz Meyehualco and Santa María Azta- the substrate is highly consolidated and resistant, and the subsidence is
huacán. In these communities, it is common to observe the deformation practically absent.
of the land that has caused severe damage to buildings. These structures
are in risk of collapse due to the inclination and fractures of their walls, 4.3.2. Soil cracks
some of which are supported by adjoining structures (Fig. 6a). Several Soil cracks arise from the separation of the materials that constitute
main transportation routes of the city, such as the Ignacio Zaragoza the soil and the subsoil when their cohesion resistance is overcome by
Road and the rails of Line A of the Metro Collective Transport System, opposing forces (Cerca et al., 2012). Among the causes of soil cracks in
are also put at risk due to subsidence (Fig. 6b). Secondary streets with the Iztapalapa district are the lacustrine and volcanic materials het-
arch morphology are present due to the gradual subsidence of the de- erogeneity, regional faults, earthquakes, subsidence, and urban infra-
limiting buildings (Fig. 6c). structure pressure (Carreón-Freyre et al., 2011). The spatial distribution
The effects of subsidence have also extended below the surface of fractures has a clear concentration in the eastern area of Iztapalapa
causing pipeline ruptures. These events can give rise to leaks and dis- district. This configuration of continuous fissures coincides with the
ruptions of the drinking water and drainage distribution networks if not contact areas between volcanic landforms and lacustrine plains. In
detected and repaired promptly. In addition, subsidence generates large general, these fissures extend in two directions, the first being S–N on
undercuts that jeopardize the stability of buildings, lampposts, trees, the edges that define the most distal lava flows (superficial and buried
and cars (Fig. 6d). Similarly, the differential movement of the subsoil by lake debris and proluvions). These structures start from the volcanic
exerts sustained pressure on underground installations such as complex of the SSC, spreading beyond Iztapalapa district towards
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D. García-Soriano, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 102 (2020) 102667
Fig. 6. a. Differential subsidence with affected structures, Batalla 5 de Mayo St., Colonia Ejército de Oriente Zona del Peñón (October 2015). b. Deformation of
Calzada Ignacio Zaragoza and Line A of the Collective Transportation System (October 2015). c. Deformation of Benito Juárez St., Colonia Santa María Aztahuacán,
caused by construction pressure (October 2015). d. Soil collapse caused by a leakage of drinking water in Águila Blanquinegra St., Barrio San Simón Culhuacán. El
Universal newspaper, May 2014.
Tláhuac, Nezahualcóyotl, and La Paz. The second damaged area borders Sifón, Barrio Santa Bárbara, Leyes de Reforma 3ra Sección, and Santa
Peñón del Marqués in two branches to the west. Linear fractures density Martha Acatitla Sur. The minimum occurrence zones occur only on the
was divided into three zones: maximum occurrence (7–10 km/km2), higher lacustrine plain where the water depths do not exceed 0.50 m.
frequent (4–6 km/km2) and minimum (2–3 km/km2), with areas of Due to the increase in the slope the rainwater quickly drains from the
2.4 km2, 6.3 km2, and 8.6 km2, respectively. Among the communities volcanic areas. However, water can remain for prolonged periods over
within these three fractures-density zones are Lomas de San Lorenzo spaces delimited by infrastructure lacking stormwater sewers, or where
Tezonco, Santa María Aztahuacán, Ampliación Santa María Azta- such sewers are blocked by debris and/or solid waste.
huacán, Santa Cruz Meyehualco, San Sebastián Tecoloxtitla, Santa
Martha Acatitla North and South, Ejército de Oriente Zona Peñón, Ál-
varo Obregón, Unidad Ejército de Oriente, and San Lorenzo Xicoténcatl. 4.3.4. Rockfalls
Areas susceptible to rockfalls are located in the Peñón del Marqués
volcanoes and the SSC. In both cases, their origin is associated with the
4.3.3. Floods open-pit extraction of materials carried out by the mining industry. This
A water accumulation of at least 30 cm in height may be enough to activity has transformed the natural slopes into highly unstable slopes
qualify as a flood scenario and differentiate it from a common flooding over 60 m high inclined at angles greater than 70°. The areas of greatest
(SEDESOL, 2011). Floods cause multiple problems for the socio- hazard correspond to the mining areas of the Peñón del Marqués
economic functioning of Iztapalapa district every year. In this context, (without current mining activity) and those of the SSC that are cur-
the floods were classified into three occurrence categories. The zones of rently under exploitation. The areas experiencing rockfall hazard are
maximum occurrence are found in the northern sector of Iztapalapa some sectors of the El Paraíso, Buenavista, Palmitas, Los Tenorios,
district, with accumulated water levels between 0.80 m and 1.50 m Barranca de Guadalupe, Xalpa, Lomas de la Estancia, Miravalles, and
over the lowest lacustrine plains. This maximum occurrence zone cor- San Pablo communities. Rockfalls occur most frequently during the
responds to the area that historically records the greatest problems of rainy season (May to September). However, some events have been
subsidence. Among the most affected communities are Unidad Ejército reported in the months of November and January. The size of the de-
de Oriente, Pueblo San Lorenzo Xicoténcatl, Chinampác de Juárez, tached blocks varies from a few centimeters to more than 2 m with
Santa Martha Acatitla Norte, Ejército Constitucionalista, and Central de weights even of one ton or more (Fig. 8). The fieldwork allowed the
Abasto (Fig. 7). identification of accumulated rock fragments previously detached from
The zones affected by frequent occurrence lie in the north, center, the higher slopes of the Peñón del Marqués. This material constitutes a
and southeast sectors of Iztapalapa district with flood heights between potential hazard to the inhabitants located below these deposits. An
0.50 m and 0.80 m. Subhorizontal landform slopes of less than 2° earthquake, gully erosion, or a new hillslope process can reactivate
combined with dense urban infrastructure and soils impermeability these deposits. For this reason, it is necessary for the authorities and
create conditions that lead to frequent flooding. Some of the commu- neighbors to participate to remove these elements, as well as fix and
nities affected by frequent flooding include Unidad Vicente Guerrero, El build retaining walls or other protecting systems (Fig. 8).
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D. García-Soriano, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 102 (2020) 102667
Fig. 7. Left: Flood caused by the overflow of draining systems in Av. Guelatao, Colonia Chinampác de Juárez, February 2010. Source: Domínguez, A. La Jornada
Newspaper. Right: Av. Zaragoza, Colonia Santa Martha Acatitla, July 2019. La Razón Newspaper.
Fig. 8. Left: Rockfall deposits on Av. Xipe, Colonia El Paraíso. Ministry of Public Security, November 2016 in Capital Media. Right: Rockfall deposits on Sitio de
Chilapa St., Colonia El Paraíso, October 2014.
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D. García-Soriano, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 102 (2020) 102667
Yuhualixqui volcano which rests on an unstable granular base 50 m and the Mexico City governments improving local governance capacity
deep. (Rumbach, 2016). Successful planning and implementation of risk
Our results are consistent with the high and medium flood risk areas management measures in Iztapalapa district as well as other Mexico
reported for Mexico City, in that these areas resemble the shape of the City districts depend on community participation (Froude and Petley,
ex-lacustrine area prior to urbanization (Zambrano et al., 2017). 2018).
Mexico City and Iztapalapa's low elevation and slope values contribute
to floods occurrences. Historical land use changes from forest to urban 6. Conclusions
land and crops have led to an increase in the flood risk. In addition,
permanent ecological deterioration, ground subsidence, poor sanita- We presented thirty landforms divided into endogenic and exogenic
tion, and inadequate policy responses increase the flood risk scenarios landforms, both erosional and depositional for Iztapalapa district in
in Iztapalapa (Aragón-Durand, 2007). Low-income families in Iztapa- Mexico City. Furthermore, we provided a geomorphological hazards
lapa district acquire and built on land not suitable for construction and susceptibility zonation of floods, subsidence, soil fractures, and rock-
are thus highly vulnerable to floods (Audefroy, 2013). Iztapalapa and falls for Iztapalapa district at 1:20,000 scale. Geomorphic analysis
Mexico City water scarcity and vulnerability to flooding are likely to be coupled with Geographic Information Systems were useful tools for
aggravated by global warming (Romero-Lankao, 2010). The Iztapalapa disaster risk assessment of a densely populated urban district. Our re-
district has a significant level of identified risk, and yet little has been sults showed a clear relationship between landforms and dynamics of
done in the areas of risk reduction, disaster management, and financial various hazards. Higher occurrences of subsidence, soil cracks and
protection programs (Novelo-Casanova and Suárez, 2015). Successful floods are found in the palustrine plains, while rockfalls are linked with
results have been proven in different geomorphic environments in order volcanic cones slopes. Our results are consistent with previous studies
to detect and map natural hazards using LiDAR technology (Okyay of these natural hazards and expand their zonation on a detailed scale
et al., 2019). Our results are in agreement with previous findings re- in order to assist decision makers. These geomorphological hazards are
lated to subsidence, soil cracks, floods, and rockfalls. This study then exacerbated by intense and unplanned urbanization with disaster risk
went further to provide better spatial resolution (1:20,000 scale) geo- effects for a highly vulnerable population in the more densely popu-
morphological hazards maps, and also combined aerial photographs lated district of Mexico. Results from this study can enhance our un-
with LiDAR information to obtain preciseness geomorphometry/terrain derstanding of the spatiotemporal characteristics of natural disasters in
analysis, morphogenetic and geomorphological hazard zonation maps. urban areas. This practical method of mapping geomorphological ha-
zards in other countries can better facilitate disaster risk assessments.
5.2. Urban growth and disaster risk
Author agreement statement
The over-pumping of groundwater during the last 300 years in
Mexico City have been counterproductive, causing water scarcity, We the undersigned declare that this manuscript is original, has not
pollution, health and environmental problems, subsidence and water been published before and is not currently being considered for pub-
conflicts particularly affecting vulnerable people (Sosa-Rodríguez, lication elsewhere. We confirm that the manuscript has been read and
2010; Spring 2011). Rural-urban migration and disorganized territorial approved by all named authors and that there are no other persons who
management produce unsafe conditions where poor people currently satisfied the criteria for authorship but are not listed. We further con-
live increasing their disaster risk (Aragón-Durand, 2007; Suárez and firm that the order of authors listed in the manuscript has been ap-
Delgado, 2009). A strong association between informal settlements and proved by all of us. We understand that the Corresponding Author is the
high hazard exposure are common in developing countries (Paz-Castro sole contact for the Editorial process. He is responsible for commu-
et al., 2015). The impact of a physical event or the development of a nicating with the other authors about progress, submissions of revisions
sudden technological or human failure can readily generate a sequence and final approval of proofs.
of events in human subsystems that result in physical, social or eco-
nomic disruption (Alexander, 2018). The increasing vulnerability in Declaration of competing interest
developing countries due to the inefficient territorial management lead
to the occurrence of cascading disasters (Quesada-Román et al., 2019, All authors have seen and approved the final version of the sub-
2020). Urban sprawl describes the growth pattern in most developing mitted manuscript. They warrant that the article is the authors' original
countries over the last few decades (Ewing and Hamidi, 2015). Un- work, has not received prior publication and is not under consideration
planned growth commonly results in commercial strip development, for publication elsewhere.
low-density or single-use development, scattered development, and
poor accessibility to open spaces (Zhou et al., 2019). Acknowledgments
Urban planners usually only consider economic and social para-
meters for cities planification. Geomorphological multi-criteria analyses We are glad to thank Nancy Ann Warshawer for her invaluable help
have demonstrated its efficiency in different urban environments re- with English revision and comments. We greatly thank to Juan Carlos
ducing disasters (Bathrellos et al., 2012, 2016). The disorganized urban Zamora, Néstor Campos, Osvaldo Franco, and anonymous reviewers for
growth associated with disaster risk assessments and possible solutions their useful suggestions that highly improved the final manuscript.
have been widely studied in densely populated cities in developing
countries. It is important to untie dependence on the national govern- References
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